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Makarios and Greek Cypriot Nationalism (1967-1974)

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Makarios and Greek Cypriot Nationalism (1967-1974) This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights and duplication or sale of all or part is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for research, private study, criticism/review or educational purposes. Electronic or print copies are for your own personal, non- commercial use and shall not be passed to any other individual. No quotation may be published without proper acknowledgement. For any other use, or to quote extensively from the work, permission must be obtained from the copyright holder/s. National identity and elite interests: Makarios and Greek Cypriot nationalism (1967-1974) Sevki Kiralp PHD Keele University June 2014 With my deepest respect to Ekrem, Hasan, Ahmet and all the other victims of the Cyprus tragedy, I dedicate this thesis to my dear parents Leyla Kiralp and Mustafa Kiralp. i Declaration Part 1. To be bound in the thesis SUBMISSION OF THESIS FOR A RESEARCH DEGREE Part I. DECLARATION by the candidate for a research degree. To be bound in the thesis Degree for which thesis being submitted PHD Title of thesis National identity and elite interests: Makarios and Greek Cypriot nationalism (1967-1974) This thesis contains confidential information and is subject to the protocol set down for the submission and examination of such a thesis. NO Date of submission Original registration date 3 June 2014 27 September 2010 Name of candidate Sevki Kiralp Research Institute Name of Lead Supervisor Law, Politics and Justice Lorna Lloyd I certify that: (a) The thesis being submitted for examination is my own account of my own research (b) My research has been conducted ethically. Where relevant a letter from the approving body confirming that ethical approval has been given has been bound in the thesis as an Annex (c) The data and results presented are the genuine data and results actually obtained by me during the conduct of the research (d) Where I have drawn on the work, ideas and results of others this has been appropriately acknowledged in the thesis (e) Where any collaboration has taken place with one or more other researchers, I have included within an ‘Acknowledgments’ section in the thesis a clear statement of their contributions, in line with the relevant statement in the Code of Practice (see Note overleaf). ii Declaration Part 1. To be bo und in the thesis (f) The greater portion of the work described in the thesis has been undertaken subs equent to my registration for the higher deg ree for which I am submitting for examination (g) Where part of the work described in the thesis has previously been incorporated in a nother thesis submitted by me for a higher degree (if any), this has been identified and acknowledged in the thesis (h) The thesis submitted is within the required word limit as specified in the Regulations Total words in submitt ed thesis (including text and footnotes, but excluding references and appen dices) 75,000 Signature of candidat e Date 11 June 2014 Note Extract from Code of Practice: If the research degree is set within a broader programme of work involving a group of investigators – p articularly if this programme of work p redates the candidate’s registration – the candidate should provide an explicit st tement (in an ‘Acknowledgments’ section) of the respective roles of the candidate and these other individuals in relevant as pects of the work reported in the thesi s. For example, it should make clear, wh ere relevant, the candidate’s role in designing the study, developing data colle ction instruments, collecting primary data, analysing such data, and formulating co nclusions from the analysis. Others involved in these aspects of the research should be named, and their contributions rel ative to that of the candidate should be sp ecified (this does not apply to the ordi nary supervision, only if the supervisor or supervisory team has had greater than usual involvement). Abstract Within the field of Nationalism Studies, the relationship between “National Identity” and “ethnicity” has been widely studied. Likewise, the relationship between “National Identity”, “elite interests” and “ethnic conflicts” has also been investigated. In fact, there is a considerable amount of studies focused on the “inter-state” aspects of “National Identity”, “ethnicity” and “elite interests”, however, such studies tend to highlight the “elite” of the “homeland” as the political and social leaders of their ethnicity; seeing themselves responsible for defending the political interests of their ethnic relatives in transnational borders, or liberating them from other states via “secessionist” or “irredentist” policies. Nevertheless, an example of elite of “ethnic kin”, who dominates another state outside its “homeland”, has not yet been widely theorized academically, with a focus on “National Identity” and “elite interests”. This study aims to fill that gap within the literature through the example of President Makarios and Greek Cypriot nationalism. While Cyprus was a British colony, the Greek Cypriot community was mobilized to unify Cyprus with their “homeland” Greece. However, the result of such mobilization was the foundation of a Cypriot state, based on power-sharing between the Greek Cypriot majority and Turkish Cypriot minority. In the post-Independence era, particularly with the consolidation of the military dictatorship in Greece (1967), President Makarios abandoned the Enosis (unification of Cyprus with Greece) policies and made attempts to reconstruct the Greek Cypriot National Identity in favour of a Greek Cypriot-ruled independent Cypriot state. President Makarios also ignored Greek Junta's manipulations about the Cypriot politics. The subsequent struggle continued until the Athens-led coup d'état that overthrew the President (1974). This thesis shall follow Brass’ “Instrumentalist” theory and shall analyze the reconstruction of the Greek Cypriot National Identity. The thesis will also investigate the role played by the interests of both the President and the Greek Cypriots in constructing this new National Identity. Keywords: Nationalism, National Identity, elite interests, ethnic conflicts, consociation, “others”, “homeland nationalism”, “nationalizing nationalism”, Cyprus Conflict, Makarios. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations 1 Lingustic Notes 3 Map 1: Cyprus 4 Map 2: Cyprus, Turkey, Greece and Mediterranean 5 Definitions 6 Introduction 13 Literature review 13 Methodology 21 Further elucidation on methodology and concepts 32 Discussion of the accessed sources and the gathered data 33 Inaccessibility of AKEL archives 44 Inaccessibility of Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs documents 46 Analyzing political speeches: The Makarios case 47 Elite 50 Elite interests 52 Ethnicity 56 Chapter 1: The theoretical framework 61 1.1 National identity 63 1.1.1. Ethnicity, national identity and nationalism 63 1.1.2. National identity and nationalism in the East 68 1.1.3. Consociation and national identity 72 1.1.4. The “homeland”, ethnicity and nationalism 75 1.2. National identity and elite interests 81 1.2.1. Ethnic nationalism and elite interests: The Instrumentalist theory 81 1.2.2 The “elite” and Instrumentalism’s criticisms 86 1.2.3. Consociation, ethnic elite and national identity 92 1.2.4. Symbols, rhetoric, “others” and national identity 96 1.2.5. “Homeland”, national identity and elite interests 104 Conclusion 110 Chapter 2: The history of Cyprus and the nationalism in Cyprus 115 2.1. The history of Cyprus and the shaping of nationalisms on the island 115 2.1.1. Cyprus before the British Era 116 2.1.2. Cyprus as a British colony 119 2.1.3. Towards Cypriot independence 125 v 2.1.4. The Republic of Cyprus 129 2.1.5. Inter-ethnic violence, “homelands”, USA and UN 133 2.1.6. Greeks versus Greek Cypriots 145 2.2. An analysis of nationalism in Cyprus 148 2.2.1. The Cypriot nationalism 149 2.2.2. The Greek nationalism in Greek Cypriot community 150 2.2.3. The Turkish nationalism in Turkish Cypriot community 151 2.2.4. The Turkish Cypriot secessionism 152 2.2.5. The Greek Cypriot nationalism in Greek Cypriot community 153 Conclusion 155 Chapter 3: Elite interests 157 3.1. The King against the Junta: Makarios abandons the Enosis 158 3.2. Makarios against the Junta 165 3.3. Makarios against the Greek Cypriot terrorism 172 3.4. Greek Cypriots’ interests: The developing Cypriot economy 182 3.5. Makarios against Turkish Cypriot leadership and Turkey 187 Conclusion 201 Chapter 4: National identity 204 4.1. The “feasible solution” 204 4.2. Turkish Cypriot leadership and Turkey as Makarios’s “others” 212 4.3. Greek Cypriot terrorism as Makarios’s “internal other” 219 4.4. “Homeland” is challenged: The Junta as the “external other” 223 Conclusion 247 Conclusions 250 References 260 Appendices 300 Appendix 1: The Constitution of Republic of Cyprus 300 Appendix 2: Treaty of Guarantee 389 Appendix 3: Key Actors & Statesmen 391 Appendix 4: The Chronology of Historical Events 394 Appendix 5: Pictures of Makarios 401 Map 3: Turkish Cypriot Enclaves formed in 1963-1964 406 Map 4: Sovereign British Base Areas 407 Map 5: Cyprus in 1975 408 vi Acknowledgements I am glad that I have completed my thesis as a PhD candidate in the Research Institute for Politics, Justice and Law at Keele University. First of all, I would like to express my profound appreciation towards my dear parents; Leyla Kiralp and Mustafa Kiralp, for the precious support they provided to me during my PhD studies. Additionally, I would like to say a big “thank you” to my supervisor, Lorna Lloyd, for the relentless efforts she made by reading all my draft chapters and encouraging me to improve them with her advices. There is no doubt that, the most important role in the achievements of this thesis has been played by Lorna. Afterwards, I would like to thank my dear friend Ilia Xypolia, who studied another case of nationalism concerned on Cyprus.
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