The Cyprus Question and the Role of the UN: an Overall Assessment
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Vladimir Paounovsky
THE B ULGARIAN POLICY TTHE BB ULGARIAN PP OLICY ON THE BB ALKAN CCOUNTRIESAND NN ATIONAL MM INORITIES,, 1878-19121878-1912 Vladimir Paounovsky 1.IN THE NAME OF THE NATIONAL IDEAL The period in the history of the Balkan nations known as the “Eastern Crisis of 1875-1879” determined the international political development in the region during the period between the end of 19th century and the end of World War I (1918). That period was both a time of the consolidation of and opposition to Balkan nationalism with the aim of realizing, to a greater or lesser degree, separate national doctrines and ideals. Forced to maneuver in the labyrinth of contradictory interests of the Great Powers on the Balkan Peninsula, the battles among the Balkan countries for superiority of one over the others, led them either to Pyrrhic victories or defeats. This was particularly evident during the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars (The Balkan War and The Interallied War) and World War I, which was ignited by a spark from the Balkans. The San Stefano Peace Treaty of 3 March, 1878 put an end to the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). According to the treaty, an independent Bulgarian state was to be founded within the ethnographic borders defined during the Istanbul Conference of December 1876; that is, within the framework of the Bulgarian Exarchate. According to the treaty the only loss for Bulgaria was the ceding of North Dobroujda to Romania as compensa- tion for the return of Bessarabia to Russia. The Congress of Berlin (June 1878), however, re-consid- ered the Peace Treaty and replaced it with a new one in which San Stefano Bulgaria was parceled out; its greater part was put under Ottoman control again while Serbia was given the regions around Pirot and Vranya as a compensation for the occupation of Novi Pazar sancak (administrative district) by Austro-Hun- - 331 - VLADIMIR P AOUNOVSKY gary. -
Overview of the Constitution
CYPRUS PROBLEM: Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus file:///home/taygeti/Desktop/kupros/valmena/constitution... OVERVIEW OF THE CONSTITUTION The Republic of Cyprus was born in the early hours of 16 August 1960. On that date the Republic´s constitution was signed by the lst Governor of the Colony of Cyprus, Sir Hugh Foot, the Consul-General of Greece, George Christopoulos, his Turkish counterpart, Turel, and Archbishop Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kutchuk on behalf of the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities. The range of signatories reflected the fact that the constitution of Cyprus did not emanate from the free will of its people, who were not consulted either directly or through their ad hoc elected representatives, but from the Zurich Agreement between Greece and Turkey. The terms of that agreement, outlined in the last chapter, were included in the constitution as fundamental Articles, which could not be revised or amended. The constitution was drafted by the Joint Constitutional Commission created under Part VIII of the London Agreement of 19 February 1959. It comprised representatives of Greece, Turkey, the Greek Cypriot community and the Turkish Cypriot community. But the structure of the constitution again reflected the Zurich Agreement, with various provisions from the 1950 Greek constitution also incorporated along with the provisions of the European Convention of Human Rights in respect of fundamental rights and liberties. Two main principles underpinned the constitutional structure agreed at Zurich. The first recognised the existence of two communities on the island - the Greek and the Turkish - who, despite their numerical disparity, were given equal treatment. -
The Gordian Knot: American and British Policy Concerning the Cyprus Issue: 1952-1974
THE GORDIAN KNOT: AMERICAN AND BRITISH POLICY CONCERNING THE CYPRUS ISSUE: 1952-1974 Michael M. Carver A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of The requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS May 2006 Committee: Dr. Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor Dr. Gary R. Hess ii ABSTRACT Douglas J. Forsyth, Advisor This study examines the role of both the United States and Great Britain during a series of crises that plagued Cyprus from the mid 1950s until the 1974 invasion by Turkey that led to the takeover of approximately one-third of the island and its partition. Initially an ancient Greek colony, Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, which allowed the native peoples to take part in the island’s governance. But the idea of Cyprus’ reunification with the Greek mainland, known as enosis, remained a significant tenet to most Greek-Cypriots. The movement to make enosis a reality gained strength following the island’s occupation in 1878 by Great Britain. Cyprus was integrated into the British imperialist agenda until the end of the Second World War when American and Soviet hegemony supplanted European colonialism. Beginning in 1955, Cyprus became a battleground between British officials and terrorists of the pro-enosis EOKA group until 1959 when the independence of Cyprus was negotiated between Britain and the governments of Greece and Turkey. The United States remained largely absent during this period, but during the 1960s and 1970s came to play an increasingly assertive role whenever intercommunal fighting between the Greek and Turkish-Cypriot populations threatened to spill over into Greece and Turkey, and endanger the southeastern flank of NATO. -
Ethnic Nationalism and Consociational Democracy in Cyprus
BUJSS 9/2 (2016), 99-115 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18221/bujss.33634 * ETHNIC NATIONALISM AND CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY IN CYPRUS 1 Pinar Erkem ABSTRACT The 1960 Cyprus Republic, which had a bi-communal power-sharing system, could not have lasted for long and it turned from consociational democracy to majoritarian in 1963 after ethnic conflict. Attempts to find a solution to Cyprus problem still focus on ethnic power-sharing but the conditions and bi-communal relations prior to 1960 system, which are conducive to its failure, are not adequately consumed. The paper argues that, the reasons for the prolonged conflict derive from ethnic rivalry and lack of an overarching loyalty. Modernization, kin-state relations and colonial policies are the contributing factors. This paper aims to contribute to future institutional designs for not only Cyprus but for all divided societies. Keywords: Cyprus; ethnic conflict; ethnic nationalism; consociational democracy; power-sharing; colonial policies KIBRIS’TA ETNİK MİLLİYETÇİLİK VE ORTAKLIKÇI DEMOKRASİ ÖZ İki topluluğun varlığını tanıyan ortaklıkçı demokrasiye dayalı 1960 Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti etnik çatışmalar sonrası 1963 yılında son bularak çoğunlukçu demokrasi uygulamaya konuldu fakat Kıbrıs sorununa çözüm çabaları halen ortaklıkçı demokrasi üzerinde durmaktadır. 1960 sisteminin çökmesine yol açan topluluk- lar-arası sorunlar henüz tam olarak ortadan kaldırılamamıştır. Bu çalışmayla, Kıbrıs’ta güç paylaşımı sistemi- nin çökmesinin arkasındaki milliyetçiliğe dayalı nedenler incelenecektir. Bu çalışmanın iddiası, uzun suren Kıbrıs çatışmasının nedeninin etnik rekabetin varlığı ve ortak bağlayıcı bir değerin yokluğudur. Anahtar sözcükler: Kıbrıs; etnik çatışma; etnik milliyetçilik; ortaklıkçı demokrasi; güç paylaşımı Cyprus has been under influence and administration of different civilizations throughout its history, centuries long Byzantium and Ottoman rules and 82 years of British colonial rule, until its independence in 1960. -
The Liberation Struggle of Eoka 1955-1959 and the Chloraka Coast
THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE OF EOKA 1955-1959 AND THE CHLORAKA COAST Today the Chloraka coast in Paphos is a busy tourist area. At the time of the 1955-1959 struggle for liberation, however, it was a remote deserted shoreline, and this is why it was cho- sen as the site for the secret arrival from Greece of EOKA leader George Grivas Dhigenis and for receipt of the first shipments of arms. Because of the very important events that took place here during preparations for the EOKA struggle in 1954 and the early part of 1955, the Chloraka coast and particularly the areas "Alyki", "Rodafinia" and "Vrexi" are among the most important monumental sites of the 1955-1959 struggle for freedom. It was here that the flame of freedom was lit for the first time. It was from here that the message was spread to the whole of Cyprus that the yoke of English Colonial Rule was about to be thrown off. THE CHAPEL OF SAINT GEORGE About two hundred metres from the sea, at the place known as "Alyki", where the leader Dhigenis disem- barked on 10 November 1954, Zena Gunther built the chapel of Saint George, at her own expense, in honour of the military leader. The chapel, which was later decorated with icons by George and Alexander Constantinides under the supervision of Paphos Diocese and with donations from Christians, is now an integral part of the monu- mental site on the Chloraka coast. Together with the other monumental works, it serves to perpetuate his- toric memory and to underline the Christian faith that inspired the freedom fighters of the struggle and was indissolubly linked to their love for freedom for the fatherland. -
National Legal Measures to Combat Racism and Intolerance in the Member States of the Council of Europe
NATIONAL LEGAL MEASURES TO COMBAT RACISM AND INTOLERANCE IN THE MEMBER STATES OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE CYPRUS, Situation as of 1 December 2004 General Overview Preliminary Note: this table is accompanied by an explanatory note COUNTRY: Constitutional Specific Criminal Law Civil and CYPRUS provisions legislation Administrative Law Norms Yes. No statute. No case-law Law 57(I)/2004 concerning Article 6 found on this amending Law discrimination Article 28 § 1. subject. no. 127(I)/2000. in general Norms Yes. Law no. Yes. Equal concerning Article 28 § 2. 12/1967, as Laws no. 11 Treatment racism amended by (III)/1992, no. (Racial or Laws 11/92, 6 (III)/1995 and Ethnic Origin) 6(III)/95 and no. 28(III) Law no. 56 / 28(III)/99. /1999 2004. amending Law Law no. no. 12/1967. 58(I)/2004. Laws no. The combating 26(III)/ 2004 of racism and and no. 22 (II)/ other 2004. discrimination Equal (Commissioner) Treatment Law no. 59 / (Racial or 2004. Ethnic Origin) Law no Law no. 56 / 57(I)/2004 2004. amending Law Law no. no. 127(I)/2000. 58(I)/2004. Relevant Yes. No case-law No case-law No case-law jurisprudence Yiallourou v. found on this found on this found on this Evgenios subject. subject. subject. Nikolaou, (2001), Supreme Court of Cyprus, not published. EXPLANATORY NOTE CYPRUS / GENERAL OVERVIEW Cyprus has ratified most European and United Nations Conventions relating to discrimination. These include, for example, the Convention of New York on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination in 1967 (Law no. 12/1967), the CoE Convention on Cybercrime and its additional protocol on criminalization of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems (Laws no. -
From the “Millet System‟‟ to a Hostage Minority: Greek Community of Turkey Or a Trump Card in Cyprus Issue 1954-1955
International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 5, No. 6, June 2015 From the “Millet System‟‟ to a Hostage Minority: Greek Community of Turkey or a Trump Card in Cyprus Issue 1954-1955 Resul Babaoglu the weakening of the central authority. It can be said that Abstract—The Cyprus issue, especially since 1951, was non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire lived the most evaluated as an important topic in Turkey's foreign policy comfortable period in every aspect especially as agenda. Since that date, Cyprus issue has created the main demographically from the declaration of the Kanun-u Esasi reason of the tension observed in the relations with Greece. On (The first Meshrutiyet period) in 1876 to the World War I [4]. the other hand, this negative table also had too deep effects on the Greek originated citizens of Turkey. For the realization of On the other hand, the Young Turks' (Jeune Turq) appearing the purpose of connecting the island of the Greeks to Greece, in political scene and working to place the secular order the offensive and destruction actions against the Turks and the across the country has also influenced the Greek society. British rule after a short time in Turkey found correspond to During this period, the Greeks sent the chosen people to the nationalist reflexes. In this article, by investigating the Meclis-i İdare-i Vilayet and Karma Milli Meclis. [5]. When effects of the tension lived in Cyprus to Turkey Greek evaluated in this respect, the Ottoman Greek community has community, the difficulties and societal responses caused by that period are evaluated in terms of Greek community. -
The Term Decentralization Is Used So Commonly And
Decentralization – Key Issues, Major Trends and Future Developments Lidija R. Basta The term decentralization is used so commonly and Professor at the Institute yet defined so variously that it will be necessary to indicate of Federalism, University its usage in this text with some precision. To begin with, of Fribourg there are two, separable but closely linked themes which cover the issue of decentralization: a) intergovernmental processes, i.e. decentralization of gover- nance between levels of government from federal/central to state/local; b) deregulation, i.e., decentralization from governments to market, quasi-market and non-governmental organizations (the balance of public sector compared with market resource allocation).1 The article will focus on the first dimension and address decen- tralization as a specific concept of state organization and method of governance, including major issues of economic and fiscal decentralization, since this aspect has mainly been understood as decentralization stricto sensu. 28 Decentralization is of itself a relative, rather than absolute con- cept, which can be understood only “against either different nor- mative models or different practical starting points”. When addressing the intergovernmental structures and processes of decentralization, the analytical and empirical approaches are to be combined, taking two facts equally into account: (a) that also when referred to governmental structure and relating functions, the term “decentralization” describes development, (the process of) change from a former to a new institutional set-up; (b) that any categorization of decentralization trends faces the problem of how to conceptually incorporate the influence of the specificity of given local context. The latter has four dimensions: a) the level of economic development, b) the extent of development of representative democracy and experience of democratic systems, c) the structure of the settlement system (urban vs. -
The Crux of the Cyprus Problem
PERCEPTIONS JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS September - November 1999 Volume IV - Number 3 THE CRUX OF THE CYPRUS PROBLEM RAUF R. DENKTAŞ His Excellency Rauf R. Denktaş is President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Anthony Nutting, who was the British Minister of State at the Foreign Office during the period 1954-56, wrote in his book I Saw for Myself his impression following talks with the leaders of Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots: “There is nothing Cypriot about Cyprus except its name. In this beautiful beleaguered island you are either a Greek or a Turk. From the leaders of the two communities downwards the chasm of suspicion and hatred which separates them is frighteningly wide.”1 EOKA terrorism, which aimed to unite the island with Greece (enosis), was at its height and the Turkish Cypriots, who looked upon enosis as changing colonial masters for the worst, resisted it with every means at their disposal. Hence, the message passed on to all young Greek Cypriots was, “the struggle against the real enemy of our nation and religion, the remnants of the occupying power in Cyprus, will commence as soon as the fight for enosis comes to a successful conclusion”! Any Greek Cypriot who saw the futility and the danger of the drive for enosis, and thus supported independence as a more suitable solution, was regarded as a traitor to the national cause and murdered by EOKA (the Greek Cypriot terrorist organisation). In fact, everyone who opposed enosis was declared an enemy and lived under a constant threat. All Turkish Cypriots were against enosis! By 1957, inter-communal clashes assumed the character of a civil war. -
Inter-Communal Contact and Exchange in Cyprus' Higher Education Institutions: Their Potential to Build Trust and Cooperation
08 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR PRINT.qxp_Layout 1 18/11/2019 2:43 PM Page 1 In all the years of search for a comprehensive settlement to reunify the island under Inter-Communal a bi-communal federal government, one unchanging fact – which also constitutes Contact and Exchange the main barrier to the negotiation process – has been the deep distrust between in Cyprus’ Higher the two sides. As part of a broader project which recognizes this fact, this thematic Education Institutions: report on Higher Education seeks to explore possible structures of genuine Their Potential to Build cooperation that may both alleviate distrust and foster substantial collaboration Trust and Cooperation across the dividing line promoting a logic of interdependence that can be constructive to peace building. This Report focuses on inter-communal contact and Gregoris Ioannou exchange in Cyprus’ Higher Education Institutions and its potential to build trust Sertac Sonan and cooperation. After a brief mapping of the Cyprus’ Higher Education field in the two parts of the island, the Report reviews the relevant international literature on universities as sites of cooperation, exchange and peace-culture-building in conflict ridden societies. Subsequently, some examples of past and existing academic cooperation in Cyprus are mentioned in the fields of research and teaching. The Report then discusses the obstacles, opportunities and possibilities that currently exist given the prevailing political as well as structural conditions. The Report is based on a series of anonymous interviews and focus groups with Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot academics from various disciplines currently working in several universities across the dividing line. -
British Intelligence Against Eoka in Cyprus 1945-1960
BRITISH INTELLIGENCE AGAINST EOKA IN CYPRUS 1945-1960 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY NİHAL ERKAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS JULY 2019 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences ___________________________ Prof. Dr. Tülin Gençöz Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ___________________________ Prof.Dr.Oktay Tanrısever Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _____________________ Prof.Dr. Hüseyin Bağcı Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Fatih Tayfur (METU, IR) _____________________ Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Bağcı (METU,IR) _____________________ Prof. Dr. Oktay Tanrısever (METU,IR) _____________________ Prof. Dr. Gökhan Koçer (Karadeniz Teknik Uni., ULS) _____________________ Assist. Prof.Dr. Merve Seren (Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt Uni., INRE) _____________________ I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Nihal Erkan Signature : iii ABSTRACT BRITISH INTELLIGENCE AGAINST EOKA IN CYPRUS, 1945-1960 Erkan, Nihal Ph.D; Department of International Relations Supervisor: Prof.Dr. Hüseyin Bağcı July 2019, 367 pages This thesis analyses the role of British intelligence activities in the fight against EOKA in Cyprus between 1945 and 1960. -
I) the Imagined Cypriot: a Barred Space for Claiming the Island
HDIM.NGO/84/07 25 September 2007 OSCE-ODIHR 2007 HUMAN DIMENSION IMPLEMENTATION MEETING 24 September- 5 October/ Warsaw Kirlangic Cultural Association Address: Sht. Salahi Sevket sok, No.16, Nicosia/ North Cyprus e-mail: kirlangickultur a gmail.com Turkish Cypriots’ Problem of Identity Historical Overview: The Cyprus Problem was a problem of two conflicting nationalisms (Turkish and Greek), thus was a matter of two opposing imaginations which emerged during the 1950s and lasted until today. The advent of British colonialism in 1878 and political technologies of the colonial rule played a significant role in the emergence of this conflict, especially in the rise of the Greek Cypriot national mobilization for Enosis (union with Greece).1 In the mid-1950s, EOKA2 took up an armed struggle against colonial rule in order to achieve union with Greece and in a very short time this anti- colonial struggle became popular among the Greek Cypriot community under the leadership of the Cypriot Orthodox Church. In fact, the Greek Cypriots’ anti-colonial struggle was interpreted as one for liberation; however, from the angle of the Turkish Cypriots it was a mere disaster since it aimed to assimilate Turkish Cypriots inside the 1 The Enosis movement was part of a greater project of Greek nationalist mythology, the Megali Idea, which was elaborated in the 1840s. The Megali Idea was a belief “in the necessity of building up a greater state of two continents and five seas to cover all Greek speaking Christian Orthodox part of the Byzantine Empire”. This was a type of irredentist policy that was based on the effort to raise ethnic consciousness amongst the ethnos (nation) in the diaspora.