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The Forms, Functions and Techniques of Xhosa Humour

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The Forms, Functions and Techniques of Xhosa Humour THE FORMS, FUNCTIONS AND TECHNIQUES OF XHOSA HUMOUR by Tessa Dowling Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of African Languages and Literatures UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN February 1996 University of Cape Town Supervisors: Professor S.C. Satyo Mr D.F. Gowlett The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town 11 THE FORMS, FUNCTIONS AND TECHNIQUES OF XHOSA HUMOUR by Tessa Dowling Address: (work) Department of African Languages and Literatures, University of Cape Town. (home) 1 Arthur Road, 7945 Muizenberg. ABSTRACT In this thesis I examine the way in which Xhosa speakers create humour, what forms (eg. satire, irony, punning, parody) they favour in both oral and textual literature, and the genres in which these forms are delivered and executed. The functions of Xhosa humour, both during and after apartheid, are examined, as is its role in challenging, contesting and reaffirming traditional notions of society and culture. The particular techniques Xhosa comedians and comic writers use in order to elicit humour are explored with specific reference to the way in which the phonological complexity of this language is exploited for humorous effect. Oral literature sources include collections of praise poems, folktales and proverbs, while anecdotal humour is drawn from recent interviews conducted with domestic workers. My analysis of humour in literary texts initially focuses on the classic works of G.B. Sinxo and S.M. Burns-Ncamashe, and then goes on to refer to contemporary works such as those of P.T. Mtuze. The study on the techniques of Xhosa humour uses as its theoretical base Walter Nash's The language of humour (1985), while that on the functions of Xhosa humour owes much to the work of sociologists such as Michael Mulkay and Chris Powell and George E.C. Paton. The study reveals the fact that Xhosa oral humour is personal and playful - at times obscene - but can also be critical. In texts it explores the comedy of characters as well as the irony of socio-political realities. In both oral and textual discourses the phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics of Xhosa are exploited to create a humour which is richly patterned and finely crafted. In South Africa humour often served to liberate people from the oppressive atmosphere of apartheid. At the same time humour has always had a stabilizing role in Xhosa cultural life, providing a means of controlling deviants and misfits. iii SUMMARY· The thesis is divided into four chapters. Chapter One deals with the way in which humour is manifested in oral discourse. The humour of oral literature is examined with reference to praise poetry, riddles, folktales, songs and idiomatic expressions. Critical, sarcastic and sometimes obscene humour is evident in praise poetry and songs, while riddles play with the semantics of the language and folktales rely on dramatic performance for their comedy. Although jokes do occur in conversational discourse, Xhosa speakers also create humour from an elaborate system of word-play, including homophonic translations, nicknames and tongue-twisters. Extracts of anecdotal humour (its particular genius being very similar to that of the traditional storyteller) are included in this chapter. These anecdotes, related by domestic workers aged from 50 to 60, reveal a subversive humour that challenged racism and exploitation. In Chapter Two the specific nature of Xhosa textual humour is explored and analysed, with particular reference to the works of G.B. Sinxo and S.M. Burns­ Ncamashe. The chapter examines how these two authors, while employing the various categories of humour (eg. irony, parody, incogruity, satire, word-play) in their creative works tend to concentrate on comic characterization. Other writers such as P. T. Mtuze and L.K. Siwisa have generally followed this focus on developing characters who will be remembered for their laughable utterances and habits. Chapter Three examines the functions of Xhosa humour. Under the heading "To act as a defence against risk and danger'' I make reference to the way in which humour gave people licence to comment on the limitations of westernism and the iv injustices of apartheid. Contemporary writers and comedians have continued to use humour as a means of subverting the social order by caricaturing officials and authorities. Humour was also used to cope with despair and failure. Evidence of this function can be seen in the way in which writers encouraged people to view the vicissitudes of life in perspective and to be on the lookout for humour in the most depressing of situations. The absurd pass laws, for example, led to the creation of a number of jokes. Humour enables· Xhosa speakers to communicate on taboo topics such as sex, death and disease. It also serves to increase the morale of the in-group and introduce or foster a hostile disposition towards the out-group. The establishment of separate homelands created divisions amongst the Black majority, diminishing the threat which a unified front would have posed to the White minority government. Hence much of "formalized" Xhosa humour concentrates on criticizing the stupidity (and other perceived weaknesses) of the Zulus, the Mpondos, the Shangaans and the Coloureds. This historically inward-centred humour has in recent years changed to include the foibles and limitations of Whites. Finally, it is argued that one of the main functions of Xhosa humour is to make social interaction easier and more enjoyable. Chapter Four discusses the techniques of Xhosa humour. Writers exploit the phonology, syntax and semantics of the Xhosa language in order to create both '----"'.. '--- ,____ expansive and contractive humour. Names, insults, idiomatic expressions and ideophones compress humour, while authors achieve generic expansion by referring to cultural and traditional practices. Writers such as Sinxo and Bums-Ncamashe create comic discourse by interacting with their readers, alluding to personal idiosyncrasies and then expanding on such allusions by employing recognizably funny syntactic structures, thus engaging in interactional expansion. v Linguistic expansion is attained through exploitation of the alliterative possibilities of concords and reduplicated noun stems, such repetition being extended in synonyms, hyponyms and antonyms. The thesis concludes with the following observations: * Xhosa oral humour is personal and playful- but also critical- and, at times, obscene. * Xhosa humour in texts explores the comedy of characters as well as the irony of socio-political realities. * Xhosa humour functions on many levels, some more serious than others. It has always had a stabilizing role in Xhosa cultural life, exhibiting a tendency to control deviants and misfits. Changing political and social realities, however, indicate that not only the nature of Xhosa humour, but also its significance and function, will change. * Xhosa humour, while manifesting many of the techniques of English humour, exploits its own phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics, creating a humour which, although apparently artlessly playful, is in fact richly patterned and finely studied. Vl ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the following: -my supervisors, Prof S.C. Satyo and Derek Gowlett: Prof Satyo for his invaluable insights and suggestions, and Derek for his meticulous attention to detail and witty observations. -Mrs Axinia N omaxabiso Tsuluka for her friendship and constant help in so many ways - not least her willingness to share the knowledge gained over a long life steeped in Xhosa culture and tradition. -Mrs Vicki Paterson for her patience, support and administrative help. -Mr S.Z. Zotwana for allowing me to quote from his as yet unpublished manuscript, lmijelo yegazi. -Tsetse Jafta for conducting the interviews. - Sidima Mntubu for pointing me to various comic texts - not to mention some highly entertaining comedians! -The Bishop Tutu Fund for enabling me to employ research assistants. -Paul Wise, who spent so much time on editorial aspects of the thesis and its final presentation. -my family for being interested in all things funny. -all those who provided me with jokes, stories and anecdotes. Hlekani ke ngoku! The financial assistance of the Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed in this work, or conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not to be attributed to the Centre for Science Development. Vll CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii SUMMARY iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: FORMS OF HUMOUR IN ORAL LITERATURE AND CONVERSATIONAL DISCOURSE 5 1.1 Humour in oral literature 8 1.1.1 Praise Poetry (izibongo) and praise poets (iimbongi) ·8 1.1.2 Riddles 23 1.1.3 Folktales (iintsomi) 26 1.1.4 Songs 37 1.1. 5 Proverbs and sayings 39 1. 2 Humour in conversational discourse 41 1.2.1 Jokes 42 1.2.2 Word-play 50 1.2.2.1 Homophonic translations 50 1.2.2.2 Nicknames (iziteketiso) 53 1.2.2.3 Tongue-twisters 54 1. 2. 3 Anecdotes 55 Summary 64 CHAPTER TWO: XHOSA TEXTUAL HUMOUR 65 2.1 Humour in the works of G.B. Sinxo 66 2.2 Humour in the works of S.M. Bums-Ncamashe 81 2.3 Forms of humour employed by Sinxo and Bums-Ncamashe 91 2.3.1 Satire 93 2.3.2 Word-play 96 2.3.2.1 Word-play and naming 96 2.3.2.2 Word-play and ideophones 100 viii 2.3.2.3 Word-play and repetition 100 2.3.2.4 Word-play and translational malapropisms 101 2.3.3 Irony 102 2.
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