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Richness and Significance of Old World Crops Grown by Suriname Maroon

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Richness and Significance of Old World Crops Grown by Suriname Maroon Genet Resour Crop Evol (2016) 63:695–710 DOI 10.1007/s10722-015-0277-8 RESEARCH ARTICLE The ‘Botanical Gardens of the Dispossessed’ revisited: richness and significance of Old World crops grown by Suriname Maroons Tinde R. van Andel . Amber van der Velden . Minke Reijers Received: 23 February 2015 / Accepted: 2 June 2015 / Published online: 9 July 2015 Ó The Author(s) 2015. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Old World crops entered the Americas as Saramaccan Maroon farmers. The greatest richness provision on slave ships and were planted by enslaved was encountered in bananas, taro, okra and rice. Most Africans in their home gardens, known as the ‘Botan- crops were used for food, but sesame, melegueta ical Gardens of the Dispossessed’. Escaped slaves who pepper and African rice largely lost their food function settled in Maroon communities in Suriname’s forested and served mainly for rituals. Farmers exchanged interior practiced shifting cultivation for centuries seeds and tubers with family members and other with seeds they brought from their home gardens. ethnicities in both urban and forest communities. After the abolishment of slavery, Creoles largely Spending time in the capital during childbirth or abandoned agriculture and farming became the activ- illness resulted in the loss of typical Maroon crops ity of Asian wage laborers. Maroon agriculture has (e.g., Bambara groundnut), as seeds lost viability never been studied in detail. The recent discovery of during the farmer’s absence. Motivation to grow African rice (Oryza glaberrima) in a Maroon garden specific crops and cultivars varied from tradition, food initiated this ethnobotanical study on Old World crops preference, seasonal spreading, rituals and traditional grown by Maroons, and their motivations for main- medicine. Documentation of specific landrace prop- taining this agrodiversity. In 2013, we collected crop erties, storage of seeds in germplasm centers and cultivars and landraces and interviewed 16 Aucan and in situ conservation are urgently needed to safeguard these previously undocumented Maroon landraces. Electronic supplementary material The online version of Keywords African crops Á Ethnobotany Á this article (doi:10.1007/s10722-015-0277-8) contains supple- Landraces Á Maroons Á Slavery Á Suriname Á Traditional mentary material, which is available to authorized users. agriculture Scientific authorities for Latin names are in Supplementary Table 2. Introduction T. R. van Andel (&) Á A. van der Velden Á M. Reijers Biosystematics Group, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, Old World crops in Suriname The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] The trans-Atlantic slave trade was a shipment of people and plants. Between the early sixteenth and the T. R. van Andel Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, late nineteenth century, some 12 million Africans were 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands shipped to the Americas in this period (Eltis and 123 696 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2016) 63:695–710 Richardson 2010), and along came food crops, Windward Coast from Guinea Conakry to Ivory Coast medicinal plants, fodder grasses, as well as numerous (van Lier 1971; Eltis and Richardson 2010). The weeds (Carney and Rosomoff 2009; Voeks 2013). earliest records for the presence of Old World crops in These plants included African domesticates, such as Suriname stem from the period that the country was African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and Bambara ground- still English property. The very first travel account, nut (Vigna subterranea), but also crops that originated written by the British explorer George Warren (1667), in Asia but were introduced to Africa by means of the mentioned ‘yames’ (yam, Dioscorea spp.), ‘plantons’ Monsoon exchange: plant transfers that took place and ‘bonanoes’ (plantains and bananas). Almost two between eastern Africa and South and Southeast Asia decades after the country became in the hands of the between 2500 BCE and 100 CE, which transformed Dutch in 1667, the Society of Suriname requested the host societies and environments on both sides of the Governor of Suriname, Cornelis van Aerssen van Indian Ocean (McNeill 2003; Rangan et al. 2012). Sommelsdijck, to send some exotic seeds from the Asian crops that were well established in Africa before colony to be grown as ornamentals in the Amsterdam the trans-Atlantic slave trade include taro (Colocasia Botanic Garden. In the lists of seeds sent by van esculenta), bananas (Musa sp.) and the pigeon pea Aerssen to Amsterdam, kept at the National Archives (Cajanus cajan) (van der Maesen 1990;Carneyand in The Hague (Brinkman 1980), the first African plants Rosomoff 2009). Several Old World crops (e.g., okra, appear. Between the seeds of 21 species sent on 8 Abelmoschus esculentus) are still widely cultivated March 1685 were ‘muscus zaat’ (Abelmoschus throughout the Neotropics, others such as ackee moschatus), and ‘okkoro’ (A. esculentus). The second (Blighia sapida) are only grown by a few Afro- shipment, sent on 22 April 1686, consisted of seeds Caribbean communities (Rashford 2001). Some Afri- from 31 plants, among which the Old World medicinal can plants blended in with the natural vegetation, like ‘palma Christie’ (Ricinus communis). Soon after the Phoenix reclinata in the coastal swamps of Suriname first shipments of seeds, Suriname’s oldest botanical (Heilbron 2012), others became common weeds, such collections were made around 1687 by an obscure as Cleome gynandra (van Andel et al. 2012a). A few botanist, Hendrik Meyer, who was probably hired by plants, like Caesalpinia bonduc in the Dutch Caribbean, Governor van Aerssen. The collections consist of 50 even turned into invasive species (van der Burg et al. vouchers preserved in a bound book, ‘the Surinamese 2012). After their arrival in the New World, enslaved Hermann Herbarium’ (van Andel et al. 2012b), and laborers managed to gather leftover seeds from the contain two African food crops: okra (A. esculentus) ship’s hold (Carney 2005). Throughout the Caribbean, and sesame (Sesamum indicum). slaves were allowed to maintain small provision grounds at the periphery of the plantations. These home Botanical gardens of the dispossessed gardens, described by Carney (2009) as the ‘Botanical Gardens of the Dispossessed’, enabled them to grow These early records of Old World crops in Suriname, their at least some of the familiar crops of their just a few decades after the first slaves were put to motherland, and became central to their physical and work on the country’s plantations provide evidence for spiritual life (Price 1991). Traditional home gardens the rapid dispersal of African crops in the New World. kept by people of African descend in the Americas, Contact among slaves of different plantations was such as Cuban ‘conucos’ or Brazilian ‘coivaras’, are surprisingly frequent (Oostindie 1993), which facili- known to harbor high levels of agrodiversity with tated the exchange of crop seeds and cuttings. It is obsolete crop species and locally developed landraces therefore not unlikely that Meyer collected these two used for food, medicinal and ritual purposes (Esquivel African domesticates in a slave garden. Seventy years and Hammer 1992;DeAndradeBressan2005). later, when Swedish botanist Daniel Rolander visited Between the 1640 and 1830, an estimated 295,000 Suriname, these Old World crops were well estab- Africans ended up in Suriname (Eltis and Richardson lished in Suriname. ‘Ocrum’ was cultivated in ‘the 2010). Slaves in this former Dutch colony came from gardens of the upper classes’ and the ‘gelatinous soup’ different regions, but major source areas were the from its fruits was eaten by ‘dainty ladies’ as a Slave Coast (eastern Ghana to Benin), Loango (Gabon delicacy. Okra plants were protected by ‘blacks… who to northern Angola), the Gold Coast (Ghana) and the bring in their gods (fetish statues) to guard and expel 123 Genet Resour Crop Evol (2016) 63:695–710 697 thieves… This strategy is… quite successful in Modern agriculture and the importance keeping other blacks from laying their hands on the of landraces ocrum’, Rolander noted on 18 Oct. 1755 (Rolander 2008). ‘Sesamum indicum grows in all the vegetable Modern agriculture makes use of cultivars, almost gardens… black servants cook and eat its ripe seeds’, genetically identical crop types, mostly selected for he mentioned on 25 Oct. 1755. Rolanders observations their high yield by commercial plant breeders (Frankel confirm that these African food crops were actively et al. 1995; Maxted 2012). Landraces, differentiate grown by slaves, both in their own gardens and those from cultivars as they are selected by local farmers of their masters (van Andel et al. 2012a). from natural varieties of the same species. Landraces Due to the poor living conditions and the brutal evolved at lower levels of cultivation, fertilization and treatments on the plantations, many slaves decided to plant protection, and were selected for their hardiness take the risk of fleeing into the forest. These runaways and reliability, rather than their high yield. Landraces first hid themselves in temporary forest camps near are not genetically uniform, but can be seen as their provision fields (Price 1973). After forming populations that are in a dynamic equilibrium with groups with other escaped slaves, they continued their their environment (Zeven 1998). Due to their genetic journey into the interior, taking crop seeds and diversity they evolve with their environment
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