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African American Intellectuals and Black Cultural Nationalism Between 1965 and 1975: the Case of Amiri Baraka

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African American Intellectuals and Black Cultural Nationalism Between 1965 and 1975: the Case of Amiri Baraka The People ’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Mentouri University – Constantine Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of Foreign Languages AFRICAN AMERICAN INTELLECTUALS AND BLACK CULTURAL NATIONALISM BETWEEN 1965 AND 1975: THE CASE OF AMIRI BARAKA Thesis Submitted to the Department of Foreign Languages in Candidacy for The Degree of Doctorat d’Etat in American Civilization The Board of Examiners 1. Prof. Manaa Mohamed (University of Annaba) Chairman 2. Prof. Barkaoui Miloud (University of Annaba) Supervisor 3. Prof. Seffari Miloud (University of Setif) Examiner 4. Dr. Harouni Brahim (University of Constantine) Examiner 5. Dr. Bendjeddou Yazid (University of Annaba) Examiner Submitted by Supervisor: TOULGUI Ladi Prof. BARKAOUI Miloud December 2007 DEDICATION To the memory of my maternal grandmother To the memory of my parents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The gestation of this thesis has been long and laborious. Begun with a more restricted focus in the late 1990s, it was frequently waylaid by the demands of teaching and family. In the long run this has proven to be a blessing, because a number of interesting studies on related themes published during the intervening years have deepened my understanding of the issues that must be addressed in any study of black cultural nationalism. Such an extended period of research leaves me indebted to individuals too numerous to mention. However, my debt to Professor Miloud Barkaoui deserves mention. He did not hesitate to supervise my work after the departure of my first supervisor and was ready to provide me with valuable advices. Several friends and colleagues also helped steer my work in different ways: supporting me morally by keeping up my spirits when they wilted. Among them, some of the longtime names that stand out are: Ahmed Habes, Haoues Ahmed Sid and Riadh Belouahem. One person deserves special mention: Abdelhak Elaggoune who has stood by my side. His support during the writing process has been unflagging and absolutely integral to its completion. My special thanks also go to the members of the Jury who have kindly accepted to be on my examining panel. Last but not least, I offer thanks to my wife and four daughters. Through long years, their encouragement has been unquestioning; their confidence unremitting. They have walked with me each step of the way, and if I have progressed at all, it is only because of them. ABSTRACT The thesis examines the impact of African American intellectuals on black cultural nationalism with particular inclination to Imamu Amiri Baraka as a political activist in the 1960s and 1970s. This research examines the transformation of LeRoi Jones from a provocative literary artist to Imamu Baraka, a controversial intellectual activist. The thesis considers Baraka’s prospect of America’s racial struggle in that era of unrest. Too little critical attention is focused on the controversy concerning Baraka’s adeptness in his dual role as artist and politician. He still remains one of the least understood currents in American history. While a number of studies focused on his literary competence, until now few have considered his comprehensive connection with electoral politics, protests, and community development projects. Conditioned by the political dynamics of black cultural nationalism, Baraka’s mutation caused the rise and demise of his leadership. The several happenings would participate in the formation of Baraka’s intellectual activism at both local and national levels. Priority and consideration are given to his intellectual activism which was influenced by African political leaders whose countries, newly independent, were still struggling against the negative heritage of European colonialism. His radicalization followed a course similar to other black radicals whose political maturation was framed by domestic conformity, black urbanization, the civil rights movement, and third world decolonization. Therefore, the work’s contribution to American historiography rests on efforts to broaden discussion on the complex relationship between Baraka and black cultural nationalism beyond its presently narrow understanding and interpretation, and suggests an approach which will open a new path of inquiry in the concerned field. RESUME La thèse examine l’influence des intellectuels afro-américains sur le nationalisme culturel noir et prend comme exemple l'activiste politique Imamu Amiri Baraka durant les années 1960 et 1970. Cette thèse sonde la transformation de LeRoi Jones, une figure littéraire et artistique controversée, en Imamu Baraka, une personnalité politique également controversée. Cependant, la thèse est confrontée à la perspective des intellectuels nationalistes noirs en relation avec la lutte raciale aux états unis durant et après la révolte des afro-américains. Cet intellectuel engagé représente l’un des courants les moins compris dans l’histoire des états unis d’Amérique. En d’autres termes, si un grand nombre d’études examinent son talent littéraire, peu d’historiens considèrent son implication spontanée et extensive dans la politique électorale et les initiatives prises pour le développement de sa communauté à Newark, New Jersey. Conditionnée par la dynamique politique du nationalisme culturel noir, la métamorphose de Baraka a forgé son apogée et causé son déclin en tant que leader. Une importance est donnée à sa vision intellectuelle qui a été influencée par des leaders du tiers monde, en particulier africains dont les pays, récemment indépendants, continuaient leur combats contre le résidu culturel du colonialisme européen. En effet, la radicalisation de Baraka a suivi une trajectoire similaire à celle de ses prédécesseurs radicaux noirs qui ont vu leur maturité politique se formait grâce à une conformité domestique, une urbanisation noire, un mouvement de droits civiques et une décolonisation des pays du tiers monde surtout en Afrique. En résultat, la contribution de cette thèse à l’historiographie américaine dépend de l’analyse de ce cas afin d’élargir le débat sur la relation complexe entre Baraka et le nationalisme culturel noir au-delà d’une compréhension et interprétation souvent limitées et propose une approche qui permettra d'ouvrir une nouvelle voie de recherche dans le domaine concerné qui n’est profondément pas exploité. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS ABB African Blood Brotherhood AFL American Federation of Labor ALD African Liberation Day ALSC African Liberation Support Committee APP African People’s Party BAM Black Arts Movement BARTS Black Arts Repertory Theater/School BCD Black Community Defense and Development BCM Black Convention Movement BNLF Black National Liberation Front BPP Black Panther Party BSCP Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters BWC Black Workers Congress BWUF Black Women’s United Front CAA Council of African Affairs CAP Congress of African People CFEP Committee for Fair Employment Practices CFUN Committee for Unified NewArk CIO Congress of Industrial Organizations COFO Council of Federal Organization CORE Congress of Racial Equality CP[USA] Communist Party FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FCP French Communist Party FEPC Fair Employment Practice Committee HUAC House Un-American Activities Committee HUD Housing and Urban Development ILGWU International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union LCFDI Loundes County Freedom Organization LRBW League of Revolutionary Black Workers LSNR League of Struggle for Negro Rights MBCM Modern Black Convention Movement MDP Mississippi Democratic Party MFDP Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party MSTM Moorish Science Temple Movement MWIV Marine Workers Industrial Union NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NBA National Black Assembly NBPA National Black Political Assembly NBPC National Black Power Conference NBWUF National Black Women’s United Front NHA Newark Housing Authority NIRA National Industrial Recovery Act NJHFA New Jersey Housing Finance Agency NMU National Maritime Union NNC National Negro Congress NNLC National Negro Labor Council NUL National Urban league NWRO National Welfare Rights Organization OAAU Organization of Afro-American Unity OBPU Organization of Black People’s Union PAC Project Area Committee PASOA Pan-African Students of America PUSH People United for Self-Help PWU Packinghouse Working Union RAM Revolutionary Action Movement RNA Republic of New Africa SCLC Southern Christian Leadership Conference SHMP Spirit House Movers and Players SNCC Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee SOBU Student Organization for Black Unity SWAT Special Weapons and Tactics SWOC Steel Workers Organizing Committee TANU Tanzanian African Nationalist Union UAW United Automobile Workers UB United Brothers UCC United Community Corporation UMW United Mine Workers UN United Nations UNIA Universal Negro Improvement Association WCC White Citizens’ Council WPC Women’s Political Council YOBU Youth Organization of Black Unity TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1: Black Nationalism: From Slavery to the 1960s……………………………………17 A. The Roots of Black Nationalism B. Black Nationalism in the Post-Civil War Era C. Black Nationalism in the Twentieth Century Chapter 2 : Baraka’s Political Maturation………………………………………………………81 Chapter 3 : Newark, the Native Son, and Black Power……………………………..................133 Chapter 4 : African American Cultural Nationalism: A Remodelling………...........................170 Chapter 5 : The Catalyst of Black Nationality Creation………………………………………206 Chapter 6 : The Urge for Black
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