Historia et Memoria  Vol. 1 (Spring 2013)

E.W. Bouvé. The Fugitive’s Song. 1 print : lithograph on wove paper ; 35.6 x 23.8 cm. (sheet). Boston : Published by Henry Prentiss, 1845.

Dear Historians,

This is the first edition of the undergraduate history journal of St. John’s University, Historia et Memoria. Our thanks go first to all the undergraduate students who submitted their work for consideration, whether they were successful or not. The response was fantastic, we received twenty-nine papers, which from a department with 118 majors, is quite remarkable. Some of those we could not include in this edition we have asked to be held over for the next. We think that it is very important that students seize opportunities such as publishing in this journal, giving a paper at a conference or a presentation to a community group, not only because of the benefit the individual gets from showcasing their work, but also because these activities bind us together as a community of scholars, whether undergraduates, graduate students or faculty. My personal thanks and high esteem must also go to all the undergraduate and graduate students who served on the editorial board and whose hard work made the publication of this journal possible: Daniel Kelly, Julia Winters, Jennifer Newsome, Kayla Anderson, Helen Drivas, Melvyn Threatt-Peters, and Dylan Kitts; as well as to my colleagues, Dr. Mauricio Borrero and Dr. Philip Misevich, who shared with me responsibility to advise and assist the editorial board, and to Dr. Susan Schmidt-Horning for helping to revise papers that students had written in her class. Thanks also to our Chair, Dr. Elaine Carey, and our department secretary, Frances Balla for all their support. The undergraduate work presented here is of three types: traditional articles, work that has been produced through non-traditional approaches and reviews. Collectively the work presented here spans six centuries and discusses events in Europe, North America, Africa and Asia. The articles concern guerilla warfare in East Africa, the experiences of female slaves and landowners in North America, Harlem politics in the early twentieth century, and the rise to prominence of the Medici family. We are keen as a department to explore non-traditional approaches to historical scholarship, and we have examples here of a reflection of the historical background of literature from China, a fiction book written by undergraduates about the transforming Mediterranean world 400-800, and two biographies written as Active-Service Learning projects with Maple Grove Cemetery. Our reviews are also typical of the extensive range of our students’ interests; and include a graphic novel about a woman in nineteenth-century West Africa, four queens from thirteenth-century Europe, a history of the IRA, and a novel about the espionage and intrigue surrounding Cold War events of 1961. As Aristotle said, “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts,” and this was true in the case of the immense team effort that went into pulling this journal together – but I would be amiss if I did not add that the “parts” were all pretty great from the outset.

Dr. Tracey-Anne Cooper (St. John’s University, 2013).

Editorial Board: Dr. Tracey-Anne Cooper, Dr. Mauricio Borrero, Dr. Philip Misevich, Ms. Kayla Anderson, Ms. Helen Drivas, Mr. Daniel Kelly, Mr. Dylan Kitts, Mr. Melvyn Threatt-Peters, Ms. Jennifer Newsome, Ms. Julia Winters.

Table of Contents:

The “Lion of Africa:” Lettow-Vorbeck and the Guerrilla Defense of German East Africa in WWI. 1 Daniel Najib.

Genovese, Paternalism, and the Experience of Female Slaves 6 Siobahn Corrigan.

Landowners and Race Relations in Colonial North America. 12 Michelle Herrera.

Systemic Bias in Harlem Politics, 1910-1930. 20 Dylan Kitts.

The Effect of British Rule on African Women and Marriage. 31 Christine Rai.

Cosimo’s Inheritance: The Medici Bank and Extended Family Power. 35 Eric Wendt.

The Grassland in Ruins: Wolf Totem’s Symbolic Criticism of Han Chauvinism. 40 Nathan Bates.

Charles Matthews Manly: One in a Million Assistant and Aviator. 46 Sean Buckley.

Social Reform of Jacob Riis 51 Shirley Guo.

Writing Historical Fiction to Connect with History 55 Patrick Homeyer.

REVIEWS

Donald J. Farinacci, 1961: Sliding Towards Armageddon. 58 Melvyn Threatt-Peters.

Nancy Goldstone, Four Queens: The Provençal Sisters Who Ruled Europe. 58 Donya Nasser and Maria Irene Angelidis.

Richard English. Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. 60 Michael O’Connell.

Trevor R. Getz and Liz Clarke, Abina and the Important Men: A Graphic History. 61 Tiffany Fitzgerald.

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ARTICLES outwit the inferior.”2 It is no wonder then that many askari (the Arabic word for soldier), even after the war, were proud to say “mie Askari mdachi”, or “I am a German askari.”3 The “Lion of Africa:” Lettow- German East Africa was an immense territory surrounded by potential enemies. Vorbeck and the Guerrilla Upon his arrival, Lettow-Vorbeck toured the colony he was now tasked with defending, all Defense of German East the while inspecting the forces he now Africa in WWI. commanded.4 Lettow-Vorbeck immediately found himself at odds with the governor of the

colony, Heinrich Schnee. Schnee felt that in Daniel Najib, Class of 2013. the case of the impending war, German East Africa should remain neutral. Lettow- German Field Marshal Erwin Vorbeck was of the opposite mindset, Rommel, the “Desert Fox”, is widely known believing that if Germany went to war, her for his exploits in Africa during the Second colonies would not remain safe, and should do World War. Less well known, however, was everything possible to aid Germany’s war 5 the German “Lion of Africa” Paul von Lettow- effort. When the war finally came, Schnee Vorbeck, who fought undefeated on the demanded that Lettow-Vorbeck not engage continent for four years during the First the British. However, Lettow-Vorbeck World War. While the First World War is well decided Schnee was ill-informed as to the known for its trench warfare and attrition on reality of the unfolding military situation, and 6 the western front in Europe, thousands of resolved to fight the British. miles away a fantastic struggle unfolded. The original British plan for the war Lettow-Vorbeck was a pioneer military in German East Africa involved taking the commander in German East Africa in WWI, strategic ports of Tanga and Kigoma, then and although he did not have a major effect on advancing inland via the colony’s railways to the overall military outcome of the war, he take the capital, Dar es Salaam. The British nevertheless played a vital role in exercising made the first move, attacking the settlement the use of guerrilla tactics against a superior of Longido while simultaneously launching an military force. amphibious operation at the northern port of Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck was Tanga. The force used to launch the attack on sent to German East Africa on the eve of war Tanga was comprised of some of the worst in April of 1914 to take control of the colonial units to be found in the Indian army, and the forces, the Schutztruppe. He immediately set resulting Battle of Tanga was a resounding about reorganizing and re-equipping the success for the Schutztruppe, defeating an Schutztruppe with modern weapons.1 He was enemy eight times their size. Lettow- unique among commanders at the time, Vorbeck’s initial success can be attributed to recognizing the hard work of the native his extensive network of secret informants soldiers, praising them as well as sharing every difficulty with them. He became fluent 2 Charles Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies in German East in Swahili, appointed natives as officers, Africa,” Quarterly Journal of Military History 15 saying that “we are all Africans here”, and that (2003): 75. 3 “black or white, the superior man will always Gerhardt Thamm, “Mie Askari Mdachi: I am a German Askari,” Quarterly Journal of Military History 19 (2007): 68. 4 Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies,” 71. 5 Kent Forster, “The Quest for East African Neutrality in 1 Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, My Reminiscences of East 1915,” African Studies Review 22 (1971): 77. Africa (London: Leonaur Publishing, 2010), 13-14. 6 Forster, “East African Neutrality,” 78.

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and spies, as well as the blundering nature of became convinced that Lettow-Vorbeck could the British commander, General Aitken.7 not continue on fighting for much longer. Both sides’ fortunes changed soon, when Smuts had been prepared to receive Lettow- the new British commander, General Jan Vorbeck’s surrender at any time now because Christian Smuts, took command.8 Smuts’ most of the strategic targets in this theatre of plan was simple: follow Lettow-Vorbeck, war were firmly in his hands, leaving nothing encircle his forces, and defeat him.9 This for his enemy to fight for.14 In addition to his proved to be easier said than done. The strategic control, Smuts also reasoned that British succeeded in capturing several since Lettow-Vorbeck had fled into the important towns and strongholds, including surrounding countryside, his askaris would Moshi and Bukoba.10 After the fall of the desert and leave him unable to launch any radio station at Bukoba, German forces in the more attacks.15 He could not have been more colony were nearly entirely cut off from wrong. If anything, Lettow-Vorbeck was contact with the German homeland. By relieved that he no longer was duty-bound to September 3, 1916 Dar es Salaam had fallen to defend any fixed locales and objectives on a Smuts.11 map, and could now fight and attack the For the next few months, Smuts enemy using guerrilla hit-and-run tactics. constantly attempted to encircle and capture Furthermore, Smuts had underestimated the his opponent, to no avail. Lettow-Vorbeck quality of Lettow-Vorbeck’s troops, as Edwin deftly evaded all of Smuts’ traps by retreating Hoyt remarks: further into the countryside. In the summer of 1916, Lettow-Vorbeck put into motion his It was a measure of the Askaris' loyalty to their plan for guerrilla-style warfare. For already commander that they accepted the cuts and did not desert en masse. Some did desert, of course[…] But two years into the war, Lettow-Vorbeck had the German Askaris were by far the most loyal as fought hard for every inch of land in the well as the most effective, and it all went back to northernmost section of the colony. The von Lettow-Vorbeck's brand of discipline, which north, where most of the infrastructure and bound him and his German officers as much as his black soldiers.16 population lay, including Dar es Salaam, was now firmly in the hands of the British. As a Askari’s on both sides deserted, but it is a result, Lettow-Vorbeck could no longer safely testament to Lettow-Vorbeck’s persona and launch assaults on the British-controlled character that most of his men stayed with railways. Lettow-Vorbeck decided to retreat him during the grueling campaigning. His into the backwoods of Mahenge, where his men, like many soldiers throughout history, forces could live off the land, while the took pride in the fact that their commander British—who relied on porters and long lines shared all of their difficulties, and considered of supply that stretched hundreds of miles all himself one of them.17 He was also rumored the way back to Mombasa—could not.12 to have personally carried wounded askari to By now, Lettow-Vorbeck had acquired safety on his back.18 from his enemies the derisive nickname ‘von Lettow-Vorbeck’s roughly ten Lettow Fallback’13, and while Lettow-Vorbeck thousand troops were outnumbered at least continued to elude Smuts’ attempts at eight to one by this stage in the war.19 Setting encirclement and capture, Smuts increasingly

14 Paice, World War I, 17-22. 7 Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies,” 72-73. 15 Edwin Hoyt, Guerilla: Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck 8 Edward Paice, World War I: The African Front (New and Germany’s East African Empire (New York: York: Pegasus Publishing, 2008), 153, 187. Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981), 122. 9 Paice, World War I, 246-248. 16 Hoyt, Guerilla, 171. 10 Paice, World War I, 104, 202. 17 Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies,” 75. 11 Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies,” 76-78. 18 Paice, World War I, 241. 12 Paice, World War I, 278-280. 19 Byron Farwell, The Great War in Africa: 1914-1918 13 Paice, World War I, 241. (New York: Norton & Company Publishing, 1986), 310.

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up his base camp in the Uluguru Mountains in as an officer, even when he had the the east, he sent out small forces of men to opportunity to cripple the British war effort by disrupt communications and wreck havoc on killing their top field commander in the the enemy’s supply lines and infrastructure. theatre. A few months later, in December The troops wandered through the dense brush 1916, Lettow-Vorbeck received a message to reach their military objectives, taking days from Smuts. Lettow-Vorbeck learned that he and at times even weeks to reach them. Their had been awarded the highest honor in sudden appearance and equally rapid Germany for his efforts in Africa—the Pour le disappearance unnerved the British, who Merite.23 often got lost chasing after the scattered The effects of the war now began to groups of soldiers. Smuts, enraged at these hit home in the colony after two years of tactics, ordered offensives into the area. conflict. Widespread famines and disease Lettow-Vorbeck reacted predictably: he outbreaks occurred, hurting both sides, but retreated further inland, all the while arguably the British suffered worse than the harassing the enemy troops.20 Germans, and the native population fared the Smuts’ forces now controlled all of the worst of all. In total, as a result of the famine, vital areas in the colony, and while the British around 300,000 natives had died by had superiority in numbers, their troops were December 1917.24 The German forces were succumbing to disease at an astonishing rate, living off the land, while the British had to forcing Smuts to either halt the offensive or contend with overextended supply lines that force Lettow-Vorbeck’s surrender. Smuts were easily disrupted. British forces took decided on the latter option as the best, and what food and supplies they could from sent a message to Lettow-Vorbeck giving him villages, even becoming so desperate at times the option of surrendering honorably.21 as to excavate the rotting carcasses of dead Lettow-Vorbeck possessed a unique cattle and transport mules.25 The Germans ability that constantly perplexed and annoyed suffered as well. Lettow-Vorbeck realized the his enemies to no end: he could accurately worsening conditions and made the difficult and uncannily predict his enemy’s movements decision to dismiss almost seven thousand and actions before his enemy could, and he porters because of lack of food.26 continued to outfox his opponent. He saw Lettow-Vorbeck retreated further Smuts’ offer for what it was, and reasoned that south into the Rufiji River delta to link up Smuts was on his last legs. He realized that with another Schutztruppe force, from where his strategy was working successfully, and that he planned to continue the attacks on the the enemy’s troops were in worse condition. British. He instructed his officers that if they Lettow-Vorbeck rejected Smuts’ offer, and were to lose contact with him or the main continued his guerrilla campaign.22 Schutztruppe force, they were to fight on In August 1916, nearly two years after without him. At this point in the war, Smuts the war broke out; perhaps one of the most controlled many of the vital strategic points in memorable events of the war occurred. While the colony, and his forces also occupied nearly personally reconnoitering enemy positions the entirety of German East Africa.27 Smuts near the front lines, Lettow-Vorbeck managed once again misunderstood his opponent. to have a clear shot at Smuts, but he declined Smuts declared the war to be essentially over to take the shot. Later, when asked why he and left for London, leaving his forces under did not, he said that he considered that it would have been ‘unsporting’ to do so. 23 Paice, World War I, 261. 24 Lettow-Vorbeck showed gentlemanliness here Paice, World War I, 288. 25 Hoyt, Guerilla, 188-189. 26 W. O. Henderson, “The War Economy of German 20 Hoyt, Guerilla, 127. East Africa, 1914-1917,” The Economic History Review 21 Hoyt, Guerilla, 141-2. 13 (1943): 107. 22 Hoyt, Guerilla, 141-2. 27 Henderson, “War Economy,” 109.

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the command of his subordinate, Major totaling some 4,900 men, while the Germans General Reginald Hoskins.28 Under normal lost 500 men, but this was a fifth of Lettow- circumstances, a commander in the position Vorbeck’s total forces, and he could not afford of Lettow-Vorbeck would have had no choice such a battle again, even though he had won.35 but to surrender, as there was nothing in On November 23, 1917, Lettow- German East Africa to fight for now that the Vorbeck’s forces crossed the Rufiji River delta enemy controlled it. Lettow-Vorbeck and invaded the Portuguese colony of reasoned a different way, and continued his Mozambique.36 His decision to invade was guerrilla strategy, much to the chagrin of his due to a lack of ammunition and other adversaries.29 supplies, which he needed take from Months later, after suffering several Portuguese. German forces proved to be reversals, General Hoskins was relieved, and highly skilled, and the Portuguese were the Boer general Jacob van Deventer took quickly routed at the first engagement. control.30 Van Deventer employed tactics he Van Deventer was hot on his trail, learned during the Boer War decades earlier however, and Lettow-Vorbeck continued his against the Germans. He understood that southward push. The Schutztruppe outran Lettow-Vorbeck’s forces were living off the the British easily, however, as the British had land, and he took to a policy of razing a 10-1 numerical advantage that led to farmlands and food depots, depriving the enormous supply line difficulties. Germans of food, as well as the unfortunate Furthermore, Lettow-Vorbeck force-marched natives.31 Van Deventer then sent his forces his askaris through very difficult terrain, into the Rufiji River delta to encircle and flush achieving upwards of fifteen to twenty miles his enemy out. Lettow-Vorbeck responded nearly every day for six weeks. He was able to with a counter-attack at the Battle of do this because he suffered with his men, and Narungombe to halt or delay the British his men were dedicated in their loyalty to advance. Lettow-Vorbeck successfully held off him.37 the larger enemy force due to his superior The events of the Portuguese theatre tactics, use of the terrain and tactical use of of war are perhaps a bit comical; in the machine gun—just as he had in the earlier Mozambique, the Portuguese were fleeing battles of the war.32 The British did not before the advancing Germans, who recover from Lettow-Vorbeck’s assault until themselves were fleeing from the advancing October 1917.33 A month later, Lettow- British forces. At the southernmost point of Vorbeck’s forces were once again nearly Portuguese Mozambique near the Zambezi encircled, and the largest battle in this theatre River, Lettow-Vorbeck had a decision to since Tanga took place at Mahiwa. There, a make. He could cross the river and invade four-day battle ensued, with the Schutztruppe British South Africa, or he could turn his fighting fiercely as if this were their last stand. column around. Typically for him, Lettow- Lettow-Vorbeck perhaps himself thought that Vorbeck decided on the course of action that this would be his last stand. He dressed up in his enemy would least suspect. He turned his his full military uniform with medals, and led column to the northeast towards the coastline, his men from the front lines.34 It was a costly turning west soon thereafter, thereby battle for both sides; the British suffered threatening British Nyasaland. As van 2,700 casualties out of a force originally Deventer rushed to prevent this, Lettow- Vorbeck had evaded him, and turned north 28 Farwell, The Great War, 319-321. instead. By late September, he had come 29 Paice, World War I, 293-294. around full circle and successfully entered 30 Paice, World War I, 169. 31 Paice, World War I, 279-280. 32 Paice, World War I, 328-329. 35 Farwell, The Great War, 330-334. 33 Paice, World War I, 330. 36 Paice, World War I, 344. 34 Paice, World War I, 330-332. 37 Berges, “Outfoxing the Allies,” 75.

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German East Africa again.38 However, he Lettow-Vorbeck’s successes in the war turned west and entered more than two cannot be denied. He never lost a major hundred miles into British Rhodesia, engagement and never was captured. On a threatening the British there. tactical and operational level, he was arguably He would not remain a threat for more effective than his Anglo-Belgian- long, however. While Lettow-Vorbeck had Portuguese counterparts. He was the only succeeded in fighting the British admirably in German commander to successfully invade this theatre, he soon received word that British territory during the war, and he gave Germany had requested an armistice. He had his enemies a ‘run for their money’. His views assumed that it would be in Germany’s favor, on race seem decades ahead of his as he had been out of communication with contemporaries, and he tried his best to Germany for most of the war.39 He would conduct a ‘gentlemanly’ war. He suffered with soon find the bitter truth of Germany’s his men; he served on the front lines with misfortune. He had been planning on them, shared their food, slept in the same attacking Katanga in the Belgian Congo and conditions, and they respected him for that. then moving into Portuguese Angola when he He was also deeply respected by his enemies. got word from van Deventer on November 14, Yet for all of his tactical successes, he 1918 of Germany’s request for an armistice. ultimately failed strategically through no fault Lettow-Vorbeck agreed to surrender his 1,300 of his own. Outnumbered, cut off from the undefeated soldiers eleven days later, homeland for four years, and surrounded by November 25, at Abercorn.40 hostiles, he could win every battle, but lose the Major General Paul von Lettow- war. His goal of hoping to tie down sufficient Vorbeck’s stunning military career did not Allied forces was flawed. The troops Lettow- continue for much longer after his return Vorbeck fought were for the most part home to Germany in 1919.41 He formed a colonial forces that were never intended for lasting friendship with his once-enemy Jan combat on the western front, and his impact Smuts after the war. After World War II, on Germany’s overall victory was negligible. Lettow-Vorbeck found himself destitute, Nevertheless, his tactics are a wonderful homeless, and he had lost both of his sons in example of guerrilla warfare at work, tying the war. He was not entitled to a pension, so down an enemy force many times his size. Smuts managed to raise a fund from the Lettow-Vorbeck’s exploits are timeless, and officers Lettow-Vorbeck faced in Africa, giving raise parallels throughout human history him the pension he needed and deserved. He where a smaller force managed to hold off and lived to be 94 years old, and when he died in at times even defeat a much larger enemy. 1964 he was given a state funeral, but his legacy did not end there. That same year the West German government decided to grant back pay to all surviving German askaris. Three hundred fifty men showed up to claim the money, but not all had certificates confirming their participation in the war. The banker gave each man a broom and ordered them to perform the manual of arms. Not one failed.42

38 Hoyt, Guerilla, 195. 39 Paice, World War I, 386. 40 Paice, World War I, 387-389. 41 Paice, World War I, 390-391. 42 Farwell, The Great War, 357.

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Genovese, Paternalism, and supposedly represented a relationship of limited reciprocity and some humanity- the Experience of Female affirming interactions. Genovese’s concept of paternalism is Slaves. an amalgam of Ulrich Bonnell Phillips’ benign Siobhan Corrigan, Class of slave master and Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony. Genovese was a fairly 2013 rebellious historian in some instances. His stubborn refusal to accept the rejection of Phillips’ work, which was routinely discarded The historiography of American as irretrievably tainted by racism, set him on a slavery is as complex as the subject of its quest to revive analysis of Phillips’ study. Limited by the constraints of primary publications and theories.1 From Phillips, sources and consistently influenced by the Genovese was able to draw his own modified prevailing ideas of the decades in which they understanding of paternalism as the work, historians writing and researching since fundamental relationship between masters the Civil War have produced innumerable and slaves, albeit one that slaves and slave- interpretations of the same events, people, holders interpreted differently. However, the and practices. Each of these different concept of paternalism that Genovese interpretations carries with it equally diverse presents in Roll, Jordan, Roll is incomplete implications for understanding the norms of without the influence of Antonio Gramsci. the modern world. Just as one way of Gramsci, an Italian philosopher understanding and studying history can focus reinterpreting Marxism, contributed a theory on the men and women who shaped it, so to of cultural hegemony that underlies the can the eras of historiography be examined. paternalist relationship Genovese sketches for The current understanding of nineteenth the reader throughout his book. Gramsci century American History, especially that of makes a distinction between brute domination the South, has been shaped and in part and cultural hegemony. While domination created by the work of Eugene Genovese. creates a hierarchy where subject classes are One of Genovese’s most important pinned down through the use of violence, contributions has been his idea of hegemony is a more nuanced and insidious paternalism, eloquently defended in Roll, form of domination where the subject classes Jordan, Roll. Paternalism as Genovese defines live in fear of violence through threat, but and understands it has become a familiar idea have also internalized and accepted the to American students and the word itself has culture and status quo created by the elites. become a standard way of explaining many Hegemony is simultaneously weaker and power relationships throughout world history. more powerful than domination, for while its However, history studies individuals and effects are more all-encompassing and communities too varied to be so narrowly difficult to eradicate, it relies on the consent understood by one idea. Even in the context of and participation of the subject class. This the slave-holding society of the American theme of consent and Gramsci’s specific ideas South, paternalism does not accurately arise again and again in Roll, Jordan, Roll in explain the experience of slaves, particularly the principle of reciprocity, as Genovese female slaves. While paternalism did exist in essentially casts paternalism as a form of the hearts and minds of slave-holders, it did not extend to enslaved women, who were divested of the characteristics associated with their gender, and exploited and abused far 1 John David Smith, “The Historiographic Rise, Fall, beyond the limits of a system which and Resurrection of Ulrich Bonnell Phillips,” The Georgia Historical Quarterly 65 (1981): 138-53.

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cultural hegemony unique to the antebellum their slaves.6 From the perspective of the American South.2 slaveholders, Genovese’s theory of The argument for paternalism in the paternalism, its widespread influence and its context of slavery in the South relies on lasting impact seems true. It is the case of the several fundamental themes. Genovese argues slaves, and particularly the experience of slave that it gained power with the end of the women, that causes Genovese’s extension of international slave trade, when it became a the model to appear as historical overreach governing mentality among slaveholders that and an inaccurate generalization. allowed them to rationalize and justify slavery Slaves supposedly were able to stave while establishing a reciprocal relationship off total degradation by reinterpreting the where the slaves had a duty to please and obey paternalist relationship as a system in which their master, and the master had a duty to they had a small number of undeniable rights, attend to the slaves’ basic needs.3 Genovese even though they may have had difficulty provides copious amounts of support for his defending them. This alternate version of assertion that paternalism was a very real and paternalism still kept its element of very influential idea in the lives of American reciprocity, and according to Genovese, it also slaveholders, and it is virtually impossible to allowed the slaves to interpret their masters’ refute his evidence on this point. Using paternalist doctrines as affirmations of their excerpts culled from the letters, diaries and humanity. The slaves had expectations of and other remnants of Southern society, Genovese responsibilities to their master, just as the is able to show that slaveholders took the slaveholders had expectations of and duties to tenets of paternalism to heart. They the slaves.7 However, there is a difference repeatedly referred to slavery as “a duty and a between an expectation which stems from an burden”, viewing themselves as the guardians understanding of obligation and an of an uncivilized and inept people.4 In one expectation which is derived from hope or memorable line, Genovese uses a quote habit of experience. A true relationship of recorded by William Howard Russell during reciprocity, no matter how limited in scope, his travels through the South. Russell quotes rests on the former. The world of the slave- one plantation mistress as saying: “It is the holding South had no such reciprocity for its slaves who own me. Morning, noon and night, slaves. There were norms and habits which I’m obliged to look after them, to doctor them, slaves could come to view with some feeling of and attend to them in every way.”5 stability. Yet at all times, power ultimately Genovese also pays special attention rested with the slaveholder, and the few to the slaveholders’ sense of betrayal during inhibitions which were placed on the master’s the Civil War as slaves deserted the authority came from the influence of white plantations and their owners, seeking freedom public opinion and law.8 Nowhere is this in the wake of the Union army. He documents vulnerability more apparent than in the case the aggrieved shock and bitter disillusionment of slave women, who were the subjects of that characterized many slaveholders’ sexual exploitation and confined to reactions as proof of the way they had caricatures of the Mammy, the Jezebel, and completely capitulated to and wholeheartedly the genderless field hand.9 Their experiences believed in their paternalist relationship with through the different stages of their lives do not figure as prominently in Genovese’s work

2 T.J. Jackson Lears, “The Concept of Cultural Hegemony: Problems and Possibilities,” The American 6 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 91-111. Historical Review 90 (1985): 567-93. 7 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 123-33. 3 Eugene Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll (New York: 8 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 25-48. Random House, Inc., 1972), 5. 9 Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation 4 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 75-86. Household (Chapel Hill: The University of North 5 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 79. Carolina Press, 1988), 291-92.

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as the records of slaveholders, in part because amplified her fear. Her belief that she has a they left so little evidence behind. However, right to resist is derived not from her based on some of the accounts available, it participation in a paternalistic relationship, appears that slave women existed outside of but from her faith, the example of her the self-righteous paternalist conceptions grandmother’s iron-clad sense of morality and employed by the slaveholders. They lived in piety, and an innate unwillingness to fear of family separations, sexual abuse, and subjugate herself.13 The development of the “in the shadow of the master.”10 motivations to protect a right placed in The exposure to sexual exploitation jeopardy does not rely on the existence of a and the defenseless position in which slave paternalist system in which the slave is women were placed is one of the primary granted space in which to formulate rights examples of how the experience of the because of the “duty” of the patriarchal, enslaved women fell outside the borders obligated master. This argument can be supposedly established by paternalism. The expanded to a larger number of enslaved violation of these rules was committed by the women, because further reading shows that very people who were most crucial in Jacobs’ experience and her resistance to it was articulating them, the white slave masters. not a unique story among female slaves. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese’s research, focused The force of religion and a sense of exclusively on black and white women of the morality features strongly in more than one South, supports the notion that slave women slave narrative from the perspective of slave were well aware of their predicament. women. It was religious teaching and the Describing slave women she writes, “They internalization of religious beliefs that knew that he [the master] frequently informed the way Bethany Veney, an enslaved exercised his power severely and might even woman in Virginia, lived her life. Born a slave, make sexual demands that mocked the Veney had an early experience with religion prevalent norms of gender relations to which that left her with an unwavering commitment he claimed to subscribe.”11 to the truth and the practices that religion Readings of primary sources handed holds sacred. When Jerry, a slave who had down to the present by slave women support known Veney all her life, wanted to marry her Fox-Genovese’s claim. Harriet Jacobs details and obtained the permission of both their the struggle into which she was thrust as a masters, it was Veney who insisted that they fifteen year old girl attempting to avoid the wait to marry until an official minister could propositions of her master, Dr. Fisk.12 Besides be present at the ceremony. Describing the the obvious horror of being forced to submit vows she took, her concern to avoid breaking to a man because of fear and defeat, sexual any of them is obvious as she writes: “I did not exploitation as an imminent threat and an want him to make us promise that we would experienced reality contributed to a number of always be true to each other, forsaking all other struggles for enslaved women. When others, as white people do in their marriage Jacobs describes her will to resist Dr. Fisk, she service, because I knew at any time our articulates it as a fundamental desire to masters could compel us to break such a protect herself, but also in the light of her promise.”14 While not all slave women would strong religious views which lead her to abhor have shared Veney’s religious convictions, she adultery and sin. The tenants of Christianity was surely not alone, and she absolutely does forced her into a moral conflict from which not fit into Genovese’s claim that slaves “held she drew strength to resist, but which also the theory that good Christians did not sin by sleeping together out of wedlock, for they

10 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 190. 11 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 192. 13 Jacobs, Incidents, 45-8. 12 Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl 14 Bethany Veney, The Narrative of Bethany Veney: A (Boston: 1861), 44. Slave Woman (Boston: Press of Geo. H. Ellis, 1889):18.

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were pure and therefore could not defile each compromised and forced into sin. Specifically other.”15 Again, Genovese makes a detailed by the editor of Piquet’s story, the generalization that the narratives written by purpose of the list is clearly to spark a feeling slave women explicitly contradict. Harriet of outrage in the reader, but it also Jacobs clearly did not possess this theory he underscores the way that sexual exploitation assigns to slaves when she tells Dr. Fisk that loomed so large in the experience of many she is pregnant by another man, a man whom slave women. Genovese treats this she considers to be good and honorable. She commonality very strangely in Roll, Jordan, says to Dr. Fisk in no uncertain terms that she Roll. While he acknowledges the role white has “‘sinned against God and against masters played in degrading and exploiting myself…but not against you.’”16 slave women, he chooses to ruminate quite The commonality of sexual extensively on the tendency of these exploitation and the resultant degradation is relationships between slave and master to stressed by the editor and interviewer of a develop into ones of genuine care, and how slave woman named Louisa Piquet in a book difficult such forbidden love must be. entitled The Octoroon. Piquet tells her life Regarding relationships between blacks and story, one portion of which is eerily similar to whites (almost all of which were between what Harriet Jacobs endured. As a preteen white men and black women18) Genovese girl, she employed every excuse and defense writes: she could think of to avoid being trapped by Mr. Cook, a friend of her master’s. Only the The tragedy of miscegenation lay, not in the intervention of Mrs. Bachelor, the Scottish collapse into lust and sexual exploitation, but in the housekeeper who owned the house in which terrible pressure to deny the delight, affection and Mr. Cook was boarding, protected Piquet. love that so often grew from tawdry beginnings. Whites as well as blacks found themselves tortured However, like Jacobs, Piquet eventually as well as degraded, but not always for the reasons became an unofficial concubine for another they thought.19 master, and bore children by him. The theme of morality, found in both Jacob’s and Veney’s This odd statement seems to shift the focus stories, also appears in similar form as an from the exploitation which slave women influence on Piquet. She states that upon endured to a highly debatable claim about the being sold to Mr. Williams, who made it nature of the personal relationships that perfectly clear what his intentions toward her individual masters had with individual slaves. were, she thought “Now I shall be committin’ Yet, Genovese does not shy away from stating adultery, and there’s no chance for me, and I’ll plainly what can only be termed his belief, have to die and be lost. Then I had trouble writing: “Many white men who began by 17 with him and my soul the whole time.” taking a slave girl in an act of sexual Piquet reaffirms much of what Harriet Jacobs exploitation ended by loving her and the brings to the fore in the slave woman’s children she bore.”20 This assertion borders experience. on absurdity and toes a fine line of potentially In a section entitled “Conclusion and inviting too much sympathy with men who Moral of the Whole Story” at the very end of abused their power. While possible, (if not Lousia Piquet’s book, there appears a list of probable) the accuracy of Genovese’s the slave women in her life, including Piquet argument is almost impossible to test. And it and Piquet’s mother, who bore children to is difficult to reconcile with Harriet Jacob’s, or their white masters and were thus morally Louisa Picoult’s, or Bethany Veney’s

15 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 472. 16 Jacobs, Incidents, 91. 18 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 418. 17 Lousia Piquet, The Octoroon (New York: The Author, 19 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 419. 1861): 22. 20 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 415.

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articulation of the dangers that surrounded This did not mean that slave women working them in a system that left them almost the fields had no sense of their own completely defenseless. femininity. It meant that slave women One of the great contradictions of the established themselves as women within their slave woman’s experience is that while she own communities. The Southern conception existed in a system that left great room for of the woman relied on a code of honor and sexual exploitation and was thus essentially protection that black men could not provide to aware of her weak position as a woman, slavery also stripped enslaved women of the slave women. Even so, women defined characteristics traditionally associated with themselves within the slave community, and their gender. The constraints on them were they were recognized as wives, mothers, different but no less severe than those of white sisters, daughters, and women.23 They Southern women, but they had none of the achieved this without participating in a protections and privileges offered to the white system of paternalism which left no room for ladies of the South. In her famous address them and on which they could not rely. “Ain’t I a Woman”, abolitionist and former slave Sojourner Truth places the Southern While slave women sometimes fell paradox regarding slave women in clear into the category of the mechanized field hand terms. She observes: without true gender roles, whites created alternative caricatures of female slaves that That man over there says that women need to be served specific purposes for slaveholders. helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever However, this grew out of their need to need helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or to justify their actions and waylay some of gives me any best place. And ain’t I a woman? Look their own fears, not out of a necessary at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and recognition of humanity undergirding a planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman?21 relationship of reciprocity. The first was the idea of the Jezebel slave, which was a symbol The womanhood of female slaves was of sexuality rather than any intrinsic not protected by any justification for slavery, womanliness. Jezebel represented a type of including paternalism. No element of the woman “free from social constraints”, as Fox- reciprocal relationship awarded the female Genovese describes her. The social constraints slaves a distinct identity as black women, and in question are those that surround white so in a way the affirmation of their humanity, Southern ladies, making them inaccessible of which Genovese speaks so highly, is and protected. The Jezebel construction, with superficial and at best only partially realized. its overemphasized sexuality and permissive Sojourner Truth’s experience is not an nature, provided a subtle justification for the irregularity within slavery, as Elizabeth Fox- frequent exploitation of black women by white Genovese’s research supports. She writes that men and a way of easing guilty consciences. “the only concession to orderly gender roles The implication was that the nature of black for slave women lay in their primarily being women was fundamentally different from that assigned to work with other women rather of other women, and so all the impropriety than men, and even that norm was frequently and injustice of exploiting them was breached.”22 The female field hand was negated.24 expected to perform all the same tasks as her The other character, romanticized and male counterpart, and often did so while long-lasting, was that of the slave Mammy. demonstrating considerable skill and ability. The Mammy was the beloved nurse of the young white children of slaveholders. She had more womanly characteristics than the 21 Sojourner Truth, “Ain’t I a Woman?” (Women’s Rights Convention, Akron, Ohio, delivered 1851): http://www.nps.gov/wori/historyculture/sojourner- 23 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 290- truth.htm accessed on 4/28/2012. 5. 22 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 192. 24 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 292.

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Jezebel caricature, for she was maternal and the groundwork for a convincing argument loving. Her loyalty to her charges was a about slave women and their participation in defining characteristic of the Mammy, and she paternalism. was rewarded with special treatment, protection and deference rarely afforded to a There is much evidentiary support for slave.25 Genovese devotes time to the concept of paternalism as Eugene deconstructing the significance of the Genovese introduced it in Roll, Jordan, Roll. Mammy. She and her relationship with her However, the majority of it comes from the masters is a perfect example of his concept of perspective of the slaveholders. While paternalism. Genovese writes that “to Genovese is able to create a persuasive and understand her is to move toward believable argument for the way paternalism understanding the tragedy of plantation effected slaves, at times he appears inattentive paternalism.”26 The slaveholders placed a to the experience of slave women and the significant responsibility on the Mammy, and ways in which their unique problems and she in turn recognized the opportunity to experiences set them apart from both white secure for herself affirmation of her worth, woman and male slaves. Genovese’s status and limited authority in the eyes of the paternalistic theory must be tested against the slaveholders. Genovese asserts that “the testimonies, narratives and records of slave relationship between the Mammies and their women before the broad assertion of white folks exhibited that reciprocity so paternalism as the overarching relationship characteristic of paternalism.”27 He is using between all slaves and slaveholders can be the relationship between slaveholders and a truly considered. fictional caricature created by slaveholders to attempt to demonstrate the concrete reality of paternalism. Furthermore, he is again generalizing about the realities of slavery for women in a way that does not reflect their experiences in order to fit them into his model of paternalism. In the midst of his fond description of the Mammies, Genovese adds the important note that “The Mammies, strictly speaking, inhabited only the large plantation households.”28 In the very beginning of Roll, Jordan, Roll, Genovese states that “only one-quarter of southern slaves lived on big plantations.”29 So, by ignoring three quarters of the slave population, then by shrinking that number down to only the slave women, and then by shrinking that number down to the percentage of women who actually would have been Mammies, we arrive at a miniscule sliver of the slave population to whom the Mammy legend might apply. Such a process hardly lays

25 Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 292. 26 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 353. 27 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 357. 28 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 358. 29 Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 7.

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Landowners and Race distribution of wealth within the population that created the squatter communities. While Relations in Colonial North the link between Maroons, free-Africans, and America. squatters may seem transparent the roles they played in each other’s lives, as well as the lives Michelle Herrera, Class of of the white elite and Amerindian population 2013 influenced the development of the cultures they interacted with. Contact between the three groups was inevitable and the mixture of Landownership in Colonial North the three proved to be a burden and a blessing America dominated society. The role of the for both sides of the spectrum. The questions planter was essentially the core of the North posed by the role they had on each other still American township. The settlers of the remains their rightful claim to land, but also Eastern coast saw the strip of North America looks deeper into the structure of the North as the promise land. For many, landowners American colonies and where the problem of during this period came across as part of land begins. white upper-class society who were given their The 1600s saw a large group of men, land or took it from others. The problem with women, and children migrating from different this idea is that it does not encompass the full lands to the promise that was North America. spectrum of landowners during this period. It It was on these lands that they would soon was in the region we know as the South today find a wealth of crops giving them the ability that a new wave of Colonial planters emerged. to create a trans-Atlantic economy based on They differed from their European staple crops only able to grow in the wet, dewy counterpart immensely and brought forth a climate of North America. These settlements new style of cultivation unlike any seen saw a transplant of the society and culture before. These men and women came from a that made up their former homes. Largely multitude of lands and cultures enabling them seen in British colonies, many of the rigid to meld together their knowledge of rules of the Old World were brought over to cultivation and create a new planter. The keep order within the settlements. Keeping free-African, Maroon, and squatter made up the fear of becoming “native” out of people’s this group of planters who struggled for their minds was their basic goal. Laws and rights to land in the developing British structures created a division of the population Colonies. Their skill set gave them the upper into white, black, and Amerindian soon hand and would have made their claim to land creating a need for a stricter form of social obvious, the factors that played against them class and the development of a servant and also played against their ownership of ultimately slave society.1 property and their position in the New World. In America, land was plentiful, but Looking at the role of each group within the labor was scarce and a crop was needed as a Colonial American society allows for the form of livelihood. The men who invested in understanding of land and the role it played in agricultural production saw fewer restraints the everyday lives of people across the small than those living in England, this gave them strip of North America. the ability to obtain land and create a line Understanding the role of these between those who had capital and those who groups in Colonial America requires an in- did not. Three major labor systems came depth look at the origins of labor and division from this division of people: free wage labor, within the colonies themselves. Along with temporary servitude, and chattel slavery. Free this comes the need to understand the vast wage labor and temporary servitude coincided difference between Maroons and freed- 1 Africans, as well as the economic divide and Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man’s Burden (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974).

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with the establishment of the new colonies, from Africa. Like most of the non-native but it soon progressed and would bring about inhabitants of these shores, many were a rise in many men and women crossing the brought indirectly. The West Indies saw a rise Atlantic and ultimately the creation of chattel in African population long before the first slavery.2 However, the beginnings of slavery successful settlements in North America. did not differ from indentured servitude. These new inhabitants were able to grow in After a contracted period many servants number on islands such as Barbados. It was received land and equipment allowing them to very rare for an African slave ship to come settle and take part in the economy. directly to British North America from Africa.4 With the failed attempt of enslaving Generally, the first stop they made was in fact Amerindians and the labor shortage forced the West Indies. Cargo during this time was labor seemed like a necessity for many settlers often sold at a higher profit in the Caribbean of British America. Chattel slavery came to and thus supply to the north seemed British North America with the onset of unnecessary. What makes it so apparent that indentured servitude. Slavery had been these men and women brought to British prevalent in the West Indies, where a staple North America had been exposed to crop gave planters a reason to enslave rather Europeans and the New World prior to their than keep temporary servants. As far as arrival is the fact that they could speak North America went, slavery seemed English and had already been exposed to New unnecessary. By the 1630s there had yet to be World diseases. This factor, along with their a stable cash crop produced in the North and knowledge of cultivation and understanding the southern region seemed too unimportant of the land, made them crucial to the dynamic to build a this kind of population.3 New of the European colony. It is safe to say that England during this period strayed away from race relation originated from the early the concept of slavery. Although they did view dealings of Europeans, Africans, and Africans as “strangers” their characteristics as eventually West Indians. Puritans, however kept them from enslaving Race relations in the seventeenth- Africans that came to their shores. The case of century have often come under fire, mostly for the Southern colonies posed a different stance the fact that there is little to no on slavery. The shortage of labor and the documentation of Africans arrival in any eventual development of a cash crop (tobacco) major colony, except for a few lines in a created a need for forced labor, as indentured journal.5 The first arrival of African migrants servitude proved a lack of available, free labor. in Virginia came around 1619 and their status While forced labor began to spread many remained under question for many years. It is African families who came to the colonies on Virginia’s Eastern Shore that the most either remained freed, earned their freedom documented free-African can be found. The through indentured servitude, or were freed role of a free-African in Virginia is often by their owners. This is where the case of questioned, while there was a high populace of free-African landowners came into play. former African servants and slaves, Virginia Understanding the origins of these was known for its dependency on African men and women will aid the understanding of slave labor. Among the first Africans in their ability to survive and thrive on the Virginia were Anthony Johnson and his first shores of North America. It is easy to assume wife, Isobel. Johnson would soon become a that every black man, woman, and child who free-African and be the first African in North stepped foot on these shores came directly

4 Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom. 2 Jordan, The White Man’s Burden. 5 T.H. Breen and Stephen Innes, “Myne Owne Ground” 3 Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery American Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore 1640- Freedom, Reissue Edition (New York: W.W. Norton & 1676, 25th Anniversary Edition (New York: Oxford Company, 2003). University Press, 2004).

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America to own a slave himself. that looked to expand the thirteen British Understanding the history of Johnson's life is colonies through the acquisition of large plots crucial to the understanding of African of land.9 Using slaves these grants enabled landholders during this period. slave-owners to obtain more property; Anthony Johnson was captured in his Johnson was one of the first Africans to obtain native Angola and sold to a slave trader for the land by owning slaves.10 In 1654 slavery was Virginia Company.6 While little is known on established in Virginia, in that same year the life of Johnson’s first wife, Isobel, his Johnson convinced a court that his servant, second wife Mary married him just before also of African descent, was his for life. This they both obtained their freedom. In this petition allowed Johnson to also set a new aspect Johnson and his second wife were precedent, with the court ruling in Johnson’s never considered slaves by their employer; favor this servant became the first state- after their contract was up they received land recognized slave in the Colony of Virginia. like many other Africans who were freed. The case of Anthony Johnson helps With slavery expanding in the Southern unearth the rights of former slave and states, including Virginia, it is hard to servants to land. Limiting as it may be, his understand how a man like Anthony Johnson role in Virginian society shows that many could come into Virginia and gain his freedom freed-African Americans were entitled to the within just a few months. When Johnson same common law to own and alienate came to Virginia he went by the Iberian rooted property. His case also shows that a former name, Antonio, this name brought about the servant or slave of African descent could presumption that he had been previously inherit land, from their employer or owner, baptized. This realization would fall under through deeds.11 Even in the face of Virginia law which stated, Christians could uncertainty the Johnsons found the same not permanently enslave other Christians; relief any white man or woman would during however, Indians, Africans, and other non- this period.12 To say the least, Johnson’s role Christians could only enslave people of their in government may have been, to a lesser own nation.7 The fact that the Johnson were extent, lacking, but his place in the prosperous enough to have the entire community was not. population of Virginia ignore the ethnicity is a The drawback for Johnson and many conundrum that many are still baffled by. The other free-Africans was the role their land role of Johnson, like many other freed played after their death. Following Johnson’s Africans is hard to decipher. It is known that death in 1670, a court ruling set a precedent Johnson raised livestock in a time when it was that would be a true determining factor in the as important as growing tobacco.8 role of the freed black men in society.13 The What set Johnson apart from many Johnson land was seized by a white planter others is that he was an African who owned after Anthony’s death due to the Virginia slaves. Johnson also led a petition for headrights, legal land grants based on wealth 9 Breen and Innes, “Myne Owne Ground.” 10 Charles Johnson, Patricia Smith and the WGBH 6 Harry Bradshaw Matthews, The Family Legacy of Research Team, Africans in America: America's Journey Anthony Johnson: From Jamestown, VA to Somerset, Through Slavery (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1999). MD, 1619-1995 : A Multi-Racial Saga in Black, Red 11 John Henderson Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, and White : The Negro Johnson and Indian Puckham 1619-1865 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Lineage : A Case Study in Historiographic Genealogy Press, 1913). (Oneonta: Sondhi Limthongkul Center for 12 Anthony Johnson and his wife received tax relief Interdependence, Hartwick College, 2007). following an incident when a fire took most of their 7 William Walter Hening, The Statutes at Large: Being a home and crops. In this relief they were given reprieve Collection of all the Laws of Virginia, from the first from paying taxes until the government deemed it session of the legislature, in the year 1619, 13 vols. suitable for them to pay. Johnson’s wife would never (New York: R & W & G Bartow, 1823; reprint, 1969). pay taxes for the duration of her life. 8 Breen and Innes, “Myne Owne Ground.” 13 Johnson, Smith and WGBH, Africans in America.

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Court ruling that stated, “as a black man, land.16 The free blacks of the Eastern Shore Anthony Johnson was not a citizen of the did not flourish by separating themselves colony.”14 This ruling only allowed Johnson’s from the rest of their community. Their children to keep enough land to sustain them success in dealing with white planters as independent farmers. This did not explains their prosperity in their own lives. negatively influence the structure or personal Virginia and the role freed-Africans wealth of the family, just their status as played in it is understandable considering it planters. What little is known about the was one of the first to allow slavery within its descendants of Anthony Johnson has been borders. Nevertheless, the case of Virginia lost in records or simply does not exist. What does not open up the questions of Africans in remains known about his life sums up the role other regions. Moving south below the most Africans played in a colonial setting, Eastern Shore, we find that race relations and landholder and equal, until the end. land holding differed between colonies. The Looking at Johnson in Virginia Carolinas proved a different stance on race enables us to understand race relations, relations and land holding in this period. status, and process during the seventeenth- Before the old settler regime was overthrown century. The status of black men and women in Northern Carolina black and white men in Virginia has often been up for debate, and women enjoyed the same liberties and causing questions among historians as to the even laws against mixing of race, including true freedom of these people, if they even interracial marriage had not been put into enjoyed any. In their anthology of race place yet. Little is known about the free-black relation and freedom on Virginia’s Eastern landowners that inhabited the areas Shore authors T.H. Breen and Stephen Innes surrounding the Roanoke river in Carolina argue against the fact that every person of during this period, except for the fact that they African descent entering Virginia was treated were treated a large degree better than their with negative connotations.15 Discrimination, slave peers. What is known about claims to however present it may have been during this land in the South deals heavily with Virginia, period, did in fact change throughout the but this does not leave the researcher without course of Virginia history. One must not a case. The area that made up North Carolina assume, in this case, that discrimination was was full of a different type of black landowner not present, but that free-black men and who looked at their freedom as a priceless women were treated better than their commodity that they had to protect. These enslaved counterparts. They enjoyed many of men and women traveled far to escape the the freedoms white men and women did when brace of slavery and inhabited an area known making choices on their own lives, as well as, today as the Great Dismal Swamp.17 physical and social environments. It is easy to Maroon, was the name given to assume that there was a line separating the runaway slaves in British colonies. These men white and black communities, but much like and women were slaves who inhabited England during this period, it was not unlikely isolated or hidden settlements within the for men and women of different color to mix southern colonies.18 In the Upper South a together in a social, town setting. In the case large portion of the Maroons inhabited the of Anthony Johnson, he was a freed man who Great Dismal Swamp, a stretch of land that enjoyed the same liberties as his white peers. He participated in court trials and was given 16 Breen and Innes, “Myne Owne Ground” Chapters 1- reprieve when he faced hard times on his own 2. 17 Hugo Prosper Leaming, Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (New York and London: 14 James Oliver Horton and Lois E. Horton, Hard Road Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995). to Freedom: The Story of African America (Rutgers 18 R. C. Dallas, The History of the Maroons, from Their University Press, 2002). Origin to the Establishment of Their Chief Tribe at 15 See Breen and Ines “Myne Owne Ground.” Sierra Leone. 2 vols. (London: Longman. 1803).

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covered southern Virginia and most of the protecting them from the more treacherous, Northern Carolinas (now just North Carolina). damp areas. As cosmopolitan as it could be, In the beginning of the Carolina colony slave the swamp became its own working labor was used to drain and log the swamp community where little European influence lands, but as conditions worsened for those was found. Like many other runaway slave under chattel slavery. Many ran away with communities the swamp was largely ignored the hopes of a new life. As unlikely as it from the outside world, giving the people seemed for anyone person to survive in the there an odd, yet legal claim to land. Luckily, swamp lands of Carolina during this period, the Great Dismal Swamp Maroons are not the many runaways made their home in the only example of this available to those treacherous environment surviving on what studying property rights in Colonial North little they had available to them. The main America. reason to travel to this land was the fact that Around the same time runaways conditions were so hard in the surrounding began inhabiting the swamp in North areas, no one would think to look for a Carolina, runaways and slaves in South runaway slave in a dismal swamp land. Carolina began inhabiting the Sea Islands just The Maroon enjoyed a quiet life in the off the Carolinian coast. These black men and swamp lands, they had available to them the women, many still under possession of owners purest drinking water and fresh vegetation. were West African, mainly Sierra Leonean, by This made up for the fact that at some points birth and found themselves in a climate much it was dangerous to live in this area. Avoiding like their native lands on the coast of South the diseases spread by Anglo-Saxon American Carolina. Through disease and bad weather, cities also was a perk for many of the people they were virtually abandoned by their owners living in this area. In her book Dred: a Tale of on a chain of tidal and barrier islands. the Great Dismal Swamp Harriet Beecher Creating their own culture, much like the Stowe chronicles the life of a Maroon and the swamp Maroons, the inhabitants of the Sea swamp.19 Her look opened up the idea to Islands were cut off from a more urban setting many that the swamp was not in fact a taboo and able to flourish in a region much like their place, as it had been to those living in the own homes in West Africa.20 south. She portrayed it as a place of refuge There in the swamp and on the coast and for many it was. This portrait of runaway of now South Carolina one of the first slave life in the Carolinas gives an idea of the instances of adverse possession comes into relation between runaway slaves, slaves still play. Adverse possession, a form of squatter’s under an owner, and the white plantation rights, in which a person or group of people owner. Not touching on the role of the land in can inherit land without compensating the her book is the only downside to this novel. owners solely on the basis that they held the What Beecher Stowe left out is supplemented property for a certain amount of time without by the works of many on the life of the disagreement or removal from the owner.21 Maroon in the swamp. The deeper swamp is Each of these regions was laid claim to in very where a true community of fugitives arose and where the topic of land is truly poignant. 20 The men and women who inhabited these islands are Descriptions of villages created by known today as Gullah. In a study done in the Maroons in the deeper swamp depict a life like beginning of the 1920s and on through the 1970s many of these people showed characteristics of their West many living in more urban areas. They had African roots. Through their language and culture many homes, with beds, hearths, tables, and chairs. historians and linguists have found that there are not There were roads leading to and from many many differences between the Gullah and the people making up most of West Africa. parts of the village with bridges and canals 21 See the Supreme Court Case Georgia v. South Carolina, 497 U.S. 376 (1990) for an in-depth look at state’s rights and the role of Adverse Possession in 19R. C, Dallas. The History of the Maroons. government and land.

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different ways, but the inhabitants had a right The great differences between these to these lands through three very different two societies were not how they obtained forms of government. The government of land, but how they viewed the owners of the Virginia and North Carolina had been at odds land they obtained. For those living on the when it came to the borders of their lands. coast of South Carolina the owners of their Running straight through the swamp, neither land had little choice, but to let them live on it. party could navigate the region to determine The white planters could not sustain where the boundaries lay. The deep swamp themselves on the tropical islands. With the was an area neither side wanted to claim as it population growing at such a rapid rate it was un-navigable for most and uninhabitable seemed almost too logical to let these men and for others. Thus, the Maroons living in this women live on the islands and own them by area were rarely discovered and if they were possession. Also, with the mixture of still they were largely ignored. With no clear cut owned slaves versus runaway slaves there was border and the governments on both sides a balance of emotion toward owners, attempting to understand where the especially since many of the slaves still under boundaries were, these men and women ownership were allowed to sell their own enjoyed the gray area that was the swamp. goods in the markets of Charleston, then Eventually their claim to land would become Charlestown. On the other side of the obvious, they had no one fighting for the spectrum the Maroons within the Great stretch of land they called their own and Dismal Swamp had dealings with fugitives eventually the borders would be determined and Amerindians on a daily basis, both of without a thought to either Virginia or North whom bore animosity toward white planters. Carolina. Squatters in these swamps were the source of On the other hand, the inhabitants of many guerrilla wars that plagued Virginia the Sea Islands were there by force. Brought during the period, seen as rustlers they seized over by slave ships in the early founding of the an opportunity to gain food and land through colony, they were known for their skills in fear and violence. cotton and indigo, but what was not known Squatters’ rights in seventeenth- about them was their ability to thrive in a century North America caused a riot among tropical climate like that of the coast of South many when dealing with true rights and true Carolina. These Africans were forced to live owners. For the free black population on these lands by their owners, but as tropical squatting was unnecessary as most had the diseases swept through the communities ability to purchase their own land or were many of the land owners moved to the main given tracts by their previous owners as land leaving a majority of their slaves behind. repayment for their services. In the case of Here a culture was established and a claim to the Maroons, especially those in the Carolinas land was made. Not as natural of a claim as who were living on the run or in areas unable the swamp Maroons, slaves slowly added to to be inhabited by their white counterparts, their population with the addition of Maroons squatting became a way of life. The case of from surrounding areas. As the market for the Great Dismal Swamp is just one of the cotton and indigo grew so did the population major examples of squatting on this eventually engulfing surrounding areas. inhabitable land. While focusing on black Unlike the swamp Maroons, the inhabitants of squatters may be limiting, it should be known the Sea Islands grew to such a large number that their presence is as important as the that the owners of the land did not have the white and Amerindian squatters for the way ability to move them anywhere else. A fact they influenced the former landowners which kept them virtually separated for most culturally and socially. When dealing with the of their lives and which gave them a way to Amerindians on the borderlands, the British own the land by adverse possession. found their biggest problem when it came to

18 Historia et Memoria

the influx of squatters. During this period the play when dealing with the topic of population of runaway and free black commercial land and a whole new way of squatters rose drastically inevitably pushing settling land. Overtime this type of squatting the Amerindian population off their lands. would lead to a new practice of selling and Conflict soon rose between the native granting land in large blocks; as well as, populations and the colonists creating a trans- influences in their social and economic racial tension. With the British slowly pulling structures. away from good relations with the native Understanding the position of populations many had to look to Florida and Africans in seventeenth-century North the West as a safe haven from the white and America allows for a better comprehension of Native American wars. While putting the the position of the black man and woman in problems with the Amerindian population on later years. The case of Anthony Johnson, the the black squatter populations is unfair it was Maroons in the Great Dismal Swamp, and the their foreignness that truly startled the native runaway slave population in Florida all map populations. It was the position of the out the route many would take to obtain squatters that opened Florida’s door and gave freedom and their own land. The struggle for way too many of the cultures thriving in the rights to land would sometimes come at a high South today. cost, but it was in the end that many found a According to his research on rural way to combine their old world with the new. settlement in Colonial America, Glenn T. This new culture allowed for a boom in Trewartha found that black squatters enabled agriculture and textiles, leading to a larger the rural population to thrive separate from success in the seventeenth-century colonies. the urban regions. Their presence almost The end of the seventeenth-century seemed to be welcomed when it came time to saw a new division in landownership. A deal with the harsh reality that was owning division that would soon erase the free black too much land. They helped secure villages planter or Maroon from the annals of colonial for the white “planters” who had little desire history. It was this line that came to separate to leave the comfort of their homes: the classes and eventually the races, ultimately promoting a different type of Indentured servants and slaves who had completed their ownership, human life. From the men and period of service were sometimes granted the privilege of building a home on the undivided land and of cultivating women who once gave their land to their freed a small plot there. Proprietors whose distant fields made slaves came a group that never fully trusted their husbandry difficult were inclined to establish their black counterparts. A group that looked residences closer to the principal farming area… Not to keep the land to themselves, even pushing uncommonly the pioneer isolated farmstead attracted other settlers, so that a new community developed. There the native populations to the West. outlying centers that developed by assertion were rarely Ownership of land seemed to be the as compact as the original village settled by groups. On driving force behind seventeenth-century the other hand, they were somewhat different from North America, but it was race relations that complete dispersion.22 defined the period. The difference between

This meant that, although they were those who worked the land and those who breaking the law in the eyes of the white owned it determined status in society and government, the black presence of squatters government. In the case of Anthony Johnson, in farther rural areas was beneficial and often his status as a planter gave him the ability to overlooked. In the end, what benefited the forge his own way in British Virginia. The colony as a whole was often overlooked by the Maroons were able to ban together under a governing bodies. This especially came into similar condition to form their own worlds apart from the Anglo-Saxon counterparts. In 22 Glenn T. Trewartha, “Types of Rural Settlement in Virginia and North Carolina the Great Dismal Colonial America,” Geographical Review 36 (1946): Swamp found a group of people detached 568-596.

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from the modern communities that downfall. Although landownership seemed to surrounded them and small villages similar to be the only thing on people’s minds during the their own in Africa began to spread seventeenth-century, race relations soon throughout the dreadful, damp region. In become a topic for discussion among many South Carolina the men and women on the groups. The attitudes toward many men, Sea Islands created a culture that would women, and children would change based on astonish and baffle historians for years to their skin and not their merit toward the come. Finally, it was the men and women community and ultimately the colony. who escaped to Florida looking for sanctuary Landownership may have dominated the and created a new culture with the colonial setting in seventeenth-century North Amerindians they encountered on their way to America, but it is the social and economic a new promise land. These men and women repercussions that will continue baffle many became known as Black Seminoles.23 historians and create studies in the world of minority, Amerindian, and African American land rights prior to the nineteenth-century and during slavery.

Figure 1: Nineteenth-century engraving depicting a Black Seminole warrior.

These groups influenced the way land was divided, used, and passed down. A new group of black landowners also influenced a different form of race relations that were less strict and more open. Prior to chattel slavery many men and women of multiple origins banded together to create what is today known as the original Thirteen Colonies. In the end, we find that both white and black settlers largely ignored the rules of land set forth by their government abroad and looked to do anything that would benefit the greater good of the region. It was this tenacity and disregard for rigid structures that the people of the colonies were able to prosper for so long and what would also prove to be their

23 Black Seminoles is a term used for the descendants of the free black and Maroons who escaped from coastal British America to Spanish Florida. Forming a community with the Seminoles in the area the two groups created a multi-ethnic and bi-racial alliance.

20 Historia et Memoria

destination for affluent African-Americans from Brooklyn and lower Manhattan, skilled Systemic Bias in Harlem southern migrants, and Caribbean Politics, 1910-1930. immigrants. For blacks, the northern Manhattan pocket represented an escape from southern bigotry, and, most importantly, a Dylan Kitts, Class of 2013 place embodying hope for future black prosperity. Harlem’s economy remained Stretching from West 110th Street suppressed by rich, white New Yorkers and adjacent Central Park to West 165th Street European immigrants. In the 1920’s, over 90 adjacent the Bronx, Harlem ultimately carved percent of the night clubs and speakeasies in its own distinctive area in New York City and the neighborhood were white owned and held enjoyed a booming culture not found exclusionary policies mirroring the Jim Crow anywhere else in the world.1 The Harlem laws of the South. 5 In 1930 over 80 percent of Renaissance, a cultural movement spanning retail businesses were owned by whites who the 1920s and 1930s, eventually made Harlem generally refused to hire black residents.6 a destination for theatergoing whites and Furthermore, the political structure emulated enabled Jewish and African-American-owned what Raymond Kennedy labeled the businesses to thrive. Harlem had the largest “universal traits of colonialism”7: “the color number of most black residents than any line, penetrated only by passing; political other American neighborhood by 1930, when control by the dominant race; economic its black population surpassed 185,0002. The dependency upon White society; a low stage of black community--ranging from the elitists development of social services; and the lack of performing at the Cotton Club to the poor social contact between natives and the ruling persons partying at rent parties--began to dub caste.”8 Albeit much more implicit, the Harlem the “Negro Capital of the world,” relationship between the white party bosses “Black Mecca” and even the “Promise Land.”3 and the black residents in Harlem paralleled Yet, despite the perception of Harlem the relationship between the colonizer and the as the center of American black achievement colonized. and culture, the political and economic The tentacles of Harlem’s suppression structures underpinning the neighborhood tell reach back to the corrupt structure of the another story. An article from the then- City’s – both the Republican Party and predominantly white journalists of the New Tammany Hall’s Democratic Party – political York Times in 1917 captures more precisely machines. Both utilized divide et impera the neighborhood’s politics by referring to (divide and rule) tactics by manufacturing Harlem as the “Wealthiest Negro Colony in divided black districts, awarding African- the World.”4 Americans insignificant futile governmental At the dawn of the twentieth century, posts and nominations for unwinnable the neighborhood of Harlem became elections, and ultimately either overtly disregarding the concerns of Harlem residents, or exploiting their situation for 1 I will use the term “blacks” to denote people who are African-American and/or Caribbean. The term “African- political gain. In other words, Harlem American” does not help differentiate the large influx of residents – namely, African-Americans and Caribbean immigrants. Caribbean immigrants –only inserted 2 Welfare Council Research Bureau, Population in themselves into the electoral political sphere Health Areas, New York City, 1930 (New York: Welfare through a source manufactured by white men Council of New York City Research Bureau, 1931): 3-4. outside of Harlem. 3Claude McKay, Harlem: Negro Metropolis (New York, E.P. Dutton, 1940): 15; Alain Locke, Survey Graphic: Harlem Mecca of the New Negro (New York: Black Classic Press, 1925): 635; Martha E. Cook, “The Search 5 Beverly Smith, “Harlem – The Negro City,” New York for Self in Wallace Thurman’s The Blacker the Berry: Herald Tribune, February 10, 1930, 1 Color, Class, and Community,” The Harlem 6 Smith, “Harlem,” 1. Renaissance Revisited: Politics, Arts, and Letters 7 Raymond Kennedy, “Colonial Crisis and the Future,” (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2010). The Science of Man in the World Crisis (New York: 4 “The Wealthiest Negro Colony in the World”, New Columbia University Press, 1945), 308-11 York Times, September 2, 1917, 58. 8Kennedy, “Colonial Crisis,” 308-1.1

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In his article “Powerlessness in an social comfort with their white counterparts, Urban Ghetto: The Case of Political Biases & however, Brooklyn blacks also remained very Differential Access in New York City”, Harold much in the periphery politically. Savitch reveals the disparity of political power At this time, Brooklyn blacks of Brownsville, Brooklyn – a poor African- supported whichever party appointed other American community – and its white, middle- blacks to government posts. In 1898, class counterparts in the 1960s. Savitch Tammany Hall’s Democratic Party appointed argues that the main difference is the African-American James Carr to the position structural political biases surrounding the of Assistant District Attorney in exchange for neighborhoods, and claims Brownsville is support from the United Colored Democracy. victim to three of the main symptoms of Desperate to re-engage with blacks, the political bias: systemic biases, modes of Republican Party nominated African- operation, and ideological biases. Savitch American Fred Moore for Assemblyman of the defines systemic biases as “prerequisites 8th District. Moore, the captain of his election which are necessary for effective participation district for many years, was qualified and later in a political system or subsystem,” modes of became an editor at the black newspaper The operation as “types of organization which play Age. Yet, the 8th District was notoriously part in the process of decision-making,” and Democrat, white, and non-competitive for any ideological biases as “an interrelated set of other party. Furthermore, Republicans did not beliefs attitudes, and goals which are used to even announce Moore’s nomination until two guide the action of socioeconomic groups and weeks before the election when the Brooklyn organizations.” Using Savitch’s categories, this Eagle ran the headline “Republican Nominee paper argues that from the northern a Full Blooded Negro” on October 20, 1900.12 Manhattan migration of Brooklyn blacks in Therefore, the genuine effort put forth by the 1910 to the tail-end of the Harlem Republican Party to elect Moore is highly Renaissance in the early 1930s, Harlem also questionable: at the very least, one would have fell victim to an identical city political expected the nomination to be announced structure embedded with Savitch’s political earlier than the second-to-last week in bias symptoms – systemic biases, modes of October. operation, and ideological bias. 9 Despite questions of effort and Any investigation of Harlem political Moore’s sound defeat, Republicans apparently structures in the early twentieth century must regained black support in Brooklyn.13 Both first evaluate the political practices already parties’ effort for the black voting bloc was undergirding the City’s political structures. half-hearted, and the relationship between the From 1898 to 1910, the three most relevant black voting bloc and parties remained microcosms to comprehend the history of unequal. Unlike in Harlem a couple of Harlem in later decades are: Brooklyn politics, decades later, the black population in 1898 United Colored Democracy’s response to the only stood at little over 1 percent in the City.14 race riot of 190010, and post-race riot politics. Therefore, despite Abolitionist-leanings by the Albeit without the national acclaim, white politicians, support from the black Brooklyn was the era’s equivalent to Harlem. voting bloc was not viewed as imperative. Having just joined the City in 1898, Brooklyn With the black population negligible emerged as the center of black bourgeois electorally, City political machines focused activity. Many Brooklyn blacks lived in private attaining support from white immigrants. Yet, homes with decent schools and churches the relationship of negligence and superiority nearby, and unlike in Harlem later, racial between white party bosses and blacks in tension did not exist among immigrant and Brooklyn would still find an echo in Harlem white populations.11 Despite their relative twenty years later:

The relationship, however, was by no 9 Harold Savitch, “Powerlessness in an Urban Ghetto: means equal. Whites basically controlled positions The Case of Political Biases & Differential Access in of power and authority in Brooklyn and Blacks New York City,” Polity 5 (1972): 22, 25, 29. 10 The United Colored Democracy was a political party meant to advocate minority rights. 12 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 69. 11 Marsha Hurst Hiller, “Race Politics in New York 13 Moore lost by 2,500 votes, which at the time, was City, 1890-1930,” (PhD diss., Columbia University, seen as a substantial margin of defeat. 1972): 20. 14 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 70.

22 Historia et Memoria

were generally excluded from those positions. The put it bluntly, blacks found themselves very fact that Black community leaders had to abandoned by the political process. appeal to White authorities for positions, while the During the decade of the 1910s, reverse was never true, demonstrates the basic however, Tammany Hall and the Republicans dominant-dominated nature of Brooklyn race could no longer ignore the black population. politics during these years, underscoring the fact that Whites had these positions to give and that Now fully concentrated in Harlem, blacks Blacks had to ask for them.15 doubled – and in some districts, tripled – their presence in the northern During the same year as Moore’s neighborhood.20 Here, blacks possessed an failed election bid, a race riot broke out in the unprecedented political leverage by Tenderloin district of Manhattan on August dominating two Assembly political districts, 15th. Despite sympathy from white New York the 19th and 21st, and black businesses were newspapers16, Tammany Hall – which beginning to churn a profit, thus providing the controlled the municipal administration – did potential resources necessary for political not investigate the incident. The United campaigns. Colored Democracy (UCD) took matters into Yet, Savitch’s first symptom of a their own hands by sending a delegation to powerless urban ghetto – systemic biases – Mayor Robert Anderson Van Wyck. Van persisted throughout the next two decades. Wyck, however, was on vacation and Acting Systemic biases, which always generate an Mayor Randolph Guggenheimer denied established group (s) and out-groups, are himself the authority of consulting the defined as “what kinds of demands are delegation.17 Mayor Van Wyck soon returned ‘legitimate’ and what kinds are not.”21 and promised an investigation of the riot by Effective navigation through the system, the Police Board – which proved to be a sham. therefore, is not based on political skill or The UCD’s ineffectiveness, and association support, or with the best intentions for the with Tammany Hall, led to City blacks city in mind; effective navigation is solely becoming disillusioned with Democrats for dependent on “whether their demands fall decades, and more interested with the within the established sphere of Republican Party.18 acceptability.”22 The out-groups, Savitch The first two decades of the new argues, eventually grow demoralized, run out century, however, only marked a transition for of money and volunteers, and can only be blacks in the City. With southern migrants successful when the dominant group weakens. beginning to enter northern cities19 and blacks The politics of Harlem aptly parallel, moving from the Lower East Side and specifically the political structure’s Brooklyn to Harlem, the black population necessitation of joining Tammany’s remained scattered and saddled with scant Democrats or the ineffective Republicans. numbers. Adding to the shaky demographics, Ultimately, this led to Tammany’s these same black residents were also in the stranglehold of the City’s Board of Aldermen, midst of racial tensions with white and lukewarm responses to local integration immigrants. Thus, political parties were afraid demands regarding Harlem Hospital and the of losing the white immigrant bloc by New York Police Department. supporting black issues such as civil rights. To Fusion (Party) Mayor John Mitchel’s reign from 1913 to 1917 personified a negligent

15 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 71 16 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 82. White newspapers such as 20 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 224. Hiller’s diagram tells us the New York Tribune and New York Times labeled the the following: On tract 212 in Harlem, the percentage of riot a “nigger hunt” and “disgrace to the police.” blacks rose from 50.5% in 1910 to 96.3% in 1920; on 17 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 82. tract 226, it rose from 36.5% to 68.8%; on tract 210, it 18 At this time period, however, blacks were shunned rose from 30.7% to 74.8%; on tract 228, it rose from from both parties. For more information about black 17.6% to 77.2%; on tract 208, it rose from 15.9% to politics from 1900-1910, see: Hiller “Race Politics,” 20- 44.0%; on tract 206, it rose from 15.3% to 31.4%; on 171. tract 222, it rose from 9.6% to 12.8%; on tract 214, it 19 Gilbert Osofsky, “Race Riot 1900: A Study of Ethnic rose from 5.5% to 93.3%; on tract 232, it rose from Violence,” Journal of Negro Education 36 (1963): 33. 1.7% to 65.1%; on tract 224, it rose from 1.2% to Osofsky writes that at least 198,679 African-Americans 12.4%; on tract 230, it rose from 0.2% to 88.5%. were moving from the South to the North from 1890- 21 Savitch, “Powerlessness,” 23. 1910. 22 Savitch, “Powerlessness,” 23.

Historia et Memoria 23

government towards blacks. 23 More Hylan. In a close election, these results proved concerned about political corruption and to be the knockout punch for Hylan’s upset government efficiency, Mitchel found the victory over Mitchel to become the new Mayor treatment of blacks “irrelevant” and “never of New York.28 The United Civic League, a considered the welfare, rights and status of political structure outside of Tammany and Blacks among the issues of city politics in Republicans, also successfully nominated two need of reform.”24 In other words, Mitchel – African-American political candidates in who personifies the dominant group in Harlem districts: E.A. Johnson in the 19th Savitch’s typology – deemed black issues as Assembly District and J.C. Thomas in the 26th unimportant.For his four years as mayor, the Alderman District. Both won their primaries only overt pro-black action by the Mitchel over white Republican candidates and administration was appointing the first black consequently forced the Republican Party in man, Dr. E. P. Roberts, to the New York City Harlem “to admit the inevitability of Black Board of Education. Yet even that nominees in heavily Black districts.”29 Despite appointment was dubious due to Roberts’ lack competing in a district that was only 34.8 of power within the department. percent black, Johnson won the election Shortly after announcing intentions to largely due to receiving 88 percent of the vote run for reelection in 1917, Mitchel met with a from black election districts. In the process frustrated black delegation. The delegation, Johnson, became the first African-American led by Moore, requested a bathhouse and an to sit in the New York state legislature.30 open playground in Harlem25, questioned why Thomas, despite only running for one black the Mayor ignored all invitations by Harlem election district, lost by a little over 300 votes organizations, and voiced their concern about to the Tammany candidate. Both results sent a the fact there was only one African-American message to Harlemites. As one local cabinet appointment. Although Mitchel clergyman said, “political opportunity has denounced segregation, the conversation knocked on the door of the Harlem Negro.”31 quickly grew sour. He began to blame Both results sent even stronger message to Harlemites about not receiving a petition for a white City political bosses: Harlem cannot playground and bathhouse, also blamed afford to be ignored. Harlemites for not putting enough African- Hylan maintained Harlem’s support Americans onto civil service lists, and by paying off “his Black supporters with more blatantly ignored their complaint about his City appointments to Blacks in his first term lack of response to invitations.26 In other of office than any of his predecessors had words, Mitchel ironically shifted the blame of made” and was actually “regularly attentive” discriminatory laws from the dominant group to Harlem.32 Despite the Mayor’s interest in (City government) to the out-group Harlem, the Board of Aldermen – wholly (Harlemites) – and thereby, falsely controlled by Tammany Hall and Al Smith – exaggerating the ability of the out-group to limited Hylan’s potential. The political system bring about this change. disabled blacks from experiencing a less Coincidentally, the election of 1917 influential Tammany despite their most was also Harlem’s first opportunity to flex its successful election ever. new political muscle. The average “Black Black Fifteenth Infantry. election district”27 only voted 25 percent for Tammany’s Board of Aldermen Mitchel, voted 17 percent for the Republican proved able to restrain the Mayor from any candidate, 15 percent for the Socialist progressive policies towards Harlem. Despite candidate, and 37 percent for Democrat John a “Negro folder,” Hylan only symbolically aided African-Americans by writing an article for a book about African-American 23 Fusion (Party) was an alliance of Republicans with opportunity, welcomed black groups in the Jewish and Protestant Reformers. The party was a branch of the Republican Party. 24 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 230. 25 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 233. 28Hiller, “Race Politics,” 237. 26 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 233. 29 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 242. 27 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 237. A “Black election 30 Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, district” is defined as any election district partially or (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1963), 171. wholly included in census tracts over 50 percent Black 31 Osofsky, Harlem, 171. according to 1920 Census. 32 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 247.

24 Historia et Memoria

City, and published anti-KKK letters.33 In his positions in party politics. As the case of first term, the Mayor did not confront any Harlem Hospital later showed, Morton “did African-American issues aside from adding not open the gate to Black influence in City more Black police, hiring four blacks to the government. He merely changed the color of medical staff at Harlem hospital, and securing the lock.”36 Hylan’s lack of tangible progress of funds and site for an armory for the Black and apparent effort after his reelection bid Fifteenth Infantry. In return, Harlem voted largely contributed to a period of overwhelmingly for his reelection in 1921. unprecedented political apathy in Harlem. Johnson, still a United Civic League Hylan’s only noteworthy action candidate, however, was not as fortunate. toward Harlem’s black population was in Despite two substantial legislative regards to Harlem Hospital. Despite his accomplishments in the Assembly, Johnson concessions in 1923, Hylan remained on the was ousted in 1918 by a white Democrat. 34 hot seat for discriminatory practices at the Unlike the previous election, the Tammany Hospital. These discriminatory practices Hall machine was not caught by surprise. included hiring more whites than blacks They placed men at the polls in white areas despite equal qualifications and providing and told voters that Johnson was Negro, and subpar services to some black patients. Two therefore, they should not vote for him.35 The years later, after numerous meetings with UCL’s brief electoral success, despite hospitals throughout the city, a black Johnson’s accolades, demonstrates the delegation—including members of the Urban systematic bias; any political gain by the UCL League, NAACP and the Citizens’ Welfare (an out-group) was contingent on Tammany’s Council – met with Hylan about the lack of focus and resources – not the UCL’s Hospital.37 As a result, the delegation and own merit. Thus, blacks – despite their Hylan agreed to create a committee to work as growing population and their quickly a liaison between the delegation, and Dr. developing robust organizations – still had to McGrath and Hylan. 38 Despite Hylan’s rely upon the dominating groups to attain and sympathy, he could not overcome the retain political power. systematic bias of each medical board in each Hylan’s second-term proved to be a city hospital. disappointment for Harlem. In his second The President of the Medical Board of term, he only appointed one African- Harlem Hospital, Dr. Neff, was a proponent American to the cabinet, Ferdinand Morton as for maintaining these practices in the hospital. Civil Service Commissioner. Morton’s As the New York Age reported earlier in 1925, appointment, however, was dictated by Boss Neff reasoned “blacks go around with chips on Charles Murphy. Morton proved to actually their shoulders,” and “they have to wait their decrease black access to political positions turn for representation at the hospital – work and within the Democratic Party due to his their way up.”39 Of course, Neff did not lay out selfishness and political aspirations. In other any timetable for when their opportunity words, the city government hired fewer blacks would arise. Hylan, perhaps realizing the and fewer blacks were involved in meaningful importance of black support for future Democrats, persisted on reforms via negotiation. 33 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 249. Mayor Hylan’s “Negro Folder” was literally a folder with issues pertaining to The negotiations, however, did not the black community. The folder was created in good insist on integration – as black physicians earnest and meant to help him key in on important issues wanted – but instead, separate medical in black neighborhoods. 34 Osofsky Harlem, 171. “Johnson…drafted and helped pass a new civil rights law for New York State in 1918. It extended the ‘equal accommodations’ privileges of 36 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 252. earlier acts to include every conceivable type of public 37 Michael Goldstein, “Black Power and the Rise of business – skating rinks, billiard parlors, bowling alleys, Bureaucratic Autonomy in New York City Politics: The ice cream parlors. … He also arranged to have a state Case of Harlem Hospital, 1917-1931,” Phylon 41 employment office opened in Harlem: ‘an additional (Atlanta, 1960): 193. Hylan met with hospital boards in public employment office…which…would best serve Bellueve and Allied Hospitals earlier in the year. the interest of the negro population.” 38 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 193. 35 Jeffrey Babcock Perry, Hubert Harrison: The Voice of 39 “Harlem Hospital Officials Discuss Recent Harlem Radicalism 1883-1918, (New York: Columbia Examination for Internships”, New York Age, January University Press, 2009): 360. 24, 1925.

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facilities.40 There was one agreement in June political potential and energy trying to reform 1925, which “stipulated that five black the local political system, they further isolated physicians would be appointed to the Harlem themselves by fragmenting into different Hospital staff in visiting positions, that an all- groups. Some tried to work wholly outside the black nursing school would be established at system by promoting Garveyism46, others only Harlem Hospital, and that blacks would be focused on pressing national issues47, while given preference in the next civil service others viewed social institutions such as examinations for interns.”41 The hospital staff churches as their main means to equality and was displeased because of the “race politics” prosperity. As Savitch suggests, systemic bias providing blacks an occupational advantage implicitly encourages further isolation and, while blacks believed they had not received therefore, a frustrating cycle for out-groups. enough.42 The Harlem community’s Savitch’s second symptom of a displeasure with the deal brokered by Hylan powerless urban ghetto – modes of operation only increased with time. By the end of – is the most overt expression of how effective Hylan’s tenure in 1925, the newly hired black the systemic bias was in City politics toward physicians and black interns were regularly Harlem. Savitch writes that these modes of segregated from white staff and only advanced operation “may be an exclusive function of the to other visiting positions. decision-makers themselves” and enact Disappointment with Hylan’s second- policies that maintain the dominant group- term, displeasure with the resolution of the outside group dynamic. These modes of Harlem Hospital controversy, and frustration operation can be expressed four ways: 1) from national politics culminated in a decade discriminatory selection of members to fill on of political apathy in Harlem. While appointed boards (sometimes explicit, but Harlemites continued to join local also sometimes with “an aura of neutralism organizations all geared to ultimately achieve and over the years becomes institutionalized, prosperity and equality, most Harlemites no 2) use of the formula divisa et impera by longer trusted the political system in the City. gerrymandering electoral districts, 3) loaded Akin to Savitch’s depictions of a demoralized voting and administrative procedures used to out-group with scarce resources, Harlemites preclude or discourage out-groups from largely disregarded political parties. Party gaining power, and 4) obstacles and petty registration in Harlem in 1920 was not harassment placed in the way of out-groups equaled again in numbers until 1932, although attempting to engage in civic or political the Harlem population was increasing activity.48 These characteristics were throughout this whole period.43 demonstrated by each party in City politics, The lack of voting inevitably did not but were especially successful in maintaining only affect possible electoral outcomes, but Harlemites’ deflated enthusiasm in the 1920’s also added to the legitimacy of soapboxers44 – by the corrupt reform efforts at Harlem who voiced the discontent and urgency Hospital, local and federal political swirling the crowds. The soapboxers, largely redistricting, and the literacy test. Caribbean and socialist, advocated radical Tammany Hall-backed Jimmy Walker action toward social ailments and viewed the beat incumbent Hylan in the 1926 race for political system as a sham – not part of the 45 solution. In a sense, , Harlemites during this 46 John Henrik Clarke, “Marcus Garvey: The Harlem period began to fully realize the biased Years”, Transition 46 (2007): 45-46. political system and their place as an out- 47 August Meier and John H. Bracey, Jr. “The NAACP group; and, instead of utilizing their collective as a Reform Movement, 1909-1965: ‘To Reach the Conscience of America,’” Journal of Southern History 59 (1993): 11-12. The NAACP’s focus in the 1920s was 40 Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, “Or Does it Explode” Black the Arkansas race riot of 1919, opposition to the United Harlem in the Great Depression (New York,: Oxford States Supreme Court nomination of Judge John Park University Press, 1991): 26. (who supported black disfranchisement), and the 41 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 194. promotion of anti-lynching laws. For more information 42 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 194. about the lack of NAACP involvement in local political 43 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 321. nominations, see: Beth Tompkins Bates “A New Crowd 44 Clare Corbould, “Streets, Sounds and Identity in Challenges the Agenda of the Old Guard in the NAACP, Interwar Harlem” Journal of Social History 40 (2007): 1933-1941” American Historical Review 102 (1997): 859-94, at 873-874. 345-346 45 Corbould, “Streets, Sounds,” 873-874. 48 Savitch, “Powerlessness,” 26

26 Historia et Memoria

Mayor. Although not prejudiced towards Tammany and hospital boards.55 Yet, the minorities49, Walker largely neglected the hospital bureaucracy – now also under issues of Harlem (and the city as a whole)50. pressure by the newly formed North Harlem Due to Walker’s negligence and the effects of Medical Association, as well as the NAACP, the Great Depression, Harlem’s economy Urban League, Citizens’ Welfare Council and dramatically sunk to grave levels.51 This led Manhattan Medical Association – did not care many Harlemites to redirect their energies to even listen to the constituent complaints. from civil rights to plain survival, while The hospitals questioned the legitimacy of Walker’s energy seemed much more focused Harlemites’ complaints since integration was towards his status as a socialite and enhancing already beginning to take place -- albeit, at a the power of Tammany Hall.52 snail’s pace.56 Nevertheless, Harlemites did have Harlem Hospital, however, faced its some reason to be cautiously optimistic about most public pressure in 1929 when Dr. Harlem Hospital. The new superintendent, Godfrey Nurse – one of the few black Louis Neff, was appointed in May and physicians at the hospital – was fired due to promised to bring reforms. By the following an “alleged surgical error.”57 Dr. Nurse was year, however, no reforms had been not given a review of the case and Mayor implemented, and the tension between white Walker refused to intervene. However, due hospital staffers and black constituents perhaps to threats from the black press about reached a new boiling point. Services at the withdrawing political support and the Hospital worsened53, and qualified black opportunity to expand Tammany’s power, the physicians were still not being hired.54 Black Walker administration attempted – and newspapers, especially The Age and New York succeeded – at hospital reform by the end of News relentlessly went after hospital the year. 58 administration and conditions at the hospital. Walker first established a Department Although not read by the typical white of Hospitals – which required appointed resident, the black press was read by positions by the Mayor –to take over the Board of Trustees of Bellevue and Allied Hospitals, the Board of Ambulance Service,

49 and the hospital services of the Health Greenberg, “Or Does it Explode,” 95; “Mayor Department. Ferdinand Morton, the former Walker actually increased the number of blacks on the Civil Service Commissioner and UCD leader, city payroll from 247 to 2,275 during his mayoral tenure.” and Dr. George Stewart, a white physician at 50 For further information about Walker’s mayoral Harlem Hospital, were then ordered by failures see: Oliver Allen, “The Tiger: The Rise and Fall Walker to survey conditions at the hospital of Tammany Hall” (New York: Black Classic Press, and to “prepare a list of recommended 1993): 241; “Jimmy Walker’s lifestyle was more abandoned than ever. He rarely got to City Hall before noon and was frequently away from the job on trips paid 55 Jamie Jaywann Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black for by wealthy friends.” In his first term alone, he spent Harlem: Harlem Politics in Harlem, New York, from the 143 days out of the office on vacation. Jazz Age to the Great Depression,” (New York: Cambria 51 See Greenberg“Or Does it Explode,” 75-9. Press, 2009): 73; “In many letters exchanged between “Employed Harlemites held professional positions only the officials of Bellevue and Allied hospitals and the a third as often as workers in the rest of the city. A third mayor’s office, there were constant references to reports of all blacks in manufacturing, mechanical, and in the black press.” transportation fields in the Depression decade worked as 56 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 76; “By ‘laborers.’ Another third held jobs as unskilled workers, 1929, only nine interns and seven black surgeons and stevedores, or dockhands. Basically, job opportunities physicians had been appointed to the staff. Such a small had worsened.” number meant that even with growth in black 52 See Allen, “The Tiger,” 232-245. representation on a medical and surgical staff, black 53 See Goldstein, “Black Power,” 195. “…the drastic physicians were still not in decision-making decline in the quality of facilities provided Harlemites positions…” prompted many community leaders to prepare for 57 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 195. another round of agitation. The New York Age began to 58 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 73; stir community consciences through articles exposing “Fred Moore, editor of the New York Age, advanced the the horrors of inadequate hospital facilities, while the position that the only remedy to the Harlem Hospital Amsterdam News called for a complete investigation of situation lay in the ‘electing of a mayor who will use the Harlem Hospital.” power of his office to make changes in the hospital 54 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 195. personnel.’

Historia et Memoria 27

dismissals from the hospital’s staff”59 to create nearly every all-white hospital groups actually a report. In the next year, Walker opposed Walker’s reforms. These groups implemented this report and promptly realized that Tammany’s coup would only lead dismissed 25 physicians, many who worked to an even more biased hiring mode of over 20 years at the Hospital, and filled eight operation. of the vacancies with black physicians.60 Ironically, however, Tammany Hall Walker’s agenda, therefore, is abundantly campaigned for these reforms to eliminate clear: use the issue of Harlem Hospital – a bias. Nearly paralleling reformers’ dreams of civil rights issue at its foundation – as an an expert-driven, unbiased bureaucracy, opportunity to create a mode of operation that Tammany Hall argued that government’s would expand the power of Tammany, not control over the hospital system was the only help create a more just hospital system. means to achieve this lofty goal. As Savitch Yet, Walker’s apparent beneficial warned, the dominant group –Tammany – reforms towards the Harlem community were utilized the “guise of ‘experts’ or met with a mixed response. Walter White, ‘professionals,” which enabled them to secretary of the NAACP, called the “determine their own standards of reorganization the “most significant move in performance.”66 Tammany successfully the country taken by city officials to rectify argued that the accusatory “race politics” of past and contemporary discrimination” the past disrupted the efficiency of the against black doctors and nurses.61 Dr. hospital and that the bureaucracy could not be Charles Petioni, secretary of the North trusted in making apolitical decisions. The Harlem Medical Society, was apprehensive case of Harlem Hospital is the perfect about the reforms. His main complaint was microcosm of how the political parties – that many appointments were too namely Tammany Hall – masterfully crafted inexperienced black physicians who would their interests into the guise of the public’s, negatively affect the health of the which enabled them to take over community.62 Harlemites quickly realized that bureaucracies throughout the city and, once Walker’s sole intention in his reforms was to again, isolate Harlemites (and other out- “Tammanize” Harlem Hospital – not to groups) from the very system it advertised establish equality, or even improve the would reform. And furthermore, once quality, of the hospital. In Morton’s later complaints are lodged toward the flawed reports, he recommended the dismissal of all reforms, the dominant group (Tammany) then black physicians of independent or regards them as illegitimate.67 Republican loyalties, and then only But Tammany Hall did have a point; recommended promotions for Democratic many other supposedly apolitical physicians.63 The move to “Tammanize” the bureaucracies – namely, the Irish-dominated hospital was already evident in the first NYPD – operated in a way which “made report. Morton dismissed two black advancement beyond the lowest rank, if not physicians due to “questionable loyalties”64, appointment itself, virtually impossible.”68 including Dr. U. Conrad Vincent who was Throughout the 1920s, the NYPD instilled a actually a leader in the battle of hiring more “no-promotion policy” for black policemen, black physicians, and Dr. Louis Friedman, and a policy which forced black policemen to who worked at the hospital for 21 years, and only work in predominantly black wrote in an article for New York Medical neighborhoods. When Harlem activists in Week that he “fell victim to the political 1929 began a campaign to allow the African- guillotine because he was not affiliated with American policeman Samuel Battle to become Tammany Hall.”65. Thus, despite the recent a Sergeant, the NYPD eventually appointed hirings, many Harlem organizations, the all- him – but with the stipulation he would not black North Harlem Medical Association and

66 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 199. 59 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 77. 67 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 80; 60 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 197. …Mayor James Walker remained silent, leaving all 61 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 78. decisions to be made by Commissioner Greef. … After 62 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 78. several months, however, (Commissioner Greef) made 63 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 197. no changes and the new hospital staff set their minds to 64 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 197. improving care at the facility. 65 Wilson, “Building a Healthy Black Harlem,” 79. 68 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 189.

28 Historia et Memoria

receive a uniform.69 The FDNY instilled UCD as an example of newfound strength in literacy tests and other tests meant to Black politics75 Unlike in any white section of disqualify black applicants.70 As reported by the city, blacks in the 21st district “had to Edger Grey in 1927, there was only “one submit for final decision a list of possible resident of Harlem in the Fire Department; Black candidates to a committee composed of the 369th Regiment is still commanded by a leaders, associate leaders and captains of the non-resident of Harlem…”71 Harlemites, five districts…”76 This demonstrated how, therefore, were stuck between a rock and a despite the overwhelmingly black population, hard place; on one end of the spectrum, they elected and non-elected black leaders could not successfully battle against embedded in the political system were bureaucracies because the dim prospects of ultimately at the mercy of what white leaders actually getting into them due to a lack of decided. The mode of operation, therefore, resources and discriminatory modes of was inherently biased against the black operation, but on the other end, they could population’s choice for political not utilize politics to enact change since the representative. only two viable political parties – Tammany’s With that said, however, the most Democratic Party and the Republican Party – politically damaging practice for Harlemites controlled black nominations and only was the gerrymandering of 19th and 21st nominated politicians who cared for the party. assembly districts in 1917. Tammany Hall Despite the political potential Democrats created an arbitrary line along demonstrated in the 1910’s and a dramatic 136th and 137th Streets, consequently dividing rise of blacks moving to Harlem throughout the black community in half. To the west, a the 1920’s Harlemites took steps backwards in heavily black district was absorbed by the 13th controlling the modes of operation within the assembly district; on the east, a heavily black political system.72 “Although both the area succumbed to the predominately Jewish Democratic and Republican parties after 1917 and Italian 20th district. J. Raymond Jones, a acknowledged the necessity of nominating Tammany Hall politician, commented on this some Blacks to elective offices, they still bluntly in his political memoir The Harlem maintained control over which Blacks and Fox; how many were nominated, and to which offices.”73 The two districts that threatened Then as now, the redrawing of new district lines the control of white party bosses were the 19th after each decennial census created problems. and 21st Alderman District. But, the Since Harlem was an area in transition – whites Republican Party realized that the way to moving out, blacks moving in – white District leaders kept charts of demographic change maintain “White control of Party politics enabling them to redraw district lines in such a including Party nominations, was to co-opt manner that they could retain control.This the independent Black Republicans into the gerrymandering was not in the interest of the Republican organization.”74 Blacks in Harlem increasing Black population of New York City.77 did have leverage due to early, but brief, electoral successes. While black leaders were As Thomas Henderson writes in promised black party nominations for the Harlem Confronts the Machine: The Struggle Aldermanic seat in the Nineteenth district, no for Local Autonomy and Black District deal was struck in the Twenty-first. Black Leadership, these divisions of black voters Democrats in these districts, on the other ultimately waned Harlemites’ potential to hand, were too focused on party turmoil to exercise political autonomy; even approach Tammany Hall. Instead, due to an apparent pattern of blacks voting Minority status for Black Harlem had been assured Democratic in elections, Tammany viewed the as early as 1917, when the two parties in concert had gerrymandered the Harlem community, setting up district boundaries which remained unchanged 69 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 189. for more than twenty years. … [T]he 70 Goldstein, “Black Power,” 189. 71 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 278. 72 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 276. Between 1920 and 1930 75 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 288. the Black population in New York expanded another 76 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 311. 115 percent (from 152,467 to 327,706) 77 J. Raymond Jones and John C. Walter, The Harlem 73 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 283. Fox: J. Raymond Jones and Tammany, 1920-1970 (New 74 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 284. York: State University of New York, 1989): 244.

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gerrymandering of Harlem was the keystone to the were elected to political office on any level. longevity of the system of subordination…the The pattern – “…higher elective offices gerrymander prolonged the rationale for White [remaining] closed to this generation of district leadership and for the segregated clubs … Harlemites”82 –is a demonstration of the until the decade’s [1920s] end, when the expansion blacks’ inability to curtail the ill-effects of a of the Black community encompassed almost the entirety of both districts. Only then did Black political system operating with biased rules. protests become weighty enough to have the Gerrymandered districts in Harlem segregation of the clubs ended.78 affected job distribution just as negatively as electoral politics. The district leaders, who Harlemites’ determination, and were primarily responsible for electing persistent failures, to elect an African- politicians in their district, also held the keys American to the United States Congress is a to attaining a city job. Up until Fiorello microcosm of the effects of these LaGuardia’s reforms in the mid 1930’s, gerrymandered districts. For the first time in district leaders were members of segregated New York history, the Republican Party district clubs, which had as many as six agreed to nominate African-American Dr. hundred jobs at their disposal.83 This mode of Charles H. Roberts as Congressional operation, however, inherently led to bias in representative for the 21st Congressional favor of white workers due to the disparity in District of New York, which consumed the political positions. “For years, almost all 13th, 19th, 21st, 22nd, and 23rd Assembly ‘colored,’ mostly menial, city jobs were Districts. A former dentist and alderman, distributed by white district leaders on the Roberts was a favorite of blacks in Harlem. basis of voters ‘delivered’ by black bosses Despite winning over 80 percent of the vote in during local elections.”84 With tension the heavily black election districts (and the between black voters and white district 19th and 21st districts as a whole), Roberts leaders over who should be nominated by soundly lost by almost 10 percent, 43.8 their parties at an all-time high, fewer and percent to 53.4 percent, to the white fewer jobs were rewarded to blacks during this Democrat Royal Weller.79 As historian Gilbert decade. Osofky points out, “The basic problem was not The operating procedures of elections lack of Negro support, as more Negroes also slighted Harlem with the installment of registered and voted in these campaigns than the literacy test. Due to a state constitution in others, but the difficulty caused by political provision added in November 1921, New York geography.”80 Weller dominated the white State law required that all new voters applying neighborhoods on the West Side. In the for registrations at the Board of Elections following Congressional election, the must prove their literacy by taking a test. The Republicans did not even bother asking test was created by the Board of Elections and Harlem leaders for their opinion about whom administered by elections inspectors – all to nominate. With the power of nominations positions only filled with whites. Although it is centralized by segregated political club, black unclear how many applicants failed the test Harlemites had to simply bite their lip. each year, the literacy test confused many Johnson, the former United Civic immigrants and southern migrants of their League Alderman winner in 1917, won the rights and effectively disenfranchised some. Republican nomination in 1929. His fate, Many of the literacy test inspectors were however, mirrored Roberts. While polling schoolteachers from white neighborhoods about 75 percent of the vote in the heavily who “seemed more concerned with failing black elections, 19th and 21st Assembly than passing the applicants.” Furthermore, districts, Johnson lost dramatically in the every officer assigned to protect the testing white-centric districts on the West Side (13th, area were all white, did not work in the black 22nd, and 23rd).81 Just as in 1926, no blacks neighborhoods and according to Jones, seemingly did not care about guaranteeing fair

78 Thomas Henderson, “Harlem Confronts the Machine: The Struggle for Local Autonomy and Black District Leadership,” Afro-Americans in New York Life and 82 Osofsky, “Race Riot 1900,” 176. History 3 (1979): 51. 83 Irma Watkins-Owens, “Blood Relations: Caribbean 79 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 312. Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900-1930”, 80 Osofky, “Race Riot 1900,” 177. (Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996): 86. 81 Hiller, “Race Politics,” 315. 84 Watkins-Owens, “Blood Relations,” 86.

30 Historia et Memoria

examination procedures.85 The difference of first New York black Congressional treatment compared to whiter neighborhoods representative in state history in 1945, a sign suggests this policy targeted certain ethnic that Harlem was finally reaching its potential enclaves, and thereby, it is fair to assert the as a strong political force in New York City. 89 policy intended to suppress the vote in Harlem. Albeit incalculable, the literacy test affected electoral outcomes and effectively disrupted the typical electoral operating procedures. Savitch’s first two symptoms, systemic bias and modes of operation, naturally leads to his third symptom, ideological bias. Ideological biases, he writes, “work to sift out ‘undesirable’ political competitors and evaluate demands which come from out-groups.”86 Furthermore, these biases –Tammany Hall’s bias toward maintaining their power – are defended by telling out-groups – in this case, black Harlemites – that their demands are unfeasible and idealistic. For those outside the political system, the ideological bias would levy itself even harsher by labeling them as extremists, militants, or even criminals.87 The political battle between black Harlemites and the main political parties was not merely a narrative about black Harlemites navigating a corrupt political system, but the triumph of an ideological bias. Black Harlemites did not begin to independently harness their potential political power until Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia’s governmental reforms, which included destroying and replacing the Board of Alderman with the New York City Council in 1939. Through utilizing a single transferable vote system, the City’s reforms ended the viability of Tammany Hall in future political elections. The vast and rapid decline of Tammany was evident in the first City Council election; by parties, the results were the elections of representatives from 13 organization Democrats, 3 Republicans, 5 American Labor, 3 City Fusion, 1 Independent Democrat, and 1 Independent. This was a far cry from Tammany Hall sixty-four to one majority two years prior.88 This political autonomy now given to Harlemites opened the door for Rev. Adam Clayton Powell Jr. to win a Council seat in 1941 and to become the

85 Jones and Walter, The Harlem Fox, 242. 86 Savitch “Powerlessness,” 29. 87 Savitch “Powerlessness,” 30. 88 George McCaffrey, “Municipal Affairs: Proportional Representation in New York City,” American Political Science Review 33 (1949): 848.

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have never had any real power and with a few exceptions are most unattractive personages The Effect of British with an utter inability to speak the truth under Indirect Rule on African any circumstances.”4 In 1933 there was a shift in the way the British Women and Marriage. colonies were ruled, from having district heads rule over chiefs to having local councils where power is dispersed to more people. Christine Rai, Class of 2013 Under these councils, the men that were in power were able to decide upon changes to traditional polygamous marriages, this would In 1884 Europe’s major powers met in often leave women at the mercy of the men’s Berlin to divide the African continent for decisions. It was often the case that a man as colonial rule and occupation. The Scramble opposed to a woman was sided with for Africa occurred shortly after the regardless of what traditional laws were. conference where the nations took possession Eventually, some chiefs petitioned to regain of their newly acquired land in order to their power but that did not change the shift effectively occupy the land and rule its people. in the treatment of women.5 According to By 1895, the majority of the continent was some scholars, “in the early days of colonial colonized. Known as direct rule, some nations rule, enslaved women and those caught in chose to send officials to their colonies to rule oppressive marital relationships sought out over the African people. Some countries, like European officials willing to champion their Britain, chose indirect rule leaving indigenous causes” but this did not happen and women rulers in place.1 Even though it appeared to sometimes left in worse situations than they the African people that they were being ruled were in before colonialism.6 by fellow Africans, there were still noticeable On an intimate level, families were changes to the way these societies functioned. changing as traditional marriage practices By choosing indirect rule, the British changed. Polygyny; or the marriage practice tried to learn traditional African methods of where an individual has more than one ruling but did not realize the differences spouse; was widespread on the continent but present in the various ethnic groups within frowned upon by Europeans. The dissent the colonies. Territorial boundaries towards this traditional African marriage established during the Berlin Conference were practice began centuries before the Scramble not mindful of the different people and for Africa with the arrival of Christian divided preexisting societies. According to missionaries. With the imposition of British Fredrick Lugard, the goal of indirect rule is “to rule, native Africans were forced to change rules through the Chiefs, to endeavor to fundamental parts of their traditions and educate them in the duties of rulers, seek their culture to be in accordance with Christianity. co-operation and maintain their prestige.”2 Women especially felt the changes in some Because the British were unaware of all the societies where there was a patriarchal shift ruling practices present in their colonies, they and they were left with less influence than would sometimes assign authority to men as before colonization. The changes in marriage chiefs who previously held no position of practices directly affected African women and power.3 In some instances where there was a they lost some of the influence they had chief, the British allotted them more power throughout history, despite this they worked than they previously held. Some chiefs saw it within the system to foster change. as an opportunity to strengthen their position The British often saw traditional in society. The British often saw this and African marriage practices as contradictory to upheld negative opinions of them, for example Christian morality and wanted to bring a one British official in 1914 stated “the chiefs sense of justice for the women who they

1 Peter Geschiere, “Chiefs and Colonial Rule in Cameroon: Inventing Chieftaincy, French and British 4 Geschiere, “Chiefs and Colonial Rule,”160. Style,” Africa: Journal of the International African 5 Geschiere, “Chiefs and Colonial Rule,”163. Institute 63 (1993):152. 6 Brett Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent: 2 Geschiere, “Chiefs and Colonial Rule,”158. Marriage Disputes in African Courts, Gusiiland, 3 Geschiere, “Chiefs and Colonial Rule,”152. Kenya,” The Journal of African History 44 (2003): 245.

32 Historia et Memoria

thought were victims of oppression.7 They of women is to provide labor for the family. also wanted to legitimize marriage because in Bride wealth was a way to compensate for the their eyes, polygamous marriages were not work that would be lost when the woman proper. It was not understood by British at the moved away from her family. The transaction time that adultery was not the purpose of was not for a man to purchase a wife. polygamous marriages. In a polygamous Furthermore, if the woman did not wish to marriage, the first wife often had a part in marry the man that was courting her she did choosing subsequent wives for their husband not have to thus refusing the bride wealth.14 and with this type of union, labor could be The British intervention in African marriage divided among wives and their children.8 practices often left women with less influence Under many traditional African than they had before. Their attempts to help marriage practices, women were a part of the women often left women with the choice of process of choosing a husband, they were not accepting British views on how marriage forced to stay with a man like some British should be or to abandon marriage all together thought. 9 Women were able to decide if they and live on the fringes of society. wanted to be courted by certain men, they did In British colonial Africa, the British not have to accept every man’s advancements. tried to maintain the local system of chiefdom They were able to easily leave a marriage and have British district leaders to direct the within the first six weeks if they decide they chiefs in affairs of an area. After colonization, do not wish to stay with their husband, they there was a shift where societies became more were able to later divorce their husband if he patriarchal and there was a new sense of proved to be an insufficient mate for reasons social and sexual oppression against women.15 including being abusive to being infertile.10 Christian marriage practices infiltrated Another common place marriage African societies, in some cases this left wives practice that the British intervened in was subsequent to a man’s first wife abandoned. bride wealth. Bride wealth was a practice There were also laws stating men and women where the groom or the groom’s family could not live together unless they were provides money to the wife’s parents once married and because polygamous marriages they are married. The bride wealth is often an were not always seen as valid, wives indication of the status of the man and is sometimes had to leave and take up usually paid with either land or livestock.11 occupations like prostitution or beer brewing This was controversial to the British and to to support themselves and their children.16 In Christian missionaries because they felt as if the new colonial ruling systems where issues men were purchasing women and paying the were brought to a council, women would bring woman’s family to have her. Bride wealth was their sister wives involved in their marriage to sometimes referred to as “purchase money” by court and accuse them of being prostitutes or some British when describing it.12 condemning them to hell because having Missionaries and British officials that multiples wives was not in adherence with intervened in this practice felt that they had to Christianity and common Christian marriage “reinstate a woman’s dignity” by intervening practices. In some instances, the second wife in the bride wealth practice.13 They did not see in a marriage was the husband’s mistress and the practice for what it often actually was. eventually become an “inside” wife for the Everyone has a role in the family and one role social status and respect as opposed to the “outside” wife status she had as a mistress. 7 John Ogbu, “African Bridewealth and Women’s Being in a polygamous marriage also meant Status,” American Ethnologist 5(1978): 242. there was a level of financial security that was 8 Catrien Notermans, “True Christianity without awarded to the second wife and her children Dialogue: Women and the Polygyny Debate in Cameroon,” Anthropos 97 (2002): 342. 9 Douglas Falen, “Polygyny and Christian Marriage in Africa: The Case of Benin,” African Studies Review 51 (2008): 54. 10 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 251. 14 Notermans, “True Christianity without Dialogue,” 11 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 250. 341. 12 Ogbu “African Bridewealth and Women’s Status,” 15 Stefano Boni, “The Encompassment of the 243. Autonomous Wife: Hierarchy in Akan Marriage 13 Notermans, “True Christianity without Dialogue,” (Ghana),” Anthropos 97 (2002): 56. 341. 16 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 250-252.

Historia et Memoria 33

that she would not have had if she were In some colonies, there was an influx simply a mistress.17 of wealth with a rise in the production of cash Women were ultimately left with the crops. In Kenya for example, there was a decision to live under the oppressive male rule change in the economy under the colonial or decide to not be tied to a man and move to system during the 1900’s where there was a an urban area if they could for its better significant increase in wealth. The rise in financial prospects. On the issue of bride average wealth of a man led to the increase in wealth, British Christians felt as if it was bride wealth. The inflation in bride wealth oppressive to women because they saw it as made it impossible for some men to afford the women being purchased as wives. Despite bride wealth price a father asked for. Fathers this, because the British left local African were also worried about not asking for a officials; usually village elders; to rule the sufficient price so a father would ask for a area, the elders largely maintained the bride higher bride wealth if he heard other fathers wealth practice. There was a shift in how bride were demanding more.20 In some instances, wealth was handled after colonization. Before men were not able to afford the bride wealth colonization, women had a large part in their that was being demanding for the woman they marriage but with the shift in how the colony wanted to marry. These men were forced to was ruled, male elders and women’s fathers work to save up for the money or amount of have a bigger role in a marriage and in the livestock a family demanded thus postponing payment of bride wealth. There were their desired marriage. With men having to instances where couples were forced to flee marry later on in life, women stayed at home their village because a man did not afford to for a longer duration of time than intended. If pay the bride wealth the woman’s father a daughter was unmarried for too long her demanded. In some instances, the illicit family could force her to become a cowife in a husband would be accused of kidnapping his polygamous marriage even if it is against her wife from her father’s family and taken to the will. In marriages like this the woman’s local council where he would be punished.18 husband was significantly older and the other The wife would sometimes be forced to marry wives had a higher chance of being against an a man who could afford to pay the bride additional wife.21 In some instances where a wealth her father demanded. These unions man cannot afford a bride wealth, the couple sometimes ended in the woman legally decides to belie society by eloping without the divorcing the husband in the colonial council exchange of bride wealth. This practice ruling system. In some instances the woman resulted in fathers forcing marriage on their was not allowed a divorce and was considered daughters to men they did not want to marry “hostages in the villages”.19 There were to avoid not obtaining the bride wealth colonial laws put in place to limit a woman’s necessary to supplement what their daughter mobility within the society and physically financially provides.22 This was between villages. The colonial system unprecedented in most African societies as compromised women’s status in society in an women had a voice in these types of affairs. In unprecedented way. The women that chose to the courtship process women were able to adhere to the bride wealth policy would decide not to marry the man and have a sometimes marry older polygamists because period of around six weeks into the marriage they were able to afford the bride wealth to end it. families desired or the council elders deemed With British imposition, women were appropriate. In some colonies, there were forced to live within a society that took a influxes of wealth. The women that chose to noticeable patriarchal turn.23 If they did not adhere to the bride wealth policy would blatantly go against the new marriage trends, sometimes marry older polygamists because they worked within the colonial system to gain they were able to afford the bride wealth a voice. Some women that were unsatisfied families desired or the council elders deemed appropriate. 20 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 246. 21 Boni, “The Encompassment of the Autonomous Wife,” 56. 17 Boni, “The Encompassment of the Autonomous 22 Ogbu, “African Bridewealth and Women’s Status,” Wife,” 67. 243 18 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 245. 23 Geschiere “Chiefs and Colonial Rule in Cameroon,” 19 Shadle, “Bridewealth and Female Consent,” 243. 159.

34 Historia et Memoria

with their marriages took their husbands to the colonial council of elders to file for a divorce if they were unsatisfied in the union. Domestic abuse was seen as a norm within a marriage to a certain extent where fathers and brothers intervened if the abuse was especially violent. Women took advantage of the British colonial council system and took their abusive husbands to court.24 The women that worked within the system set a precedent to women later on and showed them that they did not have to lose their voice under the colonial system. Polygamy and bride wealth were commonplace practices in African cultures before colonization. After British colonization there were changes that shifted how society ran. These changes were not immediately recognized because of the indirect rule where village experts were figureheads that followed British orders; to Africans it seemed like their own people ruled over them. The changes in marriage practices contributed to the patriarchal shift in the colonies. Women were held back and lost some of their influence because of the shifts in marriage. Despite this, women worked within the colonial system to regain a voice. They were sometimes forced into polygamous marriages or forced to renounce their marriages under indirect rule. They chose to leave their homes to escape changing bride wealth traditions to be with their husband or wait for him to make enough to satisfy inflated costs. The changes indirect rule caused in marriage were one of the factors that led to a patriarchal shift and a change in gender relations. Despite this, women worked within the colonial system to resist the situations they were forced into and served as an example to future women living under British colonial rule.

24 Richard Waller, “Rebellious Youth in Colonial Africa,” The Journal of African History 47 (2006): 84- 91.

Historia Et Memoria 35

Cosimo's Inheritance: The from being a self-made man. His family – the Medici family – had left him a grand legacy Medici Bank and Extended that included alliances with the common men, connections with the wool trade, a huge Family Power. amount of influence in the European banking including the running of the papal bank, the knowledge of how to invest in markets, and Eric Wendt, Class of 2013. when to take the money and hide it, and how to wield political power without having to hold political office, and how to avoid family Historically, Italy’s strong sense of squabbles, as well as how to turn patronage to family was the very fabric of its society. the advantage to demonstrate their power and Family was exalted above all things, and stability. His father’s best advice to young preserving the family name and legacy was a Cosimo was to remain out of the public eye, as great responsibility. In fifteenth century Italy, his father had “warned him to do.”3 He family ties and alliances shaped the political, succeeded, but only to a certain extent, social, and economic realm of Italian life, and because even if his huge financial powerhouse one family dominated these aspects for more failed to draw attention, then the buildings, than a century: the Medici. From political statuary and arts, surely would have done. dynasty, to banking power, to a royal family, Many different family members contributed in the Medici’s influence went much further than different ways to the rise of the Medici, some the Tuscan hillsides; it expanded to all of Italy from the nuclear family but others from more and had a strong socio-economic impact distant branches. throughout Europe. From humble beginnings The Medici family came from the in the wool business, the Medici family rose to Mugello region north of Florence and rose prominence through banking and a keen quickly in the textile trade guided by the guild understanding of the mechanisms of power of the Arte della Lana. Their specialty was and patronage, creating deep ties throughout wool, and they did very well for themselves in the Florentine nobility, especially with heavy trading with France and Spain, which religious and financial figureheads within was forged and supported through politically government.1 Cosimo de’ Medici is often seen arranged marriages. Salvestro de' Medici as founding the dynasty that shaped Florence (1331-1388) was speaker of the wool makers and the Renaissance; Padgett and Ansell have guild in Florence and arguably spurred the summed up his achievement: “He beginning of the Medici dynasty, laying the consolidated a Europe-wide banking network foundations the creation of the Medici bank that helped induce both international trade some decades later.4 Salvestro was a and state making elsewhere. And he oversaw supporter of the 1378 Ciompi revolt in and sponsored the Florentine intellectual and Florence, by the wool carders (workers who artistic efflorescence that we now call ‘the disentangled the wool for spinning) who were Renaissance.”2 While his achievements were not represented in the guild, and came to be undeniably epoch-making, Cosimo was far supported by other lower class workers such as vegetable sellers or crockery salesmen.

Salvestro led attacks against the major guilds 1 For a good general history of the Medici family see Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and for lack of representation of these lowers Fall (London: Penguin, 1999), and on their banking classes, through his seat as a Gonfaliere (a interests see Tim Parks, Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics and Art in Fifteenth-Century Florence (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006). 3 Janet Ross, Lives of the Early Medici: As Told in Their 2 John F. Padgett and Christopher K. Ansell, “Robust Correspondence (London: Chatto & Windus, 1910). Action and the Rise of the Medici, 1400-1434,” 4 See Gene A. Brucker, “The Medici in the Fourteenth American Journal of Sociology 98 (1993): 1259. Century,” Speculum 32 (1957): 1-26. 36 Historia et Memoria

high ceremonial office holder), he also bankers, the Alberti family ran into internal instituted limitations on the rights of the domestic fights, probably over inheritances, nobility. On the back of the revolt, Salvestro and lost the account. Giovanni, through soon became the de facto dictator of diplomacy and a long social standing with Florence;5 the revolt, however, eventually Pope John XXIII received the Vatican’s failed as conservative guild members united to account and all agencies that went with it.7 crush it. Ultimately, Salvestro was exiled in Not only did Giovanni have control of the 1382 and the family fortunes declined biggest account, in the epicenter of banking in somewhat, but the deep fear left by the revolt all of Europe, he now controlled the credit line among major guilds continued, and with that to the Vatican and to a vast array of European fear came the realization of the power of the kings and nobility. Slowly, through these Medici to influence political change in financial and political gains Giovanni Florence. positioned the Medici to control the political It was another branch of the family pulse of Europe. that led the Medici to new heights, Salvestro's By 1406, Florence’s conquest of Pisa distant cousin Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici solved the problem of it not having a port to started the Medici bank in Florence and paved the Mediterranean.8 Now, money could be the way for their incredible financial success. shipped through Pisa to Florence, and into The son of Averado de’ Medici, Giovanni was Giovanni’s bank. Investment opportunities not born into wealth, because his father flourished as a Venice branch of the bank was lacked talent as a businessman, which was opened, as well as two woolen cloth factories. perhaps the reason why Averado and his The Medici bank invested in maritime family were not exiled like the more insurance, and lent money internationally, prominent Medici family members in 1382. especially in England. The bank’s expansive Averado’s distant cousin Vieri di Cambio was reach not only helped them financially, but it a very successful banker, and took Giovanni, also created the social connections needed to under his wing in his banking house. He survive a century of unrest in Italy. The trained and employed Giovanni and his elder Medici bank was in essence, “too big to fail,” brother Francesco, and both flourished under and by 1395, they had banks in Avignon, his guidance: Giovanni became general Bruges, Barcelona, Genoa, London, Paris, manager of the Rome branch and Francesco Rome and Pisa, all managed by employees became a junior partner. A couple of years handpicked by Giovanni.9 later, the bank split into three different Upon expansion into the woolen branches; one failed quickly, the one run by trade, which was prominent in the Florentine Francesco was successful till 1443, and economy, Giovanni setup workshops or Giovanni’s Rome branch flourished.6 bottegas in his thirteen- year-old son, Cosimo, Giovanni moved the bank to Florence because in order to preserve the family line in case of it was easier to invest the banks surplus accident and to make sure the family money wealth there due to the high volume of stayed with the Medici; as Giovanni’s health banking and business opportunities. He slowly waned more and more, power smoothly competed with other families to gain control was handed over to Cosimo.. He groomed of the most important client in fifteenth Cosimo accordingly, “notifying him of all century Italy, the Papacy. The previous papal business secrets” and training him in

5 Gene A. Bruckner, Political Conflict in the Florentine 7 Paul F Grendler, Encyclopedia of the Renaissance Commune: (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms (New York: Scribner's, 1999): 26; and Padgett and International, 1955): 109. Ansell, “Robust Action,” and the Rise of the Medici,” 6 Raymond Adrien DeRoover, The Rise and Decline of 1259-319. the Medici Bank: 1397-1494 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 8 De Roover, Rise and Decline, 18. UP, 1963): 23-24. 9 De Roover, Rise and Decline, 22.

Historia et Memoria 37

finance.10 Giovanni also gave a share of power deal of discontent. The opposition looked to to his brother Lorenzo, and on his deathbed the Medici leadership and the ruling oligarchy instructed uncle and nephew to work headed by Rinaldo degli Albizzi feared that together, and not allow politics or money to Cosimo might be induced to seize power. In come between them. Giovanni’s promoted the the spring of 1433 both parties were girding Medici’s financial control of Italy, but themselves for a contest and the problem was managed to stay out of politics directly, even who would strike first.11 refusing to become Count of Monteverde The Medici records indicate that they when the pope appointed him, and he even had prepared for war by removing money paid fines so that he would not have to sit as from the Venetian branches and storing it in Gonfalonier of justice for Florence: Giovanni monasteries for safekeeping. They also knew the true control of politics sat was removed 15,000 florins from their Travola in rooted in finance. By staying out of politics, Florence, and they even sold stock and other he did not upset the balance of power in the banks and placed the florins in their Rome nobility and although his business ventures branch.12 The Medici were trying to made them extremely envious, their accumulate reserves, and protect their capital ambitions drove them to his advice. It was from a hostile Florentine government, and an through a balance of “behind the scenes angry Rinaldo delgi Albizzi. Rinaldo struck power” and political precision, that Giovanni first: Cosimo was imprisoned and exiled for was able to construct a powerful coalition for the failure to conquer Lucca. Cosimo went to his heirs, as well as a foothold into the Venice, taking most of his bank with him, and Florentine elite. due to his influence and money, others When Cosimo took over running the followed him. During his time in exile Cosimo family bank and businesses, he had the only gained power and established more advantage of years of training and advice from connections throughout Italy, it was his father, and so the transition was easy, and essentially the worst political move Rinaldo the Florentine elite and the bank shareholders could have played. Within a year the negative respected Cosimo. One incredibly important flight of capital effected Florence’s economy, facet of Cosmo’s success was the access of the outraged everyone from nobility to peasants, Medici bank to vast capital: the papacy and so Rinaldo had to lift the exile on Cosimo. deposited large sums of money and rarely Cosimo returned in 1434, with some new withdrew it. This allowed for Cosimo to invest ideas to quash factionalism in Florence. a higher percentage of the bank’s reserves, Through his friends in the Signoria, he and create a diverse portfolio. Cosimo was instigated a series of constitutional changes, able to gauge how far he could reach into the which allowed him to secure power through reserves each quarter, because he also kept a influence. Pope Pius II said of him that, keen eye on the political sphere. The papacy “Political questions are settled in [Cosimo's] was a huge source of friction in this period, house. The man he chooses holds office...He it and often was at war; so when Cosimo saw is who decides peace and war...He is king in war on the horizon, he held extra reserves, all but name.”13 He also worked to create a because he knew the Papacy would need it. peaceful northern Italy, and during the wars Cosimo was thrust into the political in Lombardy, he tried to create a balance of sphere after a failed attempt to conquer Lucca power between Florence, Naples, Venice, and in 1429. The peace treaty signed on May 10, Milan, and discouraged outside forces from 1433, Brought Florence no substantial gains, helping or interfering, such as the French.14 and the high cost of the war with nothing to show for it but humiliation, created a great 11 De Roover, Rise and Decline, 23. 12 De Roover, Rise and Decline, 39. 13 Hibbert, House of Medici, 41. 10 De Roover, Rise and Decline, 28. 14 Padgett and Ansell, Robust Action, 92-102.

38 Historia et Memoria

Cosimo also used the power of ‘the lower classes’, or at best from the minor patronage to gain power. He liberally spent guilds.”18 The memory that Salvestro had his family’s money on the arts, in part because supported the peasants decades early in the he truly loved it himself. Cosimo reportedly Compi revolt also paved the way for a strong once stated, relationship between the Medici and common folk. His role as patron also gave him the All those things have given me the greatest image of being a “dispenser of favour.”19 He satisfaction and contentment because they are not also was quick to relate to peasants or help only for the honor of God but are likewise for my their cause, as Curt Gutkind argued in his own remembrance. For fifty years, I have done study of Cosimo, “He was a man whose nothing else but earn money and spend money; wisdom and quick understanding became and it became clear that spending money gives me greater pleasure than earning it.15 evident in anything he said or did, a man who liked to give help when someone needed it With money from the bank, he and asked him for it, who liked to mix with commissioned Donatello’s David and Judith people, especially the peasants.”20 Cosimo Slaying Holofernes, which broke ground in controlled Florence without ever having to sculpture, but perhaps his most prized hold office because of his extensive patronage was of the architect Brunelleschi manipulation of the political system. He did who created the dome of the Santa Maria del this by befriending, the political circles of Fiore, or the Duomo. Cosimo was a true lover Florentine government and making them a of Plato, and he commissioned Marsilio Ficino part of his “family.” As Dale Kent states, to completely translate all of Plato’s works to Latin, the first to ever do so.16 When his Cosimo succeeded in identifying the honor of the grandson, Lorenzo il Magnifico was born, he Medici family with that of the commune more completely than any citizen before him. He did this gave him an education centered in the study by making his friends and political supporters 17 of humanities. honorary extensions of this group, to be seen as Cosimo knew that these commissions dear as fathers, brothers, and sons in affection and were more than just works of art; he was obligation.21 demonstrating his power to the people of Florence. Art dazzled the people, persuaded Despite the skills he possessed in both them to ally with him and worked as a sort of business and politics, Cosimo wished to propaganda. Signoria and noblemen took note remain out of the public eye, as his father had and wanted either to be his friend, or to do “warned him to do.”22 This is not to say he business with him. Cosimo’s also had power lacked political power, in fact, he had over the lower classes. Peasants felt secure complete control over the Florentine knowing that the Medici had a large treasury government from behind the scenes. He used that could help protect their city of Florence, his strong kinships to his advantage, and and they clamored for his recall from exile in manipulated the Signoria to benefit the 1434. As Dale Kent states, “Cosimo’s party Medici bank. As Gene Bruckner states, “He flourished ‘because the masses had chosen demonstrated a particular talent for working him as their champion and looked on him as a behind the scenes, achieving his goals by god.’ Cosimo drew his chief support then from manipulating others. His instruments were

15 Francis Henry Taylor, The Taste of Angels: A History 18 Kent, Cosimo De' Medici, 19. of Art Collecting from Rameses to Napoleon (Boston: 19 Padgett and Ansell, “Robust Action and the Rise of Little, Brown, 1948). the Medici,” 1262. 16 Dale Kent, Cosimo de' Medici and the Florentine 20 Kurt Sigmar Gutkind, Cosimo De' Medici, Pater Renaissance: The Patron's Oeuvre (New Haven: Yale Patriae, 1389-1464 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1938), 65. University Press, 2000): 34-8. 21 Kent, Cosimo De' Medici, 28. 17 Kent, Cosimo de' Medici, 34-8. 22 Hibbert, House of Medici, 38.

Historia et Memoria 39

the bonds of obligation by which he tied his man, and while his own grand-father, Averdo, supporters to himself.”23 may not have had much business acumen, a Cosimo was a skillful leader in both more successful man from another branch of business and politics, and these traits would the family, Vieri di Cambio, gave Cosimo’s eventually help him increase the power that uncle and father their start in banking. his family held over the Florentine Giovanni de’ Medici, Cosimo’s father, perhaps government and society. The status he held as gave Cosimo a brilliant start. He gave him the leader of the Medici family combined with essential lessons in business and diplomacy the wealth available to him through the and in wielding both power and patronage Medici bank, and his role as a patron of art effectively. Giovanni had invested wisely, and and learning, led to the creation of physical ensured a smooth take over upon his death, images that demonstrated the power he held. which avoided the kind of clash over As Nicolai Rubinstein has observed, “Cosimo’s inheritance than had brought down the vast and complex network of patronage was papacy’s previous bankers. essential for the working of his political ascendancy, and while that ascendancy in its turn helped to extend it, his patronage was an indispensable instrument in making his will prevail.”24

Figure 2: Angelo Bronzio (1503-72) Cosimo de' Medici

The influence of Cosimo and the Medici bank on Florentine society and the Renaissance is unparalleled. It is important, however, to understand his inheritance and well as his legacy. A distant cousin of his father’s, Salvestro de’ Medici, had furnished his family name with the sympathies of the common

23 Gene Brucker, Renaissance Florence (New York: Wiley, 1969): 121. 24 Nicolai Rubinstein, “Cosimo ‘optimus Civis’” in Cosimo 'il Vecchio' de' Medici, 1389 - 1464, Essays in the Commemoration of the 600th Anniversary of Cosimo de' Medici's Birth, ed. Francis Ames-Lewis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992): 13.

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criticize the chauvinistic agrarian invasion of NON-TRADITIONAL the Inner Mongolian Grasslands by the Han Chinese. APPROACHES

Throughout Chinese history, literature has been used as an instrument for the moral education of the people. However, The Grassland in Ruins: after the incident at Tiananmen Square in Wolf Totem’s Symbolic 1989, literature began to serve a new purpose; Criticism of Han it was used to reevaluate the national history that had been upheld by the Chinese Chauvinism. Communist Party.3 Literature such as Jiang Rong’s Wolf Totem began to tell alternative Nathan E. Bates, Class of histories about controversial events that were previously too dangerous to discuss directly— 2013. such as the Cultural Revolution. However, the validity of the history that these novels present is consistently questioned, especially “We have to discipline these people, and to in the case where a minority group’s story is control their grazing and their movements. being presented by a writer of the Han Their liberty is too expensive for us. Their majority, as is the case with Wolf Totem. disaster is our opportunity.” Despite this criticism, this novel attempts to Ebrahim Konate.1 place the Mongols within the national historical narrative while criticizing the Han “It is difficult to control what you don’t chauvinism that resulted in the Han cultural understand.” and agrarian, invasion of the Inner Mongolian 2 Victor Erlich. (Link 98) grasslands. In order to weave his criticism of Han Chauvinism in Inner Mongolia, Jiang Rong This paper was produced during an makes use of his own personal experiences independent study with Dr. Jeffrey Kinkley and those of the other Beijing students and that focused on Jiang Rong’s novel Wolf Mongol herders that he lived among during Totem. This novel is an inheritor to a form of his time as a sent down youth in Inner literature that was designed to reevaluate the Mongolia. Wolf Totem uses these life established national history of China, and experiences as a means to probe and correct present its reader with alternative histories the history of events during the Han Chinese about peoples that have been widely excluded invasion of Inner Mongolia. By utilizing the from the existing national narrative. This events of his daily life and those of the paper will show the way in which Wolf Mongols as the subject of Wolf Totem, Rong is Totem uses the experiences of its author and providing these conquered people’s with an the ethnic Mongols with which he lived identity in literature; thereby challenging the during his time as a sent down youth to national history of China.4 Wolf Totem’s

1Dee Mack Williams, Beyond Great Walls: Environment, Identity and Development on the Chinese Grasslands of Inner Mongolia (Stanford, CA: Stanford 3 Link, The Uses of Literature, 144-145. University Press 2002), 11. 4 Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers of China (Boston, 2 Perry Link, The Uses of Literature: Life in the Chinese MA: Beacon Press, 1967), 347. The description that Socialist Literary System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Wolf Totem provides is unique because, historically, the University Press, 2000). Chinese possess such a sense of cultural superiority that Historia et Memoria 41

ability to accomplish this is problematized by civilized and healthy customs in daily life, as well as in Rong’s status as a Han himself. By telling the marriages and funerals. 7 history of the Mongols’ struggle during the This idyllic guarantee and respect for minority Cultural Revolution as if it were his own, Rong culture, while also expecting them to is in fact further subjecting them to the very modernize—to become more “civilized”—is chauvinism that he is trying to challenge. In the modern incarnation of a rhetoric that has order to compensate for his Han identity, existed throughout Chinese history, and Rong creates Chen Zhen. Chen provides the ultimately justified the Han encroachment basis for further limiting the residual elements into Inner Mongolia during the Cultural of Han Chinese chauvinism, as his ethnic Revolution. This white paper outlines the identity is one that is constantly in flux Han’s confidence in their own cultural between that of Han and “half” Mongol.5 superiority, a belief that was initiated and Chen’s fluctuating identity allows him to fill supported through both ancient and modern the void of books that advocates Mongol works of philosophy. In these works the Han causes.6 However, because Chen is never fully are uniformly depicted as the harbingers of Mongol, Wolf Totem is able advocate for the civilization and agents of aid to their barbaric Mongols while also being accessible to the countrymen8. In order to help these Han reader. barbarians, especially the ethnic Mongols, Wolf Totem not only creates a cultural they would habitually invade the huangdi or bridge between Han and Mongol, it lends the uncultivated wasteland and bring them voice to a marginalized group that has been order and civilization through transformation under-represented in literature. This voice is into an agrarian society a society that was necessary, because their struggle during the stationary and could therefore modernize. 9 Cultural Revolution has been lost due to This is the very practice and belief that Wolf political misdirection, such as those found in Totem seeks to problematize and challenge— the People’s Republic of China’s most recent this is Han chauvinism. white paper regarding the treatment and Wolf Totem challenges this premise status of the “Regional Autonomy for Ethnic through a didactic examination of the effects Minorities in China.” One particularly of Han involvement in Mongol society important point within this white paper, when through the use of icons. The major images considering the relationship between the Han invoked by Wolf Totem are those of the sheep, and minority peoples, reads: wolf, and dog. The presence, interaction, and Organs of self-government of autonomous areas conflict between these animals on the Inner guarantee the rights and freedoms of all ethnic minorities Mongolian grassland ultimately reflect the to retain their traditional folkways and customs in daily expectation of, resistance to and eventual life or when conducting social activities…Meanwhile, the ethnic minorities are encouraged to adopt new, scientific, Sinicization of the ethnic Mongols during the Cultural Revolution.

they did not find it necessary to describe those whom 7 Dee Mack Williams, Beyond Great Walls: they conquered. Environment, Identity and Development on the Chinese 5 Rong Jiang, Wolf Totem, trans. Howard Goldblatt. Grasslands of Inner Mongolia (Stanford, CA: Stanford (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2008), 207. University Press), 33-38. 6Jiang, Wolf Totem, 423: On the second to last page of 8 These country men are the members of the various the novel, Chen burns a book that he had written about shaoshu minzu, or minority groups, that live on the his experiences on the Olonbulag (the fictitious section margins of society, around the edges of China. of the Inner Mongolian grassland on which the story 9 Khan Almaz, “Who Are the Mongols? State, Ethnicity, takes place), that book was titled Wolf Totem. and the Politics of representation in the PRC,” Therefore, we can assume that the story we are reading Negotiating Ethnicities in China and Taiwan, ed. and Chen’s story are in fact the same allowing him to fill Melissa Brown (Berkeley, CA: University of California this void. Institute for East Asian Studies, 2008), 128.

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The most overt of these symbols are the wolf a large population, that there is no longer and sheep. These animals reflect the differing room for food animals such as cows and sheep economic models that provide the basis for on their farms. In addition to subtly the development of the Han and Mongols’ criticizing Han style agriculture, this passage opposing and contradictory lifestyles, namely further connects the Han with sheep, because the adherence to either sedentary agriculture the growth of the sheep herds is proportional or pastoral nomadism. This correlation is to the increases in quotas provided by the created through constant references to the government—increases that are only meat eating Mongols being personified as necessary because the Han continue to grow wolves, and the agrarian, grass, eating Han as despite a severe lack of resources to sustain possessing many of the qualities of sheep. this growth. The final historical connection The sheepish qualities of the Han are that this passage presents to the reader is the a direct result of their utilization of sedentary Mongol’s defense of their actions. Within their agriculture, because, as Owen Lattimore belief system of the Olonbulag, these points out, as the Han Chinese came to rely Mongolian wolves are simply acting on behalf more and more on irrigation agriculture they of Tengri, by protecting the grasslands from needed to occupy more land. And, occupying forces that would otherwise imbalance and more land meant that the population needed destroy it—forces such as uncontrolled and to grow in order to support the increased unsustainable growth. labor.10 This rapid growth resulted in greater The crucial role that the wolves play food demands creating a vicious cycle of on grassland is explained to Chen, and the uncontrolled population growth and abuse of reader, by the elderly Mongol Papa Bilgee. farmland that eventually led to the cultivation Bilgee is shown on various occasions to be the of land that was previously thought of as most effective hunter, herder, and leader unsuitable for farming. The Han’s overuse of among the Mongols that Chen is living with. land is reflected in the Mongol concern over In addition, his intimate knowledge of wolves herd size and its relation to the physical status and wolf tactics, such as those displayed of the grassland. during the entrapment of the wolves in Chen is educated on this danger by response to their decimation of the Mongol Uljii, the leader of Chen’s Mongol banner, as warhorse herd, constitute a unique he, Papa Bilgee, and Chen are looking for new relationship with grasslands and therefore pasturelands. As Chen, Papa Bilgee, and Uljii with its divine protector, Tengri.12 Figures were passing through a neighboring banner’s such as Papa Bilgee are called Atagha Tengri pastures Uljii explained why various types of or individuals that “closely resemble Eternal grass were unsuitable for grazing and Heaven.”13 Therefore, because Papa Bilgee ultimately explained that the reason there was speaks with the authority of Tengri the a shortage of suitable land for grazing was various lessons on the grassland wolves can, that: and should be, considered true for those within his banner. The Atagha Tengri There are too many of you Chinese and not enough meat relationship between Bilgee and Tengri is to feed you…When you people coming demanding our meat, what you’re really asking us for is our grass…The important as the wolves are described as pressure from the government quotes has nearly turned being the hand of Tengri, a force that only several banners in the southeast into deserts.11 Bilgee can truly understand. One such

This explanation is important for several reasons, including one of the obvious 12 Tengri is spelled Tengger within Wolf Totem, for the limitations of Han style agriculture; with such purposes of this paper I have chosen utilize his name as it is said in the Mongol language. 13 Julian Baldick, Animal and Shaman: Ancient 10 Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontier, 352. Religions of Central Asia (Washington Square, New 11 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 233-234. York: New York University Press), 117.

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explanation for the wolves’ antagonism true of the farms established by Han in Inner towards the Mongol herders is that the Mongolia during the Great Leap Forward and grassland wolves were created by Tengri to the Cultural Revolution.17 These farms were keep balance on the grassland in order to responsible for cultivating grassland that was preserve its existence. unsuitable for cultivation and farming, The Mongols believe that the wolves ultimately speeding up the already existing hunt to prevent overgrazing on the grassland issue of land degradation.18 An issue that only by targeting herds that have grown too large exists as a direct consequence of the greater and therefore pose a threat to the perpetual food quotas being placed on the nomadic survival of the grassland. These attacks have herders of Inner Mongolia that result from the pitted the forces of the Mongols and the increase in population—as a result of the wolves against each other, as many of the popular Maoist maxim “more people, more wolves’ hunts target the herders’ sheep, power” (ren duo liliang da)—and increasingly horses, and cattle. However, these attacks are limited access to new pasturelands. necessary for the protection of grassland, Wolves can also pose a dangerous because the Mongols protect their sheep, threat to the grassland by eliminating too horse, and cow herds from individual wolves many of the grazing animals. As a result, and other predators. Thus, large wolf hunting Tengri will utilize the Mongols as a means to packs are the only way of ensuring that these control the wolf population. The Mongols herds do not grow too large. retaliation against the wolf pack that attacked Despite the often horrifyingly brutal their warhorses is an excellent example of this wolf hunts, such as the early entrapment and dynamic. The Mongols are able to destroy destruction of an entire herd of gazelle14, the half of the large wolf pack that killed their Mongols believe these hunts are necessary to horses, by employing the tactics that the preserve “the big life” of the grassland; wolves used during the aforementioned because, “When you kill off the big life of the gazelle hunt. This is an important battle, grassland, all of the little ones are doomed.”15 because it binds the Mongols and the wolves This role is further supported by wolves’ together in a mentor-student relationship. tendency to leave some of the members of After witnessing the wolves’ slaughter each herd alive so that they can reproduce, of the gazelle herd, Chen reflects on the leaving the possibility of growth and military victories of Mongol leaders such as maintaining the grassland’s balance. Chinggis Khan and deduces that their military This is a crucial lesson, because it prowess must have been the result of “having marks the beginning of Wolf Totem’s criticism the greatest of all teachers in military strategy; of the Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong they had an excellent model of actual combat; ideology that sedentary agriculture was and they had a long history of struggle with necessary for the transformation into a crack lupine troops.”19 This realization civilized, and successful, society.16 This outlines the history of constant renegotiation criticism is tied to and supported by the of military tactics between the wolves and the frightening growth of Han population and the Mongols as they battle for survival on the fact that overuse and abuse of farmland by the grassland. In his war against the wolves, his Han has sapped the land of its usefulness most trusted allies are herder’s dogs since ultimately leaving it barren. This is especially 17 Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontier, 71-72. These were not the first Han farmers to enter Inner Mongolia, 14 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 24-25. however, Han farmers have been moving onto the 15 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 24-25, 45. Mongolian grasslands, especially those areas on the 16 Elena Barabatseva “From the Language of Class to border with China, for centuries in order to find new and the Rhetoric of Development: discourses of ‘nationality’ untapped land. and ‘ethnicity’ in China,” Journal of Contemporary 18 Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 29-30. China 17 (2008), 573. 19 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 27.

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they are trained to protect the herder’s heard knowledge collected by generations of at all costs.20 Mongols, knowledge that the sinicized Despite the frequent appearances of Mongols learned and then taught to the Han individual dogs throughout the novel, dogs as in order to bring a new balance to the a group are rarely mentioned. Often times Mongolian grassland, the balance between when dogs are collectively mentioned they are modernity and subjugation—a balance that compared to wolves because they are the led to the collectivization of the pasture lands descendants of wolves that have forgotten by the Communists. their wolf nature and ultimately have been The collectivization of the Inner domesticated.21 Mongolian grassland had two significant This hereditary connection between effects on the people that lived there; the first wolves and dog is important as it provides the was the hierarchal division of land into lens through which it is possible to connect various categories. These categories were then the dog to the Sinicized Mongol. Just as dogs used to divide communities that inhabited the lost their wolfish nature after hundreds of grassland into groups called brigades. Each years of being tamed and domesticated, the brigade was then divided into two groups, sinicized Mongol became so thoroughly those who would be forced to adopt a purely domesticated that these Mongols lose the use Han lifestyle and those who would retain their of their language and access to their traditional lifestyle under the guidance of the traditional culture and lifestyle. Their loss Han. Each brigade then divided the was ultimately demonstrated through their pastureland within its borders among three adoption of Han style farming. different groups: cattle, sheep, and goats.25 This aspect of the acculturation Each animal was confined within its process is reflected in the herders’ dogs’ diets, regimented part of the pasture. Within a which consisted of both millet and meat.22 brigade each team would be assigned a single The slow Sinicization process of the Mongols species herd to tend and that would be the along the borders with China and Manchuria animal that your team was always responsible so greatly alienated them from the nomadic for.26 This statute allowed each team to grassland Mongols that these “true Mongols” become highly specialized while also began to see the acculturated Mongols as preventing these same people from utilizing “minzu traitors,” that simply acted as tools for their knowledge for monetary gain. This the Han leadership to exploit.23 highly regimented space and the limitations it The Han exploited these rejected placed on the social mobility of herders during Mongols in various ways. The Han would the collectivization period were highly force those Mongols that were not lucky indicative of a Mencius’ theory of the “well- enough to remain herders to “process animal field system.”27 products, carry out construction, cultivate Despite the collectivization fields, or undertake a variety of utility tasks” movement’s negative effects on the Mongol such as eradicating the wolves.24 Therefore, it herders, such as limiting their social and was only through the actions of the Sinicized monetary mobility of the herders themselves, Mongols, working with the Han, that the wolves were driven out of the Olonbulag. A 25 task that could only be completed through the Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 70. 26Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 70. 27 Mencius, trans. David Hinton (Washington, D.C.: 20 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 195. Counterpoint, 1998): 87: This theory was called the 21 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 11, “…The wolf is the ancestor of “well-field system.” In this system each family is given the dog.” an equal share of the farm land available within the 22 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 273. defined boundaries of the nation. These families would 23 Khan, “Who Are the Mongols?” 149. Jiang, Wolf then begin to farm as a community. Each peasant’s Totem, 60-61. family would then be responsible for cultivating a 24 Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 70. different crop on their section of the farmland.

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its division of the pasture land among various pasturelands, because once they have made animals, without overcrowding them, enough money they plan to return to China, provided a reasonable level of environmental often times to pursue business.30 The other sustainability. However, after the grasslands main way that herders have overgrazed the became de-collectivatized and land ultimately grassland is through unofficial adjustments to became available for sale during the 1980s, it the size of their pastureland by moving the brought about the removal of the positive fences that surround the two pastures.31 By effects of the Han cultural invasion of Inner moving these fences, it becomes possible for a Mongolia. Privatization provided the herders herder to own more animals while not causing with the new found freedom to not only own more damage to the grassland. as much land as they could afford, but the Despite provisional economic and freedom to choose what animals and crops environmental successes of the would be on this land. collectivization period, the Han’s invasion of These newly created and now the Inner Mongolian grasslands in order to privately owned parcels of land were outlined bring their Mongol neighbors the boon of by fences, a fixture that had not previously sedentary agriculture has all but failed to existed on the Inner Mongolian grassland.28 increase the average Mongol herder’s quality These fences represent the true taming of the of life. In addition, the decollectivization and land by the Han. This taming is reflected in privatization of the grasslands are the leading the Han’s traditional use of walls means of cause of desertification on the Inner metaphysical separation, often building walls Mongolian grassland today.32 Therefore it is around small rural towns and factories to not unreasonable to suggest that the rapid denote that everything within these walls is desertification of the Inner Mongolian Chinese and everything outside of them is Autonomous Region could have been avoided not.29 By surrounding the privately owned if the Han had seen the value in the Mongols pasturelands of the Mongols, they are traditional lifestyle, and invested in strategies symbolically granted the status of Han, a title to make Mongols’ system more effective at which the Han have imbued with meanings pastureland conservation while keeping up such as civilized and advanced. Therefore, the with the demands of an ever increasing herders, their land, and their animals became national population. acceptable forms of Han style sedentary The Han’s unilateral alteration of the agriculture. Despite the fences ability to Mongols’ traditional nomadic herding lifestyle symbolically accept the Mongols and their has done nothing but change the once vibrant lifestyle into China’s national narrative, these Inner Mongolian grasslands into a landscape fences are ultimately responsible for the most marred by “large patches of hard sandy soil widespread form of land abuse among the [that] filled the spaces between sparse, dry herders, namely overgrazing. yellow grassland, as if giant sheets of Overgrazing is a product of greed. sandpaper had been spread across the There are two main ways that herders of both ground”.33 Han and Mongol descent have been responsible for the degradation of their pastureland due to overgrazing. The first of these two ways results from the herder purchasing massive amounts of animals that 30 Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 518. he will then sell for quick money. Those 31 Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 126. 32 herders that employ this strategy to herding Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 126. 33 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 508. do not care about the preserving their

28 Jiang, Wolf Totem, 510. 29 Williams, Beyond Great Walls, 64.

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DR. SUSAN SCHMIDHT-HORNING: resources provided to students by St. John’s The two papers by Sean Buckley and University. I spent more time on the Shirley Guo began as Academic Service- University’s library website and in the Learning projects in my Technology library itself than I had on any other project and Science in Twentieth Century America course, partnered with Maple to date. This project allowed me to use the Grove Cemetery. Carl Ballenas, Maple school’s resources more fully, which resulted Grove’s historian-at-large, helped in a stronger presentation. students select their subjects from the The presentation at Maple Grove was “permanent residents” of Maple Grove by far one of the more rewarding experiences (except Jacob Riis, whose wife is buried I have had for a class at St. John’s. Being there), and begin their research in able to present our work to members of the Maple Grove’s archives. On December 5, 2012, the class presented their community has a far greater impact than research to members of the community simply receiving a grade. Giving an oral at the Maple Grove Visitor Center. presentation required me to understand the material I was researching while also Charles Matthews Manly: refining my public speaking skills. This challenging and beneficial experience is one One in a Million Assistant that I will not soon forget. and Aviator

Sean Buckley, Class of 2013. Born in Stanton, Virginia on April 24, 1876, Charles Matthew Manly was one of the Active-Service Learning Project with Maple more important American engineers and Grove Cemetery. aviation pioneers. He received his elementary education in South Carolina, and went on to The process of researching Charles Manly attend both Missouri University and Furman proved to be a rigorous and difficult one, as University, where his father served as there were few reliable sources that focused university president. He graduated from solely on him. Much of the information that Furman with a master’s degree in Carl Bellenas (Maple Grove’s Historian) mathematics and engineering in 1896. Soon provided gave me a useful starting point for afterward, Manly attended Cornell University, my research, filling in much of Manly’s basic from which he graduated in 1898 with a background information. One large problem degree in mechanical engineering in that I faced was the lack of available details absentia.34 His work at Cornell piqued the on Manly’s life beyond his involvement with interest of Robert Thurston, one of his test flights. Since published books primarily professors, who helped launch Manly’s career documented Manly’s work alongside Stanley in the field of engineering and aerodynamics. Pierpont Langley, I had to turn to websites While Manly was attending Cornell for more intimate information on other University, Professor Thurston received a call aspects of Manly’s life. from the secretary of the Smithsonian The rooting out of bad websites Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley. allowed me to gain a better grasp on how to Langley was undertaking a project for the properly search sources on the Internet. I Smithsonian that was funded by the Board of realized how vital it is for a website to openly Ordinance and Fortification. This project identify their sources. For example, one website I visited claimed that Manly received 34 50 patents for his work, while others claimed Archie Vernon Huff, Greenville: The History of the City and County in the South Carolina Piedmont he received as many as 100. Prior to this (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, research, I had not fully appreciated the 1995), 274.

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aimed to develop the first manned engine- Langley’s specifications.36 By the turn of the powered aircraft. Langley specifically 20th century, Manly and Langley decided that requested a “young man who is morally they either needed a new partner or a new trustworthy (‘a good fellow’) with some engine, perhaps one that employed steam gumption and a professional training”35 who instead of gasoline power. The pair traveled would operate as his assistant for his to Europe by steamship in an attempt to find a aeronautical work. Thurston recommended European engine builder who would succeed Manly, who Langley hired and placed in where Balzer had failed. In Europe, Manly charge of construction on Langley’s visited the Paris Exposition where he was Aerodrome project. introduced to a lightweight combustion engine. While Manly and Langley saw great promise in these models, many Europeans scoffed at the idea that such a light engine would be able to create the power Langley and Manly required. Returning to America, Manly went back to Balzer in order to continue the work they had started. Balzer had by that point spent the grant money and had even burned $10,000 from his own pocket, nearly bankrupting himself in the process. Manly offered to forgive the loans in return for being able to take the two prototype engines Balzer had made prior to Manly’s departure to Europe. Ending his direct partnership with Figure 3: Charles Matthew Manly and Samuel Balzer, Manly began to experiment on Pierpont Langley. improving the engine on his own. By September of 1900 Manly had already The Board of Ordinance and improved on Balzer’s design, creating a 180- Fortification provided Langley with a $50,000 pound engine that was able to produce grant to complete The Great Aerodrome. eighteen horsepower, , thought it could only Prior to his work on the Aerodrome, Langley run for between three and four minutes. had experimented with model planes using Manly attributed the slow progress to the miniature steam engines, yet for this project limited knowledge of engineers at the time, he planned on create a plane powered by a gas explaining “at the time very little was known engine. Manly’s responsibility was to help about the ‘proper way of constructing’ an Langley create such an engine. In order to engine and what work had been done was accomplish this, Manly turned to Stephen M. jealously guarded against patent theft by the Balzer, a New York auto builder. The pair set automobile industry.”37 to work trying to build a twelve horsepower The first real breakthrough in Manly’s engine that included gears, shafts, and work came in December of 1901, when he propellers. The first engine they created, however, was not powerful enough to meet 36 Stephen B. Goddard, Race to the Sky: The Wright Brothers Versus the United States Government (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2009), 97. 37 Giacinta Bradley Koontz, “Past Contact! Mechanics 35 Smithsonian Institution Research Information System. in Aviation History: The ‘Other’ First Aircraft Mechanic “Charles M. Manly Papers, 1895-1925 (bulk 1903- Charles Mathews Manly” Aviation Pros, on-line article 1915).” http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ (December 2008), http://www.aviationpros.com/ ipac.jsp?uri=full=3100001~!227954!0 (accessed article/10377209/past-contact-mechanics-in-aviation- November 3, 2012). history (accessed April 28, 2013).

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began successfully testing his engines, known Although much of the information at the time as power plants. Using an engine known about Charles Manly’s life comes from with a five-spoke, radial design continuously the time he spent as Samuel Langley’s cooled by wet towels, Manly was able to create assistant, many of his major contributions in 52 horsepower that, including the water- helping to advance modern technology came cooling system, weighed 191 pounds. Having after his failed flight attempts. Following the generated the necessary amount of power, near-fatal Aerodrome crashes in 1903 Manly Manly began testing the engine in a model of returned to work at the Smithsonian the Great Aerodrome, which hung from a Institution. For two years Manly continued ceiling about ten feet off the ground.38 After his work cataloging his and Langley’s flight exposing it to extreme conditions, including experiments. In 1905 the United States thirty mile-an-hour winds, Manly was government, which had been funding Manly’s confident enough to put his engine design to projects ever since he joined the Smithsonian, real-life testing. cut its support. This forced Manly to leave the On October 7, 1903 Manly served as Smithsonian and seek independent work. the test pilot for the inaugural flight of the Manly continued to work with Samuel Great Aerodrome. Beginning its launch off Langley, compiling an expansive account of the back of a houseboat, the Aerodrome their flight tests. In 1911, Langley completed “rushed down its track – impressively and an original manuscript, Memoirs on majestically, according to witnesses. But on Mechanical Flight, entrusting Manly with the reaching the end of the launch track, it task of editing this work.41 The memoire is plunged sharply downward.”39 The one of the more comprehensive sources on the Aerodrome fell off the front of the houseboat early history of flight and aerodynamic and crashed into the Potomac River, from engineering. which Manly was fished and brought to shore. After helping Langley edit his Undeterred, Manly attempted to fly again on memoire, Manly continued to work December 8, 1903. Once again set atop its independently to improve the performance houseboat launch pad, the Aerodrome was and quality of his engine designs. Manly sent down the track and was launched at a asserted that although his engine required steeper angle. The change in angle caused the improvements, it was not fundamentally aircraft to tilt ninety degrees until it was flawed. Over the next four years Manly straight in the air with its nose pointing garnered over 50 patents for various planes upward.40 The craft then once again fell to the and automobile engine designs as well as for Potomac, in this case trapping Manly under power generation and transmission the frigid water for nearly two minutes. improvements.42 By the outbreak of World Manly suffered extensive spinal damage, thus War I, Manly moved on to what ultimately ending his test pilot career. Manly would have became an extensive career in consulting and a great toll exacted from him for his work in advising. In 1915 Manly served as an advisor completing the Manly-Balzer engine. Having to the British War Office, assisting as an done much of the metalworking himself, he engineering and managerial consultant. His was exposed to an extremely high level of efforts toward the war effort helped increase metal dust, which would impact his health for the use of planes to supply troops and the rest of his life. transport goods. During World War I, planes

38 Koontz, “Past Contact!,” 41 The 456th Fighter Interception Squadron. “Charles M. 39 Robert D. Launius, Innovation and the Development Manly: An Early American Innovator in of Flight (Dallas: Texas A&M University Press, Aircraft Engines.” http://www.456fis.org/THE_ 1999), 25. HISTORY_OF_FLIGHT_-_CHARLES_MANLY.htm 40 David P. Billington, Power, Speed, and Form: (accessed November 1, 2012). Engineers and the Making of the Twentieth Century 42 Ernie Gross, This Day in American History (Jefferson, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006): 120. N.C.: McFarland, 1990), 136.

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were not used widely in combat situations, yet of the original standards and requirements for they contributed significantly to scouting and plane safety and efficiency. He worked to supply missions. Such missions required raise the bar on the quality of engines and reliable engines, many of which used aspects frame design for the earliest commercial of the original Manly-Balzer design. One of planes.44 In 1919, Manly was elected the mainstays of the Royal Armed Forces president of the SAE. He continued working during World War I, for example, was the as a consultant until his premature death in RAF SE5a “Scout,” which contained an engine 1927 at the age of 51. The main causes of his with spokes that descended directly from relatively early death were the injuries he Manly’s original design. Manly later received sustained during the failed flight attempts, as international acclaim for his participation in well as the damage done to his respiratory the United States Commission to the system while he was working on his first International Aircraft Conference in London engine designs. in 1918. After his death, the SAE, Manly’s Following his work with the British former employer, honored his legacy in the War Office Manly took a job at the Curtiss field of aerodynamics by creating the Charles Aeroplane and Motor Corporation working for M. Manly Memorial Medal in 1928, which aerodynamics pioneer Glenn Curtiss. Curtiss they award to the best paper submitted to the is most famous for his participation in the SAE on aerodynamic engines or Aerial Experiment, undertaken in 1907 with “powerplants.”45 In addition, his reputation the intent to getting a manned flight in the as a forefather of aviation was cemented by air.43 Working under Curtiss, Manly spent the Smithsonian Institution, which two years working as the general manager of posthumously awarded Manly its Langley the company’s mass production assembly line. Gold Medal for Aerodromics on December 12, The pair’s work would have mixed results. 1929. At the time, this award was presented One of the first commercially produced to individuals who had made substantial aircraft, the Glenn Curtiss “Junebug,” was contributions to the birth and early shaping of based on the two men’s designs and aviation. Manly was honored with the award implementation. Manly and Curtiss were for his pioneering work in engineering and his ahead of their time in trying to develop the lifelong contributions to improving the first “Flying Car” and mass produce it. This popularity and quality of aviation in America. was essentially a car with a propeller on its He was only the fifth recipient of the Medal, front and two wings sprouting out from it the previous four including the Wright sides. Unfortunately for Manly and Curtiss, brothers, Glenn Curtiss, and Charles the “Flying Car” failed both aerodynamically, Lindberg, the first person to travel across the and as a result, commercially. Atlantic Ocean from America to France by Prior to working with the Curtiss plane.46 By joining the company of these Aeroplane and Motor Corporation, Manly was other men, Manly was forever linked to the offered a position by the Society of pantheon of great American aviators who Automotive Engineers (SAE) – an shaped the early history of aviation industry. organization that remains active to this day. Many of Manly’s papers and original designs In 1917, the SAE hired him as a research engineer to oversee the development of new 44 David Marshall and Bruce Harris, Wild About Flying!: engine designs for both planes and cars. It Dreamers, Doers, and Daredevils (Ontario: Firefly was also during this time that Manly set many Books, 2003), 10. 45 SAE International. “Charles M. Manly Memorial Medal.” http://www.sae.org/news/awards/list/manly/ 43 Glenn H. Curtiss Museum. “About the Man: Glenn (accessed October 12, 2012). Hammond Curtiss.” http://www.glennhcurtissmuseum. 46 Smithsonian Institution Archives. “Langley Medal org/museum/glenncurtiss.html (accessed December 1, Awarded to Byrd and Manly.” http://siarchives.si.edu/ 2012). collections/ (accessed November 1, 2012).

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are still housed in the Smithsonian Institution Archives. Charles Manly’s work in the fields of engineering and aerodynamics still continues to influence the modern world. His five-spoke engine design remained at the forefront of airplane propulsion for nearly 30 years after his death. Propeller-driven planes made up the majority of all aircraft until the end of World War II, at which point the use of jet engines began to rise in popularity. In the 1950’s jet engines nearly wiped out the need for propeller engines in combat aircraft. Yet engines based off of the Manly-Balzer engine are still in use today among small aircraft including crop dusters, advertising planes, and small commercial planes. Manly’s engines also found new life in racing cars across the world. The hydraulic that he developed also became critical to the construction of larger industrial vehicles, including buses, bulldozers, and sports cars. Without the Manly-Balzer engine, the modern vehicular landscape would look very different than how it does today.

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I also encountered a number of challenges while completing my research. It Social Reform of Jacob Riis1 was difficult to identify which sources best illustrate Riis’ passion for social reform. This Shirley Guo, Class of 2014 is because there is a wealth of information on Riis’ work on tenement housing and his focus on immigrants. The volume of material Active-Service Learning Project with Maple made it difficult to choose which particular Grove Cemetery. sources most appropriately highlighted Riis’ efforts to serve the working class. A number While doing this research, my of Riis’ books shed light on the daily lives of partner and I received valuable help from immigrants. They include stories of Carl Ballenas, the historian at Maple Grove individual families that encountered financial Cemetry, who introduced us to our research struggles and describe how they took subjects. Mr. Ballenas provided valuable desperate measures to make ends meet. background information on James E. Ware Although these were very interesting who, like Jacob Riis, was deeply involved in primary source documents, I decided to focus proposing and planning public housing plans primarily on Riis’ most prominent book, How for immigrants. Ware’s attention was the Other Half Lives, because it provided a focused primarily on the well-being and more analytic approach toward questions of living conditions of the poor. In many ways, how and why he became so passionate about his concerns about immigrants and their the poor. This book most clearly articulated poor living conditions reflected those of Jacob Riis’ perspective and his opinions on the Riis. The living conditions of the immigrants crippling effects that greed and tenement in cramped tenements were important housing had on the lives of tenants. It also factors that influenced and motivated both of provided useful statistics that gave me an these great reformers to seek improvement understanding of the high mortality rates in and change in immigrants’ lives. tenements and the unsanitary living Mr. Ballenas provided us with an conditions that helped spread diseases. introduction to the character and life of My presentation was a great James E. Ware prior to when he became a opportunity to share my work with other famous social reformer. This information people. I was particularly excited to present shed light on Ware’s life as a talented and the photographs of Jacob Riis, which so passionate architect who was interested in vividly illustrated the pain and suffering of his profession. He was known primarily for immigrants who struggled with incredible designing beautiful, private residences for financial hardships. During the wealthy people; had also worked on presentation, I was not as nervous as when I designing bridges. Learning this type of first practiced it in class because I was well information was interesting because it made prepared and ready to share what I learned. me reflect on how and why Ware made the I found the presentations very informative transition from working for wealthy people and my family and I learned from other to being devoted to poor immigrants. More groups about their research. importantly, Ware’s life provided me with a greater understanding of the context of Jacob Riis’ critiques of social neglect towards A prominent social reformer of the tenements in the nineteenth century. early twentieth century, Jacob Riis advocated for tenement housing reform and revealed the 1 This research was done with the help of Carl Ballenas, daily struggles of the immigrant working Maple Grove historian, and Drs. Horning and Misevich class. In order to understand his dedication to from the St. John’s University History Department. 52 Historia et Memoria

the poor, it is important to examine Riis’ to capture cramped living spaces and experiences as an immigrant and analyze how illuminate the array of objects that cluttered his background inspired his work. Similar to the tiny rooms. The effect of these photos was his subjects, Riis was an immigrant, having transformative; it instantly grabbed the arrived in New York in 1870 from Denmark attention of viewers. These photographs with only forty dollars in his pocket. Alone served as strong evidence of the harsh living and just twenty-one years old, Riis left behind conditions that immigrants endured. Viewers his parents and thirteen siblings seeking could clearly visualize the desperate financial employment as a carpenter in the United situation of a typical immigrant family by States. Struggling to earn a steady income, looking into the sullen eyes of a mother Riis lived in impoverished neighborhoods that cradling her baby in a cramped, filthy room. were surrounded with filthy tenement No longer could the American public ignore housing. His horrifying living experiences in New York’s poor. Just one of Riis’ tenements were crucial factors that inspired photographs brought to life the horror and his later prominent social initiatives. Seven hollow feelings of immigrant communities years after Riis arrived in the United States, more powerfully than many text-based he was employed as a police reporter for the articles. Thus the technical revolution in early New York Tribune, through which he earned photography equipment enabled Riis to a steady income and improved his living develop a new weapon in the fight to improve conditions. Although he started working as a conditions for American immigrants. police reporter in 1877, it was not until eleven Adaptation to new technology played years later his career took off when he a crucial role in Jacob Riis’ career as a incorporated photography into his work that photojournalist and social reformer for public exposed the destitute living environments of housing. Similar to famous inventors and the poor working class. amateurs who depended on technology, Riis Riis’ local fame represented a turning point in encountered difficulties when experimenting his life, enabling him to more deeply pursue with new equipment and required assistance his passion for social reform and shine a light from a group of specialists. We tend to on the struggling immigrant class. Ultimately, visualize Riis as a hero who highlighted Jacob Riis’ early experiences as a struggling problems associated with deplorable living immigrant in New York influenced his role as conditions and advocated for the poor, who a social reformer. were powerless. Images of Riis portray him as Jacob Riis used emerging a kind of loner, showing him traveling to slum photography equipment, in particular the districts and impoverished neighborhoods flash powder, to reveal the shabby living with his photography equipment. But in conditions in New York public housing. The reality, Riis’ success as an advocate for social flash powder gun was a crucial technology reform did not originate solely from his own that Riis relied on to take shocking work and dedication towards the immigrant photographs of tenements. It produced the working class. Given that the early desired quality of brightness through a photography equipment was large and chemical reaction of magnesium and laborious, Riis needed a team of people to potassium powder. As an amateur assist him with taking photographs of photographer, Riis was constantly tenement living spaces. Operating the experimenting with the flash gun and was equipment required teamwork: some eager to improve the quality of photographs to individuals were in charge of positioning the produce realistic still-life images. The bright tripod and others were charged with igniting light ultimately helped Riis capture still the chemical reaction to produce the desired photographs of living spaces that had poor bright light. Besides the technical difficulties lighting. With brighter lighting, Riis was able of managing photography, Riis needed

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assistance from specialists in the field who the surroundings, viewers can perfectly provided valuable information about the flaws visualize the life of a typical immigrant, of tenement housing. For example, Riis whether from the clothesline filled with depended on assistance from the President of clothes or the dense gathering of people the Board of Health, who provided mortality outside of their living spaces. Viewers statistics for the tenements. Another key to suddenly understood how the cramped living Riis’ success was Chief Inspector Byrnes of the environment influenced immigrants’ ways of New York Police Force, who provided Riis living. For instance, the crowded clothesline with information from the Registrar of Vital revealed clothing from multiple families who Statistics that revealed the unreasonably high shared the same floor. Also, the presence of monthly rent payments that exploited the men standing alongside their tenements immigrant class.2 With their assistance, Riis revealed their preference to go outside for was able to gather evidence, raise public fresh air. Tenants lived in very tight and at awareness and ultimately confront the times unsanitary spaces where diseases government about social issues using these spread easily. Due to these unsanitary troubling statistics. By working with people conditions, men or children often preferred to who were experts in their fields, Riis was able stay out in the alleyways in open spaces rather to clearly present the issue of public housing than being trapped in their crowded living and highlight its problematic areas. All in all, spaces. The faces in this photograph stare Riis performed comprehensive research and intently back at its viewers, making this image demonstrated passionate involvement by a particularly powerful one. Their collective collaborating with professionals of various stares haunt the viewer, inviting a look into fields to present an alarming, visual picture of the subjects’ lives and consideration of how the tenements. they coped with their living environment. Riis The defining factor that separated perfectly captures a mood that provokes Riis from other active social reformers of his among viewers a sense of guilt and time was his striking photographs, which awkwardness as they witness the shabby produced an emotional impact on society. living environments of the poor. This Just by looking at one of his photographs, one photograph was among one of the many can clearly visualize the daily struggles and meaningful ones that exposed viewers to the challenges that immigrant families faced. Riis lives of immigrants. had a talent for capturing moments when his In addition to his photography, Riis subjects’ sullen facial expressions conveyed was an ardent writer who completed several messages of hardships and poverty. This books about the lives of immigrants and the created an emotional connection between his financial struggles they faced. One of his viewers and his subjects, causing viewers to notable literary achievements was his book feel sympathetic for the impoverished How the Other Half Lives, which was immigrants. One particularly striking published in 1890. The book was a perfect photograph was “Bandit’s Roost, 59 ½ companion to his vivid, emotional Mulberry Street,”3 taken in 1887. The photographs; both were important resources photograph highlights a cramped alleyway for highlighting important social issues where men stood by their tenements. From pertaining to immigrants. Most importantly, it revealed Riis’ personal concern and passion 2 Jacob Riis, How The Other Half Lives: Studies Among for improving the living conditions of the Tenements of New York (New York: Charles immigrants. Tenement housing was a central Scribner’s Sons, 1890): Preface. topic throughout this book. Riis believed that 3 Museum of the City of New York, www.mcny.org. http://collections.mcny.org/C.aspx?VP3=SearchResult_ poor conditions in the tenements were the VPage&VBID=24UP1GVHNW7G&SMLS=1 main reason for the suffering of the poor (accessed October 25, 2012). working class. For example, he states that

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“the boundary line of the Other Half lies light or ventilation…. [and] soon became…. through tenements,”4 suggesting that loose in morals, improvident in habits, immigrants were immediately identified as degraded, and squalid as beggary itself”.5 The comprising the “other half” because of their poor immigrant class thus suffered as a result living environments. Riis defined the “other of the greed of tenement owners and the half” as a group of people who were neglected bribery of politicians from tenement by society, even looked down upon due to contractors. Their living conditions were their housing conditions. Because they lived unbearable - unfit for human occupation. in poverty-stricken neighborhoods, They had few options but to accept immigrants were treated as outcasts, exploitation at the hands of greedy political subjected to discrimination and blamed for and financial leaders. Through his writing high crime rates. In order to challenge and photography, Riis asked New Yorkers to discrimination and prejudice, Riis sought to reflect on their actions and recognize their tell a different story of the “other half,” one of responsibilities toward the lower class. All of their struggles to support their families and Riis’ work was designed to invigorate a spirit find ways to integrate into American society. of social reform and inspire change for social Through the book, Riis clearly illustrates how improvement. Should people focus less on living in tenements affected immigrants’ themselves and their financial interests, Riis social identities. argued that there would be hope for a better Although he focused primarily on future for immigrants. raising concerns about tenement housing, Riis also passionately argued against greed, which he felt was corrupting 19th-century New York. Riis believed that greed was a central evil that pushed peoples’ hearts away from performing charitable and moral deeds for the needy. Evidence of greed was present among politicians who neglected the needs of the poor in favor of serving their own financial interests. Politicians’ ambitious goals and avaricious behaviors made them stray away from their responsibility to look after the social well being of poor people. They had failed to mandate laws combating health problems, preventing the spread of diseases and respiratory concerns that arose in tenements. Riis also confronted greed among Figure 4: Bandit's Roost by Jacob Riis tenement owners who, Riis argued, allowed growing numbers of poor renters to flood the tenements in an attempt to collect more rent from these desperate, homeless immigrants. Tenement owners even constructed illegal living spaces for new families, violating their responsibility to look out for the safety of their tenants. This resulted in degrading health standards as living areas were “partitioned into several smaller ones, without regard to

4 Riis, How The Other Half Lives, 2. 5 Riis, How The Other Half Lives, 8.

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of the chapters flowed into another, and that Writing Historical Fiction the characters behaved consistently, leading to a cohesive story. We even gave Longinus to Connect with History. some sidekicks, and at one point, a wife, and these additional characters provided continuity throughout a book that spanned Patrick Homeyer over three hundred years of Mediterranean history. I was a student in Dr. Cooper’s After Rome In the middle of the process, once we fully Class, and when we were told part of our understood the magnitude of the task in front grade would depend on completing a group- of us, we began to divide the chapters oriented, creative writing assignment, there amongst ourselves to edit. Spring Break were sighs in the classroom as students involved more editing and afterwards we proclaimed “but we are not English majors.” began the publishing process. Publishing a Each group was given the assignment to write book was a difficult task to say the least. After a chapter of a historical fiction book based in spending about a week researching how to one of eight Mediterranean cities: Cordova, selfish publish a novel on the Internet, we Arles, Ravenna, Split, Constantinople, finally got to it. During the publishing process, Antioch, Alexandria and Carthage. During the I discovered that editing was a small latter half of the class, I worked alongside two roadblock compared to the arduous journey of other members of the class to research and publishing. Who would have thought that write historical fiction about Carthage. We adding pictures and formatting a book would chose the year of 439, and the Vandal be so difficult? invasion. The assignment was a lot of fun and Once the book was finally on the Internet our really helped our class connect with history in triumphant trio let out a sigh of relief. In the a unique way. No longer were historical following weeks, we not only held a book- figures, faceless and emotionless people of the launch party, but we were also featured in a past. Through the creative writing story in the Torch. These events were a lot of assignment, each group was able to breathe fun and in the process of editing and new life back into an ancient city. The best publishing the book Professor Cooper, Paige part of the class was the last week, when we and I forged a life-long friendship. This presented a small section of our piece to our experience taught me how creative writing classmates. The class decided that the mixed with historical fact can provide for a chapters in the book we were writing would be meaningful learning experience. American linked together by the character of Longinus, students seem to know less each year about the centurion who pierced Christ’s side with the history of our country, let alone the world. his spear, and was consequently immortal. This serious problem can somewhat, if not Much of the action in the book involved fully, be attributed to young people feeling Longinus trying to secure his spear, which had disconnected from history. Movies, though become the Spear of Destiny, with the power not always historically accurate, have helped to grant certain victory to those who wielded bring awareness to certain past events, and it. reading historically-based fiction appeals to At the end of the semester, Professor Cooper some students more than non-fiction history, announced to the class that she would be so why can writing historical-fiction not do accepting applications for a Spring Semester the same, especially when it necessitates internship position to edit the book. Professor serious research? Below are extracts from the Cooper decided to select me and a fellow very beginning and the very end of the book. student, Paige Ingram. The following semester, we would meet every Wednesday at Carthage 439. the Writing Center to work on editing a chapter of the novel. From the beginning, I The Vandals were at the walls of Carthage, the figured we would have the whole book done in city that for years had been the economic life- a month or two: I was as wrong. Editing the line of the Roman Empire. Now it stood before a book involved more than just correcting a few wave of terror, ready to come crashing down at misspelled words or punctuation problems. any moment. Children frantically lunged into The real work involved making sure each one their mothers’ arms as they were swept away,

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to be hidden behind locked doors. Men, young “We have been overrun!” some of the and old, rummaged under beds and in dusty men began to scream and Titus knew it to be cupboards for old shields and dull swords, and true. Carthage was lost, but he knew that his then sprinted through the empty streets to join family did not have to be. Once he would have the soldiers upon Carthage’s great walls. sacrificed everything for Rome, but those days Titus stood stone-still upon the battlements, his were behind him now, and he decided to do eyes fixed purposefully on the horizon. He was what would have been unthinkable while he struck by the irony that as a young man he had served in the army: he decided to run away. laid siege to more cities than he could He knew his only chance was to get his wife and remember in the name of Rome, and now, as an children into one of the boats anchored at the old man, he waited to defend one. He had seen docks. Titus rushed half-way down the many battles as an officer in the Roman Army, battlement steps and then lunged forwards and before he had moved to Carthage fifteen years upwards to grab onto the edge of the roof of an earlier. His brother already lived in the African adjacent building. His grip was not good and he port and had written to Titus often, describing started to feel himself slip, then, as if by a Carthage as a place where an old soldier could miracle, he felt someone catch his foot and push retire to watch his children grow in safety and him upwards. his gold increase dramatically through the From the rooftop he turned and tried to imperially controlled wheat trade. see who had helped him make his ignoble His brother had been right, and after escape. But he could see nothing in the darkness going into the wheat business together they had until, just for a second, a burst of flame prospered immensely. Like his brother he had illuminated the courtyard below and he married a Berber woman and the two families glimpsed a man with a scarred, weather-beaten had become very close, particularly his son and face looking up at him with a concerned nephew, Idir and Ameqran, who had recently expression. Then the man pulled up the hood of started to work in the business they would one his long grey cloak and fled across the cobbles. day inherit. At least, that had been the plan, now all that might change. The Rock of Gibraltar, 714 Despite his mercantile life, Titus was still known throughout Carthage as a The boat was about three hours into the formidable warrior. His reputation was such voyage and Tariq was dozing a little on his bunk, when he heard a noise. Clutching his that all the men, soldiers and civilians alike, dagger in his hand he was shocked to see part looked to him for leadership. of the wall in front of him move aside and two “Men ready yourself for the horde that figures jump out at him. lies ahead,” Titus roared, “Many of you have In a flash, Tariq had his knife at the seen battle before, some of you have not. But throat of one of the pair, but at the same time he you must all fight to save your families! To save felt a blade at his own throat. the man next to you! To save the honor of It took his mind a moment to register what the assassins had yelled as they had Rome! To save Carthage! ” sprung out of the hidden compartment on the The men began to cheer, as a mixture ship. “Surprise, Surprise!!” What kind of of fear and adrenaline coursed through their assassins yell surprise? thought Tariq. veins. Titus knew his role well, and continued to A second later, the two hysterical fire up the troops. With perfect timing he captains, Idir and Ameqran, appeared below concluded his speech as the assault was upon decks laughing and pointing. He looked down them. at the man under his knife and saw the curly white hair of his old friend Isaac. Then he “Ready yourself men!” Titus instructed followed the arm that held the blade to his own in a calm fashion, “Hold...hold...fight, victory throat and saw the grinning face of Longinus. will be ours!” Then Tariq began to chuckle as loudly In his heart, however, Titus knew they as the Berber captains. The five of them ended were seriously outmatched and within the hour up in fits of laughter, which began anew every the battle was turning against them. time Tariq tried to ask for an explanation. Tariq knew he was the butt of their big joke, but

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he also felt something else that night that he had may have made me legally free so I could win never felt before: he was loved for who he was, Hispania for him, but I knew I would never be not valued only for what he could do. free of him until I died. And now I am. Eventually, when they had all calmed “I’m dead,” he said. “I have nothing. I down a little, Isaac told Tariq that they had got am nobody. Isn’t it wonderful? What are we wind of a plan by Musa to kill Tariq on the way going to do?” to Damascus. At the same time he would be rid “Isaac has a notion that he wants to of all the letters he had that might exonerate follow. Go on, tell him Isaac,” said Longinus Tariq. If things went badly for Musa, he meant sardonically. to blame Tariq for all that he could. Tariq’s “I want to go to China,” said the old disappearance would lend credence to Musa’s Jewish doctor sheepishly. He had been tales of his culpability. It seemed, though, that expecting the kind of incredulous reaction that this was just one of the many rumors that were he had received from Longinus when he had circulating regarding why Tariq would leave expressed a wish to study medicine at the other his beloved city of Córdoba. side of the world. Longinus told him that he had used “Then China it shall be, my dear friend some of his contacts in the shipping world to Isaac,” said Tariq. “I am a man of reduced locate the boat on which Tariq was to be means now that I am dead and can no longer murdered. It had been an easy bargain that Idir charge my silk outfits to Musa. China is where had struck to persuade the captain of that boat silk comes from isn’t it? It must be cheaper to accept an extra payment to allow him and there.” his cousin to take the Muslim general on his Longinus laughed at Tariq’s breezy final voyage instead. They had spun some tale logic. It seemed they were going to be seeing a about a family honor that had to be avenged. whole new side of Tariq now that he was free The captain that Musa had employed figured he from his obligations. was going to get paid twice for doing nothing, “Then China it will be,” said Longinus. and had taken the deal eagerly. “But first I have a small job to do in Antioch.” Longinus knew the old boat Izza well, “What’s that?” asked Tariq. and knew it had a secret room where Isaac and “Bury these spear heads in the tunnels he could hide in case Musa’s men came on in Mount Silpios in Antioch which lead from St board. He said he was sorry that they had given Peter’s church,” said Longinus, indicating a him a fright, and admitted that it was pretty large pile of at least thirty assorted spear childish. heads. “Pretty dangerous you mean,” said “What?” said Tariq. “I don’t Tariq good-naturedly. “I nearly slit Isaac’s understand. Why bury so many old spears?” throat. But what are you two actually doing “Well, my dear Tariq,” said Longinus. here, you could have swapped the boat without “It is a kind of riddle, and we all know how putting yourself to the trouble of coming to sea. much you like those. What if someone comes You will have a long journey back to Córdoba looking for a certain spear that is supposed to even if we put in at Carthago Nova.” have a lot of magic powers and it is rumored to “We are not going back to Córdoba,” be buried in Antioch. If they find one of these said Isaac. “We are coming with you.” they may be satisfied, and if they find several, “To Damascus?” asked Tariq. how will they know if it is the right one?” “Please try and keep up,” said “If the spear has these powers, won’t Longinus. “You are not going to Damascus. the person who found it be able to sense they How can you? You were killed by pirates on the had the right one,” asked Tariq. way.” “No,” said Longinus. “For it will not be “I was killed…” said Tariq, as the full there.” implication of what his friends had done Tariq groaned. He really was not very dawned on him. I am free, he thought. Musa good at riddles.

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Soviet tanks face off in Berlin. 1961, should be praised for the creative nature of its REVIEWS characters and the twists contained within its cold war plot and spy-studded prose. Though Donald J. Farinacci, 1961: Sliding it starts off slow, it could easily be an Towards Armageddon. Navigator enjoyable read for academics, students and Books, 2013. Pp. 252. Paperback $13. the popular readership. The author’s blending ISBN-13:9780985252359 of fact and fiction is done artfully, and the events within the novel appear as though they Donald J. Farinacci’s skillful book, 1961: actually could have happened. Characters Sliding Toward Armageddon, interweaves interact coolly, (though they are almost all fact and fiction to produce a genuinely male), and banter sometimes results in bursts entertaining novel. Premised on the year 1961 of dry and sardonic wit. Though extra- within the context of the Cold War, the novel knowledge of the period is not required combines historical accuracy regarding real however, I could see it as being helpful. world events and diplomacy, with high-geared Further, while the text is not exactly verbose, espionage. Farinacci’s tale is told from the it could only be heartily recommended to perspective of NATO intelligence, but enthusiasts in the general population, who particularly through third person narratives have a rudimentary understanding of this which give voice to United States field period. operatives, Intelligence officials, and top That being said, 1961 is a skillful work politicians like President JFK and the State deserving of recognition and of being read! Department’s Dean Rusk: this results in a rich Typically, works on this era are chock full of historical novel. While certain events, such as poorly synthesized information and lack the the Berlin Crisis of 1961 or the assignation of force that 1961 has as a historical novel. Dag Hammarskjöld are real, Farinacci uses Farinacci’s novel also could be used to spark them only as the backdrop to launch an debate in any humanities class over issue such intriguing tale of a network of spies, as genre and truth in English, Psychology, or influencing working to solve mystery and History classes. A fun, worthwhile read with curtail geopolitical disaster. However, the momentum and intrigue, 1961’s blend of book is not a collection of muses instead it danger, espionage, and mystery works, and it synthesizes a dynamic mole-hunt and manages to remain firmly rooted to a specific historical-spy epic. incidence within the historical cold war The Novel starts off in Tehran, were narrative. Information from a soviet dead-drop by two CIA members finds four encrypted envelopes Melvyn Threatt-Peters, Class of 2013 with biblical passages contained within. The action shifts to Western Berlin under command of Intelligence Officer Fred ______Reitenhauser, who works with several intelligence agents to undercover four Nancy Goldstone, Four Queens: The passages from the book of Revelations. From Provençal Sisters Who Ruled Europe. there, the Novel travels across Europe, to Penguin Books, 2008. Pp. 368. $14. America, and even to Africa. As the plot ISBN: 13: 9780143113256 focuses upon identifying a Russian spy within the American ranks, who is known only as Amy Goldstone’s Four Queens is a story that Jurist II, the book becomes an epic of double- needs to be told, because it explores the crossing, personal ambition, and agency of women where an everyday reader assassination. As Reitenhauser’s agents and would least expect agency to be: Medieval American intelligence attempts to identify the Europe. It provides a door into the thirteenth mole’s identity, Khrushchev makes demands century, offering insight into the lives of the of Kennedy to withdrawal from Western four Provencal sisters, Marguerite, Eleanor, Berlin. As the Americans attempt to manage Sanchia, and Beatrice, who despite their the fight over the Berlin Wall and the future humble beginnings grew up to effectively rule freedom of Europe, the Novel reaches its the great powers of the western world. The denouement. With both real and fictional text reads much like a novel might, developing stories playing out in parallel as American and Historia et Memoria 59

the character of each sister so that they are powerful as her eldest sisters, even going so more than faceless historical figures shrouded far as to sell her jewels in support of her in the mystery and obscurity of the past, but husband Charles’ pursuits in Italy—she died rather they become real living breathing having only just realized them. Marguerite women with hopes, desires, and aspirations and Eleanor, too, suffered questionable fates that are not wholly alien to contemporary in the end, having had their dowries cut off readers. The book begins in the country of from them as well as becoming alienated from Provence, a lush and agriculturally rich their sons who were now ruling in their own territory ruled by the Count and his wife, right. However, at one point all four women Beatrice. The couple had only daughters, but had had access to real political authority in a were able to marry each well by promising the way that confounds traditional renderings of same castles and territories as dowries to women’s place in the medieval past. multiple suitors and by impressing each suitor Goldstone’s presentation of the history is and his attendants with the munificence and compelling, accessible and readable. She sophistication of his court. Their court was divides the book into sections where each alive with troubadours and light chapter is told from the perspective of a entertainment, all quite feminine because of different sister, beginning and ending with the Countess and her daughters’ influence. Marguerite. Goldstone effectively provides the Furthermore, even though the Count himself space in her narrative for each sister to be was not wealthy, Provence was in a very considered independently and fairly. The fast important location and key to conflicts in pace of the text masks the enormous amount which the White Queen, Blanche of France of research required to undertake a project as was involved. Her interest in Provence, in sophisticated as Four Queens. However, it is addition to the Count’s own political presented in such a way that it can be easily aspirations, resulted in the marriage of consumed by a wider audience of non- Marguerite with the French heir, Louis. historians. Unfortunately, some of the only During this time, Marguerite was introduced sources available for historical inquiry into the to Blanche’s forceful personality and thirteenth century are by chroniclers whose overbearing influence. The French Queen was accounts might be skewed by personal able to manipulate any given situation political bias or affiliation, or by ambitions to through her patience, craftiness and enduring get into the good graces of the current willpower. Although the dowager and young reigning monarch. However, Goldstone queen’s personalities’ clashed, especially early effectively humanizes the voices of the on in Louis and Marguerite’s marriage, chroniclers, at times even quoting them, so ultimately Blanche served as a model of that they do not appear as authoritative as female power for Marguerite even after the third person omniscient voice might make former had lost political influence to her son them sound. She also relies heavily on what and daughter-in-law. information can be garnered from accounts, The second Provencal sister, Eleanor, was especially regarding money and numbers. close in age to Marguerite and was married to This historical book is at once entertaining the English King, Henry, just a few years after yet revealing because it shatters the Marguerite had left. Eleanor proved mighty misconceptions society harbors in regards to and ambitious, exhibiting the thirst and medieval women and their affairs. For the passion for furthering her position. The most part, we see those women exercising wedding of the third sister, Sanchia’s, to diplomacy, tactic, initiative, and strength. Henry’s brother, Richard of Cornwall, soon Marguerite saved her husband by gathering followed. Unlike her sisters, Sanchia was weak the ransom demanded while in a foreign land, and dependent on her mother and the most and caring for an infant and toddler – nursing fragile of them all. She had not adopted her while negotiating – that is an amazing concept sisters’ knack for ambitious pursuits and to consider. Eleanor sailed to Gascony in diplomatic, well-thought-out resolutions. To order to contribute in negotiations that would her dismay, she eventually became the Queen no doubt affect her son. She did this against of Germany, a title that would eventually cost the will of her husband, and mindful of the her life. Lastly, the youngest sister, Beatrice, risks. She repeated this when she sailed up the was wed with Louis’ younger brother, Charles Thames in order to reach Edward and urge of Anjou, and later became Queen of Sicily. him to resist Simon de Monfort. The courage She spent most of her life scheming to be as she displayed is quite shocking to any reader

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that has been taught that medieval women also places considerable blame on for their use were submissive and powerless. Even a side of brutal and often unnecessary urban warfare character like Shajar, the former slave of the tactics. Sultan of Cairo who eventually became his Armed Struggle begins with a wife, showed the remarkable ability to particularly helpful and extensive list of maneuver through different hands of abbreviations that were commonly used to authority, while still managing to gain power describe most of the organizations referenced and influence in her own right. Goldstone’s in the book (UVA, PIRA, UDA etc.). English greatest accomplishment is proving that these also includes two useful political maps, one of women possessed a determined will, had the whole thirty-two county Irish island, and desires, and were motivated to act on them. one showing the six county Northern Ireland. They did what they could for their time to His preface presents the reader with questions provide a voice for women and stand commonly asked about this period in Irish alongside men. History regarding the victims, and social and political aspects of the war. The book begins Donya Nasser, Class of 2015 and Maria- by delving into a brief overview of early IRA Irene Angelidis, Class of 2015. activity, including the Easter Rising on 1916, The Anglo-Irish Treaty, and the formation of ______the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Although the scope and purpose of this book Richard English. Armed Struggle: The remains on the Provisional IRA and their History of the IRA. New York: Oxford activity starting in the 1960s, English could University Press, 2004. Pp. 528. have shed more light on the reasons why IRA $25.50. ISBN-13:9780195177534 ideology took such a drastic turn during this time period, and how pivotal characters like Having already cemented himself Michael Collins and Eamon de Valera were among the world’s top IRA scholars with his responsible for this. The split experienced at extensive studies of IRA man Ernie O’Malley this time was crucial in the direction Irish and Socialist Irish Republicanism, Richard Republicanism took for the rest of the English of Queen’s University, Belfast’s century, and not nearly enough attention is Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA given to allow the reader a sufficient base presents as unbiased and fair an account as knowledge. one will ever read, on a topic filled with never In contrast to his lack of attention ending controversy. The book gives its reader given to the first quarter century of IRA an extensive look at nearly all facets of activity, in the last three quarters of the book twentieth century IRA activity, from the English gives an extensive scholarly account Easter Rising to the Good Friday agreement, of “The Troubles” that reads like a novel, yet and the people, from Ireland and abroad, who could give new insight to first time readers had a significant impact on this complex and and experts of the subject alike. His chapter violent period. English uses the eternally concerning the founding of the Provisional morphing political ideology of the IRA, from movement delves deep into the “the death of nationalist militia to socialist extremism to the IRA, a non-nationalist civil rights politicizing through the founding of the movement, loyalist aggression, and the birth current day Sinn Féin, as the basis for of the Provisionals”(81). English creates a explaining why particular events occurred suspenseful climate for the reader by when they did, and how outside stimuli discussing in detail events like the Burntollet impacted these events. The Queen’s march of 1969. His vivid imagery allows the University Professor of Politics debunks the reader to imagine the escalation of violence at common belief that the Northern Irish events like Burntollet, and how personal the Troubles of the latter half of the twentieth violence became to those living on the streets century was a war against imperialism. of cities like Belfast and Derry. He ties this English concludes that the Provisional IRA, into the Provisional movement under Cathal born from the civil rights movements of the Goulding, and their socialist inspiration taken 1960s, went wrong in their unsuccessful from the 1960s civil rights movements around attempt at applying Marxist ideals to the Europe and North America. English then movement. This led to a constant and violent presents Sinn Féin as a political entity in and tit for tat with British forces, which the author of itself, rather than the common

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misconception of being the IRA’s political and is followed by historical contexts of The wing, followed by a discussion of the former Gold Coast and a reading and classroom IRA man Gerry Adams’ role in the Good guide. Divided into five, each part is titled and Friday Agreement of 1998. contains a Ghanaian adinkra ideogram as a Particularly interesting is English’s metaphoric representation of its content. conclusion, in which he discusses negative Part I encompasses the artistic IRA portrayal in books and movies and dives depictions of Abina Mansah during her trail into the two sides of the issue. His claim is and testimony against Quamina Ebbo, a that with the ever-changing argument made wealthy man involved in the demanding palm by the IRA for their violent tactics, the blame oil business and enslavement, for illegally game also transformed, and the conflict was enslaving her. The struggle the judge, William never just about one side against another Melton, and his jury of “important men” (Catholic, Protestant, Unionist, Nationalist battled with was the decision between law and etc.). Aside from his lack of attention paid to profit. This historical recount can cause the early IRA activity, this book does an excellent reader to deeply sympathize with Abina’s job at debunking the common myths and situation and her desperate wish to be heard. beliefs many have about the Northern Irish For a more accurate account of Abina’s once conflict, and present new questions for unknown court case, Getz titles his second readers of all levels. Rather than sticking to part, “The Transcript”, to provide the primary one aspect (political, social, religious), English source of Abina’s story. This transcript along is able to fuse these elements together to tell a with the historical context written in Part III story that has never been quite this accessible illuminates Getz credibility, purpose for the before. His research includes everything from history, and offers a new and individual interviews with those directly involved, to perspective on the past. Part IV and V close political cartoons and Irish/British/American the lesson with a reading and classroom guide government correspondences. I would for using this story as educational enrichment. recommend this book to anyone who craves a Getz’s extensive details of West deep knowledge on this subject matter. It can Africa’s early history of society, slavery, and give an extraordinary base knowledge to those civilizing connected to the context of Abina with none, and provoke thought and and the Important Men. Each section was questioning in those who have already read brief and beneficial to readers who appreciate extensively on the topic. short, clear, and concise accounts. Additional historical backgrounds were provided in the Michael Connell, Class of 2013 section where Getz relays his research on the “Important Men.”Many maps, including The ______Asante Empire, the British Gold Coast Colony and Protectorate, and Abina’s three Trevor R. Getz and Liz Clarke, Abina enslavement locations before her escape to and the Important Men: A Graphic Cape Coast provided geographical History. Oxford University Press, 2011. illustrations to assist the reader with depicting Pp 208 illustrated throughout. $11. the distance. Unfortunately as the text ISBN-13: 9780199844395 progressed, the historical context began to lose its entertainment. Entering the reading The “graphic history” of Abina and the guide caused me to question the credibility he Important Men embodies the entertaining gained through his previous historical context and informative aspects of writing to revive a of Abina’s story because of its many young woman’s individual contribution to interpretations and travel. Even the history. Not only do readers travel the illustrations could be considered inaccurate research journey of the author and historian with its imagery of towns and societies during Trevor R. Getz, but they also witness the the late nineteenth century. However, the events of an 1876 West African court case overall work and purpose for study in through vivid and vibrant illustrations by classrooms can appeal to the students enough South African illustrator Liz Clarke. Getz and to be able to learn the relevance of the Clarke introduce Abina, the young enslaved information. plaintiff, with a historical visual which A bias of interpretation emerges proceeds to the transcript of her court case through Clarke’s illustrations as she creates sides: one showing the lawyer of Abina’s

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opponent in court, James Hutton Brew, both the enjoyment and informative benefits appear menacing and dark while questioning of reading. Getz and Clarke’s ability to Abina. The former makes it difficult for successfully balance their professional students to generate an unbiased expression resulted in making Abina’s story interpretation of the documented discourse audible and persuade me of its historical because Getz has placed his secondary source relevance. (the historical comic) before his primary source (the transcript). Despite its Tiffany Fitzgerald, Class of 2014. subjectivity, the setting of the courtroom helps ______readers visualize the male dominance within judicial affairs and the bold charge of Abina as she fights and demands for independence and rights. There is no doubt that Getz and Clarke’s different lines of work cross to create a pictorial history that expresses much historical richness and leads to new findings concerning the laws, society, and the politics of The Gold Coast. The overflow of information continues into Getz guide to teaching Abina and the Important Men in the classroom. He suggests and elaborates on the history’s interdisciplinary abilities in sections of world history, slavery, and more; my favorite being “Gendering Abina’s Story.” This feature of Getz is unlike any other because he goes beyond mere interpretation and transcript to provide different angles and areas of study and critical analysis highlighting the reasons why individual (usually ignored) documents should be considered when developing history. The reading questions give the reader a chance to look beyond its entertainment value and internalize and critique the work. In one of Getz questions he asks for readers to consider Abina’s statement about Quamina’s order and threat that she was to marry another indenture/slave against her will. Inviting the reader’s analysis of his historical work is humbling and drives his purpose of writing this book which is to supply new historical knowledge of Abina’s story and justifying its relevance. As the story approaches the end, Getz provides a short and concise timeline of past events, additional sources, preliminary sketches, and a glossary. The glossary was very helpful and useful when defining terms bolded throughout the text. With his inclusion of Akan words and historical jargon, the glossary was very necessary for the reader to capture the book’s entirety. There are many narratives and reports of individual historical stories but none have been better than Abina and the Important Men. This book was the first I read that joined fantasy and fiction to appeal and sustain any reader seeking to gain