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What Is Meant by Calling Emotions Basic Rapid #: -13603367 CROSS REF ID: 547157 LENDER: CSB :: Ejournals BORROWER: USD :: Main Library TYPE: Article CC:CCL JOURNAL TITLE: Emotion Review USER JOURNAL TITLE: Emotion Review ARTICLE TITLE: What is meant by calling emotions basic? ARTICLE AUTHOR: Ekman, P & Cordaro, D VOLUME: 3 ISSUE: ? MONTH: YEAR: 2011 PAGES: 364-370 ISSN: 1754-0739 OCLC #: PATRON: Schieber, Frank Processed by RapidX: 8/27/2018 11:33:35 AM This material may be protected by copyright law (Title 17 U.S. Code) Emotion Review Vol. 3, No. 4 (October 2011) 364–370 © The Author(s) 2011 ISSN 1754-0739 DOI: 10.1177/1754073911410740 What is Meant by Calling Emotions Basic er.sagepub.com Paul Ekman Paul Ekman Group, USA Daniel Cordaro University of California, Berkeley, USA Abstract Emotions are discrete, automatic responses to universally shared, culture-specific and individual-specific events. The emotion terms, such as anger, fear, etcetera, denote a family of related states sharing at least 12 characteristics, which distinguish one emotion family from another, as well as from other affective states. These affective responses are preprogrammed and involuntary, but are also shaped by life experiences. Keywords affect program, autonomic nervous system, basic emotion, universal emotion Question 1: How does a basic emotion differ from simply a human predicaments such as losses, frustrations, successes, and discrete emotion?1 joys. Each basic emotion prompts us in a direction that, in the course of our evolution, has done better than other solutions in The adjective “basic,” when used to describe emotions, embod- recurring circumstances that are relevant to our goals. ies two main characteristics. One of these is that the emotions In addition to this phylogenetic contribution to the nature of are discrete, that they can be distinguished fundamentally from each basic emotion, there is also an ontogenetic contribution, one another. The data for discrete emotions includes facial, the product of social learning, very impactful early in life but vocal, autonomic physiology, and study of the events that with continuing contributions over the life course. The ontoge- precede one or another emotion (Ekman & Davidson, 1994). netic contribution influences attitudes about the experience of A discrete-emotions perspective does not necessarily require each emotion, cognitive representations of emotional experi- an evolutionary explanation of the origins of each emotion. ences, coping responses for dealing with the emotion’s triggers, Some discrete-emotions theorists have argued that our emo- and triggers that more or less are consistent with the triggers tional repertoire consists of fundamentally different, but socially that appraisal mechanisms are sensitive to as a result of our constructed, ways by which we react to universally shared experience in our ancestral environment. stimuli (Parkinson, 1996). In this respect it is ontogeny, not phylogeny, which is responsible for any commonalities in each Question 2a: What is your list of basic emotions? Are all discrete emotion. It is our shared rituals and experiences as emotions basic, or just some? If some, how do you distin- human beings, not evolutionary progress, which hone our guish basic from nonbasic emotions? What is the relation of shared emotional experiences. nonbasic emotions to basic emotions? The second characteristic embodied in the adjective “basic” is the view that emotions have evolved through adaptation to Before listing how many emotions there are, it is important to our surroundings. Though we are a species capable of enormous contextualize the basic emotions into families or groups. Each cognitive load, we are also endowed with biological mecha- emotion is not a single affective or psychological state but nisms that allow us to react to fundamental life tasks—universal rather a family of related states. The factors that connect each Corresponding author: Paul Ekman, Paul Ekman Group, LLC, 155 Jackson Street, Apt. 2503, San Francisco, CA, 94111, USA. Email: [email protected] Ekman & Cordaro Calling Emotions Basic 365 member of the family are described in the explanation of basic or stopping the harm, anger often involves the wish to hurt emotion criteria that follows. The criteria that form the basis of the target. an emotion family must, by definition, differ between emotion Fear: the response to the threat of harm, physical or psycho- families—this is what allows us to distinguish one emotion logical. Fear activates impulses to freeze or flee. Often fear family from another. Additionally, an emotion family is com- triggers anger. prised of individual differences, or variations on the emotional Surprise: the response to a sudden unexpected event. It is theme. The theme is comprised of the characteristics unique to the briefest emotion. that family; the theme is what is influenced phylogenetically. The Sadness: the response to the loss of an object or person to variations on that theme are the result of social experience. Thus which you are very attached. The prototypical experience is the themes are the product of evolution, while the variations the death of a loved child, parent, or spouse. In sadness there reflect learning. is resignation, but in can turn into anguish in which there is An emotion is either basic, or it is another affective phenom- agitation and protest over the loss and then return to sadness enon saturated with but different from the emotions, such as a again. mood, an emotional trait, and emotional disorder, etcetera. Disgust: repulsion by the sight, smell, or taste of something; Basic emotion theory captures what is unique about emotion, disgust may also be provoked by people whose actions are and what emotions have in common that distinguish them from revolting or by ideas that are offensive. other affective states. The characteristics found in most (nearly Contempt: feeling morally superior to another person. all) basic emotions are: Happiness: feelings that are enjoyed, that are sought by the person. There are a number of quite different enjoya- 1. Distinctive universal signals. ble emotions, each triggered by a different event, involv- 2. Distinctive physiology. ing a different signal and likely behavior. The evidence is 3. Automatic appraisal. not as strong for all of these as it is for the emotions 4. Distinctive universals in antecedent events. listed above. 5. Presence in other primates. 6. Capable of quick onset. I expect that evidence will be found for the following ten enjoy- 7. Can be of brief duration. able emotions: 8. Unbidden occurrence. 9. Distinctive thoughts, memories, and images. Sensory pleasures: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory. 10. Distinctive subjective experience. Amusement: the response to something found funny. 11. Refractory period filters information available to what Relief: the response when something that was strongly supports the emotion. arousing (often fear of harm) subsides. 12. Target of emotion unconstrained. Excitement: a very high-intensity response to novelty and 13. The emotion can be enacted in either a constructive or challenge, often found when there is some risk. This emotion destructive fashion. often merges with another emotion. Wonder: the response to something incomprehensible, In previous writings the first 11 characteristics have been incredible but not frightening, a rarely felt emotion. When it described (Ekman, 2003). It is only recently when considering combines with fear then the correct term is “awe.” the possibility that familial compassion might be properly Ecstasy: or bliss, is a self-transcendent rapture, very intense considered an emotion that it became apparent that for all the but different from excitement. other emotions the target is not constrained to any specific Naches: a Yiddish word for the feeling a parent/caregiver, type of person. By definition, in familial compassion the tar- or teacher, feels when witnessing the achievement of their get is restricted to family members. The last characteristic, the offspring. 13th, arose in discussions with the Dalai Lama (Dalai Lama & Fiero: an Italian term for the emotion felt when meeting a Ekman, 2008). We rejected the notion that emotions such as difficult challenge. It may occur during a competition with anger or disgust were inherently destructive or negative, others, or when alone, a difficult task is confronted and instead considering that any emotion can be enacted in a con- mastered. structive or destructive fashion depending upon whether the episode led to further collaboration, and was of benefit in Though they involve distinctly different triggers, some emotion some sense to humanity, or not. researchers have treated fiero and naches as a single state of There is evidence for universality in the following seven “pride” (Shiota, Campos, & Keltner, 2006; Tracy & Robins, emotions: 2004). Further research is required to see if these states affect our physiological and autonomic nervous system in distinctly Anger: the response to interference with our pursuit of a different ways. goal we care about. Anger can also be triggered by someone attempting to harm us (physically or psychologically) or Schadenfreude: the German term for the emotion felt when someone we care about. In addition to removing the obstacle you learn an enemy has lost or suffered. 366 Emotion Review Vol. 3 No. 4 Rejoicing: the response to witnessing unexpected acts of Love: is an enduring attachment to a particular person, a human goodness, kindness, and compassion. child
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