Germany and Russia. By s. D. STIRK

CANADA is a long way from Germany, in the world outside. But before long a even in these days of planes and strong note of pessimism began to creep radio; and conditions in Germany itself in. This pessimism concentrated on two make it extremely difficult to find out and main themes: firstly, the uncertainty of judge exactly what is happening there Germany's political future; and secondly, since the war ended. Our newspaper and the lack of food, clothing-, anJ all kinds of broadcast reports seem for the most part consumer goods. This second aspect to remain on the surface; they provide reached its climax in the exceptionally little indication as to what is going on in severe winter of 1946-47; and as the food the hearts and minds of individual situation was made worse in many parts Germans, or they say little that is posi- of Germany by the great drought of tive and informative about the Russian the summer of 1947, it continued to do- and Communist side. I find myself rely- minate the letters of even the wisest and ing, therefore, on a careful and compara- most idealistic of Germans during the tive study of the letters I receive from months that followed. But the winter of all four zones of Germany . There is 1947-48 was mercifully mild, and the naturally great divergence in the ways spring of 1948 was early and heartening, my various correspondents write. Many with the result that the struggle to keep of them are former colleagues and stu- alive has found decreasing and less poig- dents at the University of Breslau, nant expression in letters received from where I was Lecturer in English from Germans during the last few months. 1930 to 1936. The great majority live in On the other hand, a marked revival of the three western zones, and only a few political interest accompanied the Moscow are Communists or Communist sym- Conference of Foreign Ministers in Nov- pathizers. The anti-Communists in the ember 1947. The failure of this confer- west write openly.against Russia whereas ence was a great blow to most Germans, the Anti-Communists in the Russian zone and particularly to those who look to the have to be much more careful. The West. Since that time they have never Communists both west and east of the ceased writing in pessimistic and alarmist "iron curtain" try to impress me with tones about the unhappy division of their views, or even to convert me. But Germany into two radically opposed in spite of these and other (more personal) spheres of influence, and of the inevitab- differences, it is possible to trace certain ility of war between Russia and the Wes t- main themes and trends common to them ern Powers, with Germany as the chief all. battleground During the first few mo.nths after This war psychosis has been the do- Victory-in-Europe-Day, letters from Ger- minating note in letters from the western many expressed relief that the war was zones during the past six months or so. over, gratitude that one had at least The nearer the iron curtain, the greater come through the terrible years with one's the fear of Russia. A friend in the U.S. life, and satisfaction that it was now zone writes: "We are living only sixty possible to correspond with someone kilometres from Asia, and we shall not survive the coming war." Another ex- presses the widespread feeling of being EDITOR'S NOTE : S. D . Stirk, M . A. (Oxford), Dr. phil. (B reslau), is Associate Professor of German at t he caught in a trap: "If only I could get my University of Manitoba. wife and daughter out of this! I would PUBLIC AFFAIRS 177 gladly become a waiter in the United of splitting up Germany into federal States, a shepherd in Australia, a lumber- states," i.e., the basic American and jack in Canada, a coffee-planter in Brazil British policy for Germany's political -anything to get away." reconstruction. He demanded instead a Two groups of Germans seem to me to nation-wide referendum for the setting be most likely to profit from this almost up of a unitary German state, and con- hysterical expectation of war: the Com- cluded with the words: "Our attitude is munists, and the ultra-nationalists. And clear; for us there is no question of tearing I strongly suspect that both groups are Germany apart. The German people doing all they can to promote it. and the German nation are united in "Deutschlands Stimme" (The Voice of their determination to overcome common Germany), Communist paper pub- suffering by common means." There is lished in Berlin, carried a front-page one great weakness in this vigorous and leading article on March 31, 1948, with undoubtedly effective Communist pro- the title: "Permanent world-crisis- made paganda for a united Germany, namely, in USA." The opening paragraph read: Russian recognition of the Polish claims "In the space of a few months the govern- to a frontier on the River Oder and the ment of the United States has succeeded western River Neisse. But evidence in destroying the foundations of a peace- from letters and other sources goes to ful world order laid by the Allies . Those show that behind the scenes and by means who saw in the splitting up of Germany of a whispering campaign, Germans are the first step towards the splitting up of being told that Russia might some day Europe and of the world, have been reconsider this decision, and restore some proved right." The sub-title of the paper of the eastern territories now held by the runs: "A weekly organ of the (German) Poles. people's movement for unity and a just Secondly, the prevailing war psychosis peace." Here then are two of the main in Germany would seem to be somehow directives for recent Communist propa- connected with the incipient revival of ganda to Germans: denunciation of the ultra-nationalism. According to reliable Uni-ted States, and stress on German accounts, National Socialism is as dead unity. The demand for a united Germany as Hitler; the Nazis played for high was the ever-recurring theme of the ad- stakes and lost, and as a result they are dress by Otto Grotewohl (published discredited and under a very dark cloud; under the title: "Im Kampf um Deutsch- the small minority of fanatical and land," Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1947) at the pathological Nazis which still exists is second annual conference of the so- compelled to remain underground, and called "Socialist Unity Party," which cannot hope at present for popular sup- met presumably in the autumn of 1947. port. But it would be unwise to assume (The Socialist Unity Party resulted from that the ultra-nationalist forces which the compulsory fusion of the Communist made Hitler possible are also dead. Now and Social D emocrat parties in the Rus- that the victor powers have failed to sian zone in late 1946.) Much of create a reasonably healthy and truly Grotewohl's speech was reminiscent of democratic Germany, they probably feel Goebbels, and it is indeed remarkable that their new day has dawned. The that the Communists have taken over a best prospect for such Germans is as- great deal of the familiar Nazi propa- suredly a Third World War, in which ganda. H e began by belittling the power they might this time be on the winning and influence of England and the British side. They are naturally quite pleased Commonwealth. He then "proved" that to note the dissensions between Russia the United States were out for world and the Wes tern Allies; and one can domination. He attacked "the danger picture them rubbing their hands, in 178 PUBLIC AFFAIRS the hope that they will be able to exploit years or more opposing forces and ideas the deteriorating situation in Germany have clashed. Every student of German and Europe. Here is some of the evidence literature knows the "Faust" quotation which indicates that these forces are about the two souls warring in a single again very much alive. breast. In a significant passage (p.162f.) A teacher in a high school near H eidel- in his "Reflections of an Unpolitical Man" berg writes grimly that he knows him- (1922), Thomas Mann expressed the self to be the only "democrat" on the view that Germany was the country in staff, and that he feels his days there are which the spiritual and intellectual an- numbered. A distinguished authority titheses in Europe must inevitably be on the history of German literature fought out, and that European wars writes sadly that he has no chance of a must always develop into German civil post at any University in the American wars. These words would seem to have zone, because he lacks "nationalist" special application to Germany since the (or, failing that, "Catholic") connections. Second World War. The German word The novelist Ernst Wiechert opposed the for "civil war" is "Bruderkrieg"- the Nazis from 1933 on; in 1938 he was ar- war between brothers; and already in the rested by the Gestapo and put in Buchen- "cold" war between East and West,. wald concentration camp; after the war Germans are taking sides quite apart he denounced Nazi crimes and called on from the division into zones. German all Germans to do penance and make a Communism is, moreover, much more fresh start. The threats against his than a movement of the proletariat; it life reached such a pitch during recent has its fervent intellectuals, and its months that he decided in March to leave "nationalist" support rs. In this con- his home in Bavaria, and go to Switzer- nection it is useful to remember that land. The climax of the threats was the friendship with Russia was a guiding message that all the deaths in the Nazi factor in Prussian foreign policy from concentration camps put together would Frederick tlfe Great to Bismarck; and be nothing compared with the death that in the German General Staff there which would one day be inflicted on was always a strong pro-Russian ele- Ernst Wiechert! This, of course, is ment. Much more consideration should nationalist thuggery, reminiscent of the also be given to the movement known years immediately after the First World as "National (or Prussian) Bolshevism," War, and of a well-known German brand; initiated and led during the twenties and and there will certainly be much more of thirties by Ernst Niekisch. it before long. It is not clear whether One of my correspondents in the Rus- Karl J aspers, the famous "Existentialist" sian zone is a very gifted University philosopher of Heidelberg University and student. His name denotes that he is one of the outstanding anti-Nazis in a member of an old Prussian family; public office in post-war Germany, re- and the name of the girl he married .a ceived similar threats; but it is difficult few months ago speaks even more of to avoid interpreting as a defeat for the Prussian nobility and "Junkertum." Yet democratic forces in Germany, and at he is enthusiastically pro-Russian; and least indirectly as a triumph forreaction, Ernst Niekisch is his great hero and in- his acceptance in March of a call to the spiration. The account of Ernst Niekisch University of Basle. and National Bolshevism which he sent The root of the matter may well lie me in a recent letter, is the best that has in German history, and in German nat- come my way so far. ional and individual character. Germany Before the First World War Niekisch is the land in the centre of things (das was a teacher. During the war he reached Land der Mitte), in which for a thousand the rank of sergeant (cf. Lance-Corporal PUBLIC AFFAIRS 179

Hitler) in a Bavarian regiment. Re- you are one of the most dangerous men leased from the army in 1917, he became in Germany." In 1937 he was arrested, editor of a Social D emocrat paper; and and sentenced to life-imprisonment. He he wrote a pamphlet in praise of Lenin, was given injections, partly with the called "The Light from the East" (Das idea of liquidating him, and partly in Licht aus dem Osten). Throughout 1917 the interests of Nazi medical science; and 1918 he demanded in his articles and with the result that when the Russians at numerous political meetings that the liberated him in the prison of Branden- R eichstag refuse further war credits, burg-Goerden in April 1945, he was that the Kaiser be compelled to abdicate, almost blind and paralysed in both legs. and that a proletarian government be In August 1945 the Russians made him put in power, with a mandate to stop head of the People's College (Volks- the fighting on the Eastern Front, unite hochschule) in Wilmersdorf, a suburb with the Russians, and continue the war of Berlin. against the W estern Powers until victory My student correspondent has sent me was won. On November 8, 1918, h e two pamphlets by Niekisch. The first formed the "Red" Workers and Soldiers is "Deutsche Daseinsverfehlung" (Aufbau Council in Augsburg. Early 1919 found Verlag, Berlin 1946) . This title is im- him at the head of the Workers, P easants, possible to translate; but both title and and Soldiers Council of Bavaria, and content give a despairing summary of he was one of the main leaders of the German history, stressing exclusively its Bavarian Communist R epublic pro- futile, tragic and catastrophic aspects. claimed in Munich in May, 1919. After The second pamphlet is entitled "East the defeat of this Communist regime, and West, Unsystematic Reflections" h e was sentenced to two years im- (Ost and West, Unsystematische Be- prisonment. In 1925 he founded the trachtungen, Minerva Verlag, Berlin so-called Resistance Movement (Wider- 1947). Niekisch here attempts to ex- standsbewegung); its symbol was ap- plain and to bridge the gulf between propriately enough a black Prussian Russia and the West, or at least between eagle, with two swords in its claws, and Russia and Germany_. The ,Vest is a hammer and sickle on its breast. individualism, bourgeoisie, monopoly cap- In 1932 the publishing house Niekisch italism, political and economic imper- had built up (Widerstandsverlag) brought ialism. Russia is the antithesis of all out a pamphlet with the title "Hitler, this. Russia is Asiatic mysticism, Rus- the doom of Germany" (Hitler, ein sia is soul; and it is in defence of her deutsches Verhaengnis). The frontispiece soul that she has striven for so long and showed a skeleton in the uniform of a with such ruthless determination to keep Nazi Storm-trooper, his arm raised in out the West. But she has deliberately the Hitler salute; and one of the illus- taken over the industrial and technical trations revealed a crowd of Nazis swarm- achievements of the W est; she has ing up a hill, and dropping down on the " humanized" them, and it is in this other side into a huge coffin decorated "humanisierter Technizismus" that with a swastika. According to my stu- Niekisch sees the main hope and salva- dent friend, 40,000 copies of this pamph- tion for Russia and Europe. Niekisch let were sold up to the spring of 1933, ' declares: "Capitali sm gave to a limited when it was of course forbidden. The number of individuals ... and to a periodical "Widerstand," which Niekisch select minority of the rich . . . the ·free- edited and published, was also soon for- dom to develop into mature personalities; bidden. The R esistance Movement went (by raising living standards) human- underground. A high Gestapo official isierter Technizismus" will make all said to Niekisch in 1934: " I know that people, including the uncared for prole- 180 PUBLIC AFFAIRS tariat of town and country, into human through Major-General Professor Dr. beings." Karl Haushofer, the head of the Institute I have looked in vain for references to of Geopolitics at Munich University, he Niekisch in British and American pub- had a great influence on Nazi foreign lications so far. Yet he is certainly a policy. Mackinder saw the continents force in post-war Germany. I have of Europe, Asia, and Africa as a single dealt with him at some length in this unit which he called the World-Island. article not only for his own sake, but be- Within the World-Island lies the cause he is by no means alone; he is a H 13artland, extending from the mouth symptom, a type, and a warning. He is of the Elbe on the North Sea to the a man to watch, and his writings should mouth of the Amur on the Pacific Ocean. be translated and studied. It is only in Mackinder's key-formula for "global stra- this way that the West can realize the tegy" (to use a phrase beloved· of the true nature and strength of Communist Nazis at the height of their successes in ideology in Germany and Europe today. the Second World War) ran as follows: By directing attention to the Com- Who rules East Europe commands the H eart- munist and ultra-nationalist minorities land: in Germany to-day, and to the possibility Who rules the Heartland commands the of their unholy alliance, it is far from World-Island: my intention to belittle the strength Who rules the World-Island commands the and idealism of the democratic and pro- World. (Pelican edition, p. 113.) West elements. But it is just as well Looking back on the First World War, to realize the difficulties with which Mackinder wrote in 1919 : "Had Germany these elements are faced, and the nature elected to stand on the defensive on her of the opposition they will be increas- short frontier towards France, and had ingly called upon to overcome. More- she thrown her main strength against over, it is certain that if the intolerable Russia, it is not improbable that the conditions of life in Germany continue world would nominally be at peace today, (not to mention the possibility that they but overshadowed by a German East will get much worse!) then the ranks· of Europe in command of the Heartland." the Communists and ultra-nationalists This was exactly the geopolitical reason- will be rapidly swelled by Germans ing which led Hitler to attack Russia who would normally feel out of place on June 22, 1941: his greatest blunder, in either camp. Such are, in brief, the and the turning-point of the war. Look- main psychological and ideological im- ing to the peace treaties after the First plications of the German situation, as it World War had been won, Mackinder presents itself to a Canadian observAr wrote: "Unless you would lay up trouble in the summer of 1948. It remains, for the future, you cannot now accept finally, to regard the present crisis and any outcome of the war which does not deadlock against the background of recent finally dispose of the issue between Ger- European history, and to link it with man and Slav in East Europe. You must the world-wide viewpoint of "Geo- have a balance between German and politics." Slav, and true independence of each." H. J. Mackinder's "Democratic Ideals Mackinder's solution was a tier of and Reality" is a sadly neglected work. independent states between Germany First published early in 1919, it is now and Russia; which seems a far-off cry available as a Pelican Book (Harmonds- in 1948. His main aim was to prevent worth Press, Middlesex, England), at a further aggression, and the control of very cheap price. His writings gave Mac- the Heartland by Germany; whereas kinder the doubtful reputation of being the danger is now just the reverse, and one of the fathers of "Geopolitics;" and the jackboot is firmly on the Russian PUBLIC AFFAIRS 181 foot, if it is anywhere. He was also surely right about the vital importance writing from the standpoint of sea- of East Europe. And it is something power; and a mere historian of German more than personal prejudice or profes- literature must leave it to the experts to sional bias, when a Professor of German decide whether or not the advent of air- takes it upon himself to underline Mac- power plus guided missiles and the atom kinder's warnings, and to maintain with bomb (together with the likely addition him that the fate of the world may well of bacteriological atrocities) has made depend on a settlement of the century-' Mackinder's strategical concepts out-of- old struggle between T euton and Slav. date and invalid. But Mackinder was

Reconversion in Australia. By LLOYD Ross T~E major problem of reconversion ment hoped to avoid a major collapse m Australia, as seen by official in the economy. The theory to be advisors during the war, was one of followed was stated in the White Paper, sustaining a high level of employment. and thus summarized by the Minister The ·aspect that caused most fear was for Post-War ·Reconstruction, (Hon. J. the belief that difficulties of transfer J. Dedman): from war to peace would be so great that The policy outlined in the paper is that the a collapse of employment would follow, Commonwealth and State governments should unless special plans were taken to meet accept responsibility for stimulating spending the problem. In a White Paper on on goods and services to the extent necessary Full Employment, issued on May 30, to sustain full employment. It will be the 1945, the Government, however, linked object to maintain such a pressure of demand the danger of inflation with the difficulties on resources that for the economy as a whole of conversion, as follows: there will be a tendency towards a shortage of men instead of a shortage of jobs. In the first place, about 1,000,000 men and women now in the Armed Forces and war In the post-war period employment industries will be seeking peace-time occupa- has been maintained; demand for jobs tions. Secondly, the war-time excess of exceeds supply; the number of people spending power will persist at least until at work in peace-time projects is the more adequate supplies of peace-time goods greatest in Australian history. and services again become available. The immediate emphasis has, there- The main threat to employment in the fore, changed from maintaining employ- transition .will come from the physical and ment to avoiding inflation by increasing organizational difficulties in the way of production and by stabilising prices. restoring civilian production of all kinds in time to employ the people who will then be Avoiding Inflation seeking work. Much peace-time employ- ment will not exist until production plans Introducing a Bill to continue the have been prepared, machinery adapted operation of certain controls for a further an