Contacts between the Upper Thai- Peninsula and the Mediterranean World Brigitte Borell, Bérénice Bellina, Boonyarit Chaisuwan

To cite this version:

Brigitte Borell, Bérénice Bellina, Boonyarit Chaisuwan. Contacts between the Upper Thai- and the Mediterranean World. Nicolas Revire; Stephen A. Murphy. Before Siam was Born: New Insights on the Art and Archaeology of Pre-Modern and its Neighbouring , River Books, pp.98-117, 2014. ￿hal-02393494￿

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HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Contacts between the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula and the Mediterranean World

Brigitte Borell, Bérénice Bellina & Boonyarit Chaisuwan

Introduction n the last centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, the coastal regions Iof mainland Southeast were linked to a network of maritime routes. Recent studies based on archaeological finds demonstrated the active contacts between and the upper part of the Thai- Malay Peninsula. However, for the sea routes between the coasts of southern China and India, the Thai-Malay Peninsula acts as a huge barrier. In recent years some sites on the western and eastern coast of the Isthmus of Kra area have been receiving more and more attention from archaeologists – but sadly, also from looters, who find digging for artefacts very profitable. These sites yielded an array of finds imported from several rather distant regions. It appears that different systems of maritime routes were here connected by transpeninsular routes, as had already been concluded from a passage in the annals of the Western (206 BCE-8 CE) describing a sea voyage from the southern Chinese ports in the Gulf of Tonkin to India. Judging from the finds, the networks connecting different maritime routes reached as far as China in the east, and in the west to the western coasts of the , and from there via the Red Sea ultimately to the (Bellina & Glover 2004). This essay presents a selection of artefacts originating from the of the Mediterranean Sea and mainly dating from the Roman Imperial period (here the late first century BCE to third century CE) unearthed or reported to have been found mainly at sites in the upper part of the Thai-Malay Peninsula: Khao Sam Kaeo, Tha Chana, Phu Khao Thong and nearby Bang Kluai Nok [e.g. Figure 1] in the region of the Isthmus of Kra (Bellina et al., this volume), and Khlong Thom further south. These sites provide a chronological sequence from the very early days of the maritime silk roads – i.e. from the fourth to the third centuries BCE for the site of Khao Sam Kaeo, then from the last centuries BCE and the early centuries CE for the other sites. Although a few Mediterranean finds from Khlong Thom, also known as Khuan Luk Pat (“bead mound”), in , had already come to light in the 1980s, some newly reported material from there and also Opposite Figure 1: Roman from the other sites is introduced. The discussion will focus on the dating cameo fragment with satyr and of the objects, and when they might have been used in their Southeast standing figure from Bang Kluai Asian context, their possible function – as well as the types of objects Nok, , early 1st century CE, preserved height 19.5 which seem to have been most favoured. Objects, whether made in the millimetres, Suthiratana Foundation, West or inspired by its production, help to illustrate the chronological inv. no. BKN 280 [Photograph development of long-distance sea routes to this peninsular area. courtesy of Karunphol Phanich].

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The Sites Left Figure 2: Roman carnelian intaglio with two fighting cocks from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, is located about 240 kilometres south Khlong Thom, late 1st-2nd century of the Isthmus of Kra. The site is now about 20 kilometres inland CE, Wat Khlong Thom museum, Krabi province [Photograph by from the western coast, and connected to the by the Boonyarit Chaisuwan]. Khlong Thom river. It was in an ideal location for an entrepôt engaged both in sea-borne trade and specialist manufacturing activities. Khao Sam Kaeo is in province, on the eastern coast Right Figure 3: Roman carnelian intaglio with Fortuna from Khlong of the region. According to the chronology established Thom, late 1st-2nd century CE, 15 by the Thai-French excavations based on radiocarbon dates, the major millimetres. Formerly at Wat Khlong period of activity at the site can be dated between the fourth and first Thom museum, Krabi province centuries BCE, nevertheless some activity appears to have also taken [After Bellina 1998: fig. 8b]. place in the early centuries CE (Bellina-Pryce & Praon 2008; Glover & Bellina 2011; Bellina et al., this volume). The excavations brought Intaglios and a Cameo Fragment to light an astounding array of finds, among them Chinese ceramic fragments dating from the Han period (206 BCE to 220 CE) (Peronnet Motifs on Roman intaglios were usually engraved in reverse because 2013), large amounts of Indian pottery fragments (Bouvet 2006 and it was supposed to have been viewed as it appeared on the impression 2011) as well as other imports from India, indicating the status of the or sealing. Here for example, Fortuna [Figure 3] would be correctly site in the trade networks of the period. viewed in an impression holding her rudder with her right hand. The The site of Tha Chana in , about 100 Mars in impression [Figure 5b] has his sword and arms correctly kilometres south of Khao Sam Kaeo, is likewise situated on the east on his left side. However, this was not always strictly observed by the coast. This site has been heavily looted and only briefly surveyed by Roman gem-cutters, maybe because the intaglios were also appreciated archaeologists, therefore very little is known about it (Amara et al. 1987: for their decorative value in jewellery. For instance, a motif such as 350). The evidence of waste material from the manufacture of stone the young satyr with a bunch of grapes in his outstretched hand and glass beads suggests that one of the activities at the site was bead- [Figures 4a-b] frequently occurs in both versions on Roman intaglios making; some of the beads can be compared with those from Khao with the actions of arms and legs reversed. In this essay, the motifs are Sam Kaeo and Phu Khao Thong. The finds from the site also include described as they appear on the stone. sherds of Han period pottery (Peronnet 2013) and Indian Fine Wares A number of intaglios from the Roman Imperial period have been (Bouvet 2012: 307-308). In addition, fragments of at least seven glass found at Khlong Thom. Three of these are described below and have vessels of a type known from Han period tombs in the Gulf of Tonkin already been discussed in earlier publications (Mayuree 1992: 157, region (Borell 2011: 62, n. 37) were also found at Tha Chana, which fig. 5; Glover 1996a: fig. 5 and 1996b: 65, ill. top row centre which is support a dating of the early phase of the site that covers at least the first mirror-inverted; Bellina 1998: fig. 8). The first is an oval intaglio with a century BCE and the early centuries CE. convex face showing two fighting cocks[Figure 2], a motif well known Archaeological investigations have been carried out at Phu Khao from Roman gems.2 The second intaglio, also a carnelian, illustrates Thong, Ranong province on the western coast of the peninsula, only one of the most popular motifs used on Roman seal stones: Fortuna since 2005. Their preliminary results already point to an identification [Figure 3]. She is standing, dressed in a long garment (chiton) with a of this site and the group of neighbouring sites including Bang Kluai long cloak (himation) draped around her hips and right shoulder, its ends Nok as an important coastal trading station in a period covering the falling down over the right forearm. Fortuna holds her characteristic last two centuries BCE to the early centuries CE. These sites yielded attributes: the horn of plenty (cornucopia) and in her other hand she abundant finds of Indian ceramics, among them “rouletted ware,” as grasps the rudder. In addition to the rudder, she holds a corn-ear and a well as fragments of Han period Chinese ceramics. They are thought to poppy-head – attributes originally characteristic of Ceres, the goddess be connected to the western end of transpeninsular routes crossing the of agriculture, for which reason this type is sometimes also called Isthmus (Boonyarit 2011; Bellina et al., this volume). Fortuna-Ceres. Judging from photographs, Martin Henig has already Lastly, the site of U Thong, , in central suggested a date in the late first to second century CE for these two Thailand is a major urban centre of the later Dvāravatī culture. It also intaglios (Glover 1989: n. 5 and 1996b: n. 7).3 The third intaglio is yielded archaeological evidence of earlier phases, as well as finds that an oval carnelian with dark inclusions and a flat face, engraved with parallel those from Oc Eo from the first centuries CE. It is an inland site1 another motif very common in the Roman Imperial period. It shows but was well connected to the trading networks, and appears to have a young, nude, walking satyr, a mythological figure belonging to the been an important place already in the early historic period (Phasook retinue of Bacchus, the god of wine [Figures 4a-b].4 The satyr, part 2004 and 2009). man, part animal, can be recognised here by the two pointed goat horns on his head. Young satyrs of this type are usually shown dancing rather than walking. In his raised right hand he holds a bunch of grapes. On his left he has the throwing-stick (lagobolon or pedum) for hunting used by shepherds and satyrs, and a fawn skin (nebris), customarily worn by the

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followers of Bacchus, is draped over his left arm. The style suggests a Figures 6a-b: Roman amethyst date between the mid-second to early third century CE. intaglio with Bacchus from Tha Chana, Surat Thani province, Recently, another Roman intaglio has been found at the site of ca early 1st century CE, 11.5 Khao Sam Kaeo [Figures 5a-b]. Like the intaglios from Khlong Figures 6a-b millimetres, Suthiratana Foundation, Thom it is without a stratigraphic context. It is an oval, pale yellowish inv. no. TCN 125 (left: original carnelian with a flat face. It shows an armed figure, probably Mars the intaglio; right: impression) god of war, in short military dress with helmet and spear; he stands to [Photographs by Bunchar Pongpanich and Brigitte Borell]. the front with his head in profile. His one arm is bent with his hand on his hip, the sword hangs down behind; the upper arm carries the shield. The short military cloak is draped over the arm, two drapery ends hang down from the forearm. The impression [Figure 5b] shows the shield and sword at his left side which would be customary. The other hand (his right hand in impression) is outstretched in front of him, possibly meant to hold a shallow libation bowl (patera). The style suggests a date in the second or possibly early third century CE.5 At the site of Tha Chana, an amethyst intaglio with the image of Figures 7a-b Bacchus was found [Figures 6a-b]. The oval stone is convex on both sides. The face of the seal shows signs of wear where it was exposed Figures 7a-b: Layered sardonyx above the ring setting, but otherwise the stone is in good condition. The intaglio with rider on a walking god stands frontally with his head in profile to the right, he is nude horse from Bang Kluai Nok, Ranong except for a long cloak draped over his shoulder and leg. In one hand, province, late 1st century BCE to early 1st century CE, Suthiratana he holds the thyrsos, a long staff with its cone-shaped top wreathed in Foundation, inv. no. BKN 335 ivy- and vine-leaves, and in his other hand, the two-handled wine cup (left: original intaglio; right: (kantharos), his characteristic attributes. He is accompanied by his animal, impression) [Photographs courtesy the panther, emerging behind his feet. The panther walks with one front of Karunphol Phanich]. paw raised, its head turned back and upwards to the god. Amethyst was often chosen for an intaglio engraved with a representation of Bacchus Figures 4a-b: Roman carnelian since the stone was believed to protect the wearer against drunkenness intaglio with youthful satyr from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, (methe). The Greek name for the stone, amethystos, means “not drunken.” mid-2nd to early 3rd century CE, Figures 4a-b The classicising style of the figure with its fine and detailed modelling 12 millimetres, Suthiratana suggests a date in the first century CE, possibly even in the early part Foundation, inv. no. KLP 345 of the century.6 (left: original intaglio; right: impression) [After Bunchar 2552: 148]. In Boonyarit Chaisuwan’s excavations at Phu Khao Thong, a very small carnelian intaglio with the figure of a galloping animal was found.7 The schematic rendering and the tiny format does not allow a closer dating. From nearby Bang Kluai Nok comes a horizontally layered sardonyx with a convex face, now set in a modern ring. The stone is engraved with a walking horse and rider [Figures 7a-b]. The fine and sensuous modelling of the horse’s head and legs and the wavy movement in the rendering of the horse’s tail are very much in the tradition of Roman gem-cutting and would suggest a date in the late first century BCE to the early first century8 CE. Some peculiarities, Figures 5a-b however, like the spiky mane and, most notably, the absence of a ground line, seem to point to an origin in a workshop farther east and possibly to a later dating.9 The same site also yielded a fragment from the lower edge of a Figures 5a-b: Roman carnelian layered sardonyx cameo [Figure 1]. However, only the lower halves of intaglio with Mars from Khao Sam two male figures standing on uneven ground remain. The figure on the Kaeo, , mid-2nd to left has a tail and is therefore to be identified as a satyr. In a stooping early 3rd century CE, 13 millimetres, posture, he moves to the left. The figure on the right, possibly another Suthiratana Foundation, inv. no. KSK 108 (left: original intaglio; right: satyr if not the god Bacchus himself, stands in relaxed fashion with his impression) [Photographs by weight on one leg and the other bent at the knee. Judging from the style Bérénice Bellina and Brigitte Borell]. of the few details preserved, a date in the late first century BCE or the

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early first century CE may be proposed.10 In this period, such Bacchic Figures 8a-b: Roman glass scenes were particularly popular also on cameo glass. intaglio with pastoral scene from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, In contrast to the cameos, which are purely decorative, intaglios in probably 1st century CE, the Graeco-Roman world were used as seals, a function comparable to 18.5 millimetres, Suthiratana the role of a signature today. Engraved, the carved stones were usually Foundation, inv. no. KLP 189 (left: mounted in finger rings. Besides their use as seals or signet rings, they original intaglio; right: impression) might also have been prized as items or pieces of jewellery. The high- [After Bunchar 2552: 150]. quality intaglio with Bacchus from Tha Chana [Figure 6a] allows the proposing of a relatively narrow dating. The intaglios from Khlong Thom [Figures 2-4a] and Khao Sam Kaeo [Figure 5a] discussed here belong to the later Imperial period, when gem-cutting workshops made mass-produced intaglios for a wide market of customers. These seals were often engraved with standardised representations of gods and goddesses chosen by their owners as their tutelary deities; or with other motifs, valued for their auspicious meaning. For such mass-produced intaglios, it is difficult to give a precise dating based on stylistic analysis alone (Guiraud 1992: 51). Quite often it is only possible to assign them was found. Bennet Bronson (1990: 217), though not excluding a direct broadly to a certain time span, as suggested here. contact with the Mediterranean world in the first or second centuries The dating of glass intaglios, like the one found at Khlong Thom CE, pointed out that other finds from Khlong Thom are indicative of [Figures 8a-b], presents a different sort of problem. Such glass gems a later period, and argued that the seals with motifs of Mediterranean were formed in a mould made from the impression of an original stone origin might only have arrived at a much later date. However, Mayuree intaglio. The moulds were often formed from high-quality pieces, Veraprasert (1992), based on her later research and excavation, but the glass intaglios were, of course, much cheaper, and therefore re-assessed the chronology of the Khlong Thom site, and proposed for affordable by a wider group of buyers. Set as ring stones, they might it a first phase from the first century BCE to the second century CE, and have been cherished more for their decorative value than for their use as a second phase from the third to fifth centuries CE (Amara 1998: 103- seals, which, in everyday practice, might have been limited, since glass 104, 107; Bellina 1998: 97-98). Judging from the increased evidence gems are more fragile. Such glass intaglios might have been made soon now available from other Thai peninsular sites, it seems plausible to after the stone original had been engraved, when a particular motif was connect some of the Roman intaglios found at Khlong Thom with the still en vogue, and so might not be much later in date. Stone intaglios, early phase of the site. however, might survive for a long time so glass copies could be made from collector items or family heirlooms long after the original stone intaglio had been created. Fragments of Glass Vessels The glass intaglio from Khlong Thom [Figure 8a], made of almost clear glass, has a slightly convex face and a flat back, and shows a In contrast to the intaglios, fragments of glass vessels, found in peninsular miniature scene of rural life.11 On the right stands a bearded herdsman Thailand, might provide a better indication for the date of their arrival leaning on his staff. He is clad in the typical countryman’s garb, consisting in . At least two or three small glass fragments, identified of a rough skin cloak over a short tunic. In front of him, his dog walks as of Mediterranean origin on the basis of their chemical composition, to the left, its head raised, one front leg in the air. On the left is a rock were discovered in the Thai-French excavations at Khao Sam Kaeo. and a tree; the upper part of the tree bends almost horizontally to the Two of these, made of cobalt blue glass, are possibly fragments of right along the oval edge of the glass gem. On top of the rock is an eagle glass vessels (Lankton et al. 2008: 328; Lankton & Dussubieux 2013: with its prey underfoot. The scene appears to have been combined of 431). In addition to these fragments, Khao Sam Kaeo yielded another several motifs, including herdsmen looking after their animals, usually glass fragment probably of Mediterranean origin, although the results 12 goats, which became popular in the late first century BCE and early of its chemical analysis are still unpublished. It is of opaque bright 13 first century CE. This was inspired by the pastoral poetry in Roman red glass and presumably stems from a small moulded glass vessel. literature flourishing in this period, which praised from the perspective However, owing to the tiny size of the fragment, no further inferences of the urban dweller the idyllic country life. The original of the glass regarding its original shape are possible at present. intaglio might date from the early first century CE. We must be aware, A more significant fragment of opaque bright red glass was found however, that, strictly speaking, this suggests only a date for the original at Tha Chana. It is the rim fragment of a small moulded bowl stone intaglio, not necessarily for the glass gem moulded from it. [Figure 9]. The glass analysis indicates a soda glass with a composition 14 It is important to keep in mind these general dating problems of characteristic of a Mediterranean origin. Although small in size, the stone and glass intaglios and the tentative nature of the dates proposed fragment preserves a significant part of its shape which allows it to be here. In addition, not only is the date of the object itself of interest in assigned to a class of moulded bowls of early Roman glass produced our context, but also the presumed date of its arrival at the site where it in the end of the first century BCE and in the first half of thefirst

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century CE. These carinated bowls, also called patella bowls, were often the maritime trade via the Red Sea to India and beyond (Borell 2010). made of glass in intense colours such as the opaque bright sealing-wax In particular, ribbed bowls, a special type of moulded bowl, are easily red glass. They are thought to imitate the famous red sigillata pottery identified, even if only a small fragment is preserved. They were mass- where this shape also occurs. The question as to where the shape was produced in the period from the first century BCE to the first century first developed, however, is still unresolved. At present, the dates suggest CE, and fragments of ribbed bowls have been found along the maritime that the sigillata bowls of this shape are somewhat later than the glass trade routes from the Red Sea along the , and in India. vessels (Stern & Schlick-Nolte 1994: 328-329, no. 99; Arveiller-Dulong In addition to the well-known finds of ribbed bowls from Arikamedu & Nenna 2000: 140-141, nos. 181, 198, nos. 248-250; Weinberg & and Dharanikota on the southeastern coast of India, fragments of at Stern 2009: 40-41). least two more such bowls were recently discovered at the Pattanam In Phu Khao Thong, a few fragments of mosaic glass vessels recently site on the Malabar coast, identified as part of the important port-town came to light (Boonyarit & Rarai 2552: 95-105; Boonyarit 2011: 87). of Muziris known from ancient sources (Cherian et al. 2007: 7 pl. 1D; Figure 10: Fragment of a One fragment of a mosaic glass vessel [Figure 10] has already been Cherian 2010: 271-272). It is unlikely that all these glass vessels were Mediterranean mosaic glass bowl analysed. Its chemical composition is characteristic of Mediterranean traded as antiques; they probably arrived at their distant destinations from Phu Khao Thong, Ranong 15 province, 1st century BCE to glass. The fragment appears to stem from the curved side of a bowl. relatively soon after manufacture. This is supported by the discovery of early 1st century CE, 2.2 x 1.4 The pattern is composed of cane sections with spirals of opaque yellow such a ribbed bowl of mosaic glass deposited in a tomb of the Yangzi centimetres, 15th Regional Office glass in a matrix of translucent green glass. The cane sections were Delta in the Chinese province of Jiangsu (Borell 2010: 128, fig. 1). of Fine Arts Department, Thalang, fused together, forming a disc-shaped blank which was then sagged The tomb has been identified as the burial of Liu Jing, a son of the Phuket [Photograph by Boonyarit Chaisuwan]. over a convex mould (Stern & Schlick-Nolte 1994: 68-70). Such cane Eastern Han emperor Guangwu (r. 25-57 CE), dated to the year 67 CE. sections with a spiral design in two colours are one of the two basic Presumably, this ribbed bowl reached China along the maritime routes patterns of Hellenistic mosaic glass vessels, in contrast to the prevalent and therefore would have passed coastal sites in patterns of Roman composite mosaic glass canes (Grose 1989: 189- and then would have even been carried along one of the land routes 190, fig. 102). However, cane sections with a spiral pattern still appear across the peninsula. Although no finds of such ribbed bowls have yet occasionally in early Roman mosaic glass vessels, usually among other come to light in southern Thailand, it would not be surprising if they motifs (Grose 1989: 225, 322, no. 513). The fragment herein is too small were to do so. It is worth noting here that other objects found in the to allow for a more precise dating. It might stem from an early Roman upper Thai-Malay Peninsula show similarities to those from Oc Eo in mosaic glass bowl of the early first century CE, yet, the attribution to southern Vietnam and Han tombs in southern China, in particular a Hellenistic mosaic glass bowl of the late second or first century BCE polyhedral gold ornaments. This supports the theory that the maritime cannot be excluded (Goldstein 1979: 181, no. 475; 188-189, nos. 501- route was already in use at the time (Pryce et al. 2008: 310). 502; Arveiller-Dulong & Nenna 2000: 140-141, no. 176; Weinberg & Stern 2009: 36-38, nos. 63, 67-68). We know from various sources as well as from the archaeological Pendants with Coin Designs record that such Mediterranean moulded glass bowls played a role in In addition to these finds imported from the Mediterranean region, there is another group of objects with a Mediterranean connection, which deserves to be briefly surveyed in this context.16 These are pendants, made of gold and bronze, which imitate to varying degrees of fidelity, the design of a Roman coin. Such pendants are already known from the site of Oc Eo in southern Vietnam (Malleret 1962: 115-117, nos. 919-921, pl. 40; Borell 2008a), their design imitating the obverse of Roman coins with the portrait heads of Roman emperors in profile. Oc Eo, where Louis Malleret conducted excavations in 1944, is recognised as an early urban centre of the polity referred to as Funan in Chinese sources. A canal connected it to the , and the artefacts recovered at Oc Eo demonstrate its participation in maritime trade, and underline its cosmopolitan character. The city was laid out as a rectangle covering about 3 square kilometres and recent investigations indicate that the construction of its central canal and enclosing moats Figure 9: Rim fragment of a Roman glass bowl from Tha Chana, may have already begun as early as the end of the second century CE Chaiya province, probably 1st half (Bourdonneau 2009; Manguin 2009). of 1st century CE, 2.0 x 1.5 The most famous pendant from Oc Eo is a thin gold sheet in repoussé centimetres, estimated diameter of technique. Its prototype could be clearly identified as a gold coin (aureus) bowl 7.6 centimetres, Suthiratana Foundation, inv. no. TCN 100.10 of Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161 CE) dating from the year 152 CE. Another [Photographs and drawing by pendant from Oc Eo, slightly thicker with a plain reverse and probably Brigitte Borell]. cast, was initially thought to derive from a coin of Marcus Aurelius

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(r. 161-180 CE). However, it has been demonstrated elsewhere that the coins of Marcus Aurelius do not accurately match the details of the a b Oc Eo obverse, and it has been argued that the prototype for this second pendant from Oc Eo was a coin of Commodus (r. 180-192 CE), the last of the Antonine emperors, dating from the year 192 CE (Borell 2008a). Recently, similar pendants have been found at Khlong Thom. One Figures 13a-b: Gold pendant of them closely imitates the obverse of a coin series of Antoninus Pius from U Thong, Suphan Buri province, dating from 158-159 CE [Figures 11a-b], whereas its worn reverse diameter 19-20 millimetres, U Thong certainly stems from the coin of a different Roman emperor. On the National Museum (left: obverse; right: reverse) [Photographs by obverse an essential part of legend has been left out when making the Brigitte Borell]. mould for casting, namely the title Augustus for the Roman emperor, usually abbreviated as AVG, and the letter P for PIVS. Instead, above the head of the emperor only a blank space exists, probably to provide a b space for the suspension loop of which a piece of soldered-on gold wire has been preserved on the back identical to that on the Oc Eo pendant imitating a coin of Commodus. Such a spiral of gold wire serving as a suspension loop is preserved on a similar pendant from Khlong Thom [Figures 12a-b] with a free adaptation of a Roman coin design. Imitations of Roman coins made up as pendants are a phenomenon well known from India. Roman coins arrived in India in enormous numbers during the trade boom with the Roman world in the early centuries CE and have been recovered in their thousands. Figures 14a-b: Bronze pendant These pendants from Khlong Thom and Oc Eo, however, are different from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, in appearance to the imitations known from India and were most likely diameter 18 millimetres, Suthiratana Foundation (left: obverse; right: reverse)

manufactured in Southeast Asia. [Photographs by Brigitte Borell].

The disc-shaped repoussé pendant discovered at U Thong in central a b Thailand was probably also locally produced [Figures 13a-b].17 Khlong Thom yielded yet two other finds whose design is derived from Roman coins. One is a bronze pendant crudely imitating a coin of Tiberius (r. 14-37 CE) of the so-called Livia-type [Figures 14a-b], so Figures 11a-b: Gold pendant named because the seated figure on the reverse is usually identified as from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, Livia, the wife of Augustus and mother of Tiberius. The other find is obverse imitating a coin of Antoninus one half of a two-part stone mould for the reverse of such a pendant Pius (r. 138-161 CE), diameter [Figure 15].18 Tiberius coins of this type, which represent one of the 19 millimetres, weight 4.16 grams, most common Roman coin types, were probably minted throughout Suthiratana Foundation, inv. no. KLP 071 (left: obverse; right: reverse) Tiberius’ entire reign and were found in large numbers in India where [Photographs by Brigitte Borell]. they arrived through commercial transactions during the Roman period (Turner 1989; Tomber 2008: 35-36). In India, they were also imitated in metal and in clay to be used as pendants. Such clay pendants of local a b Indian manufacture are known in particular from Kondapur in Andhra Pradesh (Wheeler 1954: 152-153, pls 28-29). Although we cannot be sure where the bronze pendant from Khlong Thom was made, the mould is definite evidence that local production of such pendants took place there. However, when attempting to date these pendants, we must bear in mind that only their prototypes are firmly dated here, coins of Tiberius, Figures 12a-b: Gold pendant Antoninus Pius, and Commodus. We have no clues to determine how from Khlong Thom, Krabi province, long after these dates the pendants were actually made. Figure 15: Stone mould from diameter 19 millimetres, weight At present it is difficult to determine to what extent the import of Khlong Thom, ca 4.5 x 3.5 centimetres, 4.86 grams, Suthiratana Foundation Wat Khlong Thom museum, Krabi (left: obverse; right: reverse) these Mediterranean objects like the intaglios, the glass vessels and the province [After Wannasarn 2550: [Photographs by Brigitte Borell]. coins, involved direct contact with traders from the Roman empire. In 28, fig. 3, top].

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general, many of such trade transactions would have been conducted by geographical treatise is likewise lost and known to us mainly through intermediaries. As mentioned above, Roman glass vessels were traded Ptolemy who relies on it although he heavily criticises it. It seems that to India; and a broken intaglio engraved with a portrait of Augustus was detailed knowledge of the Thai-Malay Peninsula and the land route found in Arikamedu in (Malleret 1959: 103-104, figs 4c-d; across it can be traced to Alexandros’ account (Dihle 1984: 90, 147; Tomber 2008: 133). The type of pendant such as the one which crudely Berggren & Jones 2000: 75, no. 51; McLaughlin 2010: 57-59, 133- imitates a coin of Tiberius might have been brought by Indian craftsmen 134). According to our knowledge, Alexandros was the first person to possibly even immigrants present at a place like Khlong Thom. In this document the circumnavigation of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, having case, it would be an indirect adaptation of a Roman prototype, without returned home safely to be able to bequeath his report. We cannot any need for a genuine coin of Tiberius having arrived in southern exclude that before him other traders from the Roman empire had Thailand. In contrast, the later production of gold pendants imitating ventured as from time to time, but there exists no trace of this coins of the second century CE differs from the Indian finds and in the written records. appears to be an indigenous development. The imitations are very close However, the presence of individuals from the Roman empire in to their prototypes, therefore we may assume that the moulds for their Southeast Asia is witnessed in Chinese sources for October 166 CE, manufacture were directly formed from Roman coins. This suggests when the “embassy” of Andun is recorded as the first official contact that at least a few coins actually came to Southeast Asia. with the Roman empire (Da Qin). The entry in the annals of the So far, the only Roman coin known to have been found in Thailand Eastern or Later Han dynasty (Hou Han Shu, chapter 88) says: is an antoninianus of Victorinus (r. 269-271 CE), one of the usurper emperors of the so-called Gallic empire. It comes from U Thong The king of this country always wanted to enter into diplomatic [Figures 16a-b], dates from 269/270 CE and is attributed to the relations with the Han. But the Parthians (Anxi) wanted to trade mint in Cologne (Landes 1981; Borell 2008b: 14, n. 51). These debased with them in Chinese silk and so put obstacles in their way, so coins of the Gallic empire with a minimal silver content were in that they could never have direct relations (with China) until circulation in the western provinces of the Roman empire until the end the reign of Emperor Huan, in the ninth year of Yanxi (166 of the third century CE. They were not used in bulk in long-distance CE), when Andun, king of Da Qin, sent an envoy from beyond trade with India, although occasional finds of such coins are known the frontier of Rinan who offered tusk, rhinoceros from there. horn, and tortoise shell. It was only then that for the first time communication was established (between the two countries). Figures 16a-b: Roman coin (so- called antoninianus) of Victorinus The document listing their tribute had nothing at all precious (r. 269-271 CE), 269/270 CE, Written Sources or rare. Thus one suspects that those who have written about diameter 20 millimetres, U Thong it have erred. (Leslie & Gardiner 1996: 51; with minor stylistic National Museum, inv. no. 306/ The contacts between India and Southeast Asia were already well changes) 2509 (top: obverse; below: reverse) developed in the last centuries BCE. The upper Thai-Malay Peninsula [Photographs courtesy of the was the crossroads between maritime networks from an eastern and U Thong National Museum]. This text has been discussed by many scholars, and there is general a western direction connecting here with a land crossing. A Chinese agreement that it was probably not an official embassy sent by the Roman source (Han Shu, chapter 28B) describes such a land crossing already emperor, but a group of merchants from the Roman empire somehow being in use between sea voyages from Hepu and Xuwen in the Gulf of assuming this role in the eyes of their counterparts (Crespigny 1990: Tonkin to Huangzhi, probably to the southeastern coast of India during 42-43; Graf 1996; Leslie & Gardiner 1996: 153-157). The items listed the reign of Han Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE). which they offer as “tribute” might have been acquired on their way Evidence from written sources suggests that maritime networks along the maritime routes, some of it possibly not far from the frontiers from the West, that is, from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea across of Rinan in present-day Vietnam, and the derogatory comment in the the Indian Ocean connected with the Far Eastern networks and came Chinese source makes it clear that something was out of proportion. into use about two centuries later. The emperor’s name Andun is certainly a rendering of Antoninus, The Periplus Maris Erythraei, a mid-first century CE account of however, it is not clear whether it refers to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus maritime trade from the Red Sea to India, written in Greek by an (r. 161-180 CE), who ruled together with Lucius Verus (r. 161-169), anonymous author, still has only very little to say about the regions or rather to their predecessor Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161 CE). These east of India. This state of knowledge seems to have changed about enterprising merchants who ventured beyond India might very well fifty years later. Claudius Ptolemy, writing in the second century CE, have stayed for some years in the East without knowledge of Antoninus gives a much more detailed description of the areas east of India in his Pius’ death in March 161 CE. In our context, the interesting point is (1.13-14), in particular of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, which that the “embassy” arrived by the sea route along the Vietnamese coast he calls the Chryse Chersonesos, i.e. the Golden Peninsula. He relied from beyond Rinan, the southernmost commandery of the Han empire, on an account, which is now lost, written by a certain Alexandros, a sea extending south probably as far as central Vietnam. They might have captain or navigator. This first hand account is thought to date from travelled on board foreign ships from the eastern coast of India, thus the late first or early second century CE, as it had also been used by reaching the western coast of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, which they another scholar, Marinus, a geographer and cartographer also writing most likely crossed overland in the Kra Isthmus region. in the second century CE but somewhat earlier than Ptolemy. Marinus’

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Additional information about the presence of traders from the Acknowledgements Roman empire is found in the Liang Shu, which is ostensibly the history of the Southern Liang dynasty (502-556 CE), compiled by Yao Silian For giving access to the collection and providing photographs of early in the seventh century CE, but it also includes earlier material. It material kept in the Suthiratana Foundation, the generous cooperation continues with more information about Da Qin: and untiring assistance of Dr Bunchar Pongpanich is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks for providing photographs are due to the Their people are traders and often visit Funan and Rinan and U Thong National Museum. For fruitful comments on the intaglios and Jiaozhi, but people of (these) various countries beyond our the cameo fragment, Brigitte Borell wishes to express her gratitude to southern border rarely reach Da Qin. […] Carina Weiß (Würzburg) and Erika Zwierlein-Diehl (Bonn), as well as In the fifth year of Huangwu of the reign of Sun Quan (226 to the anonymous reviewer. CE), a merchant of Da Qin named Qin Lun came to Jiaozhi. The prefect of Jiaozhi named Wu Miao sent him to visit (Sun) Quan, who asked him about the land and its customs. (Qin) Lun gave a detailed reply. (Leslie & Gardiner 1996: 100-101, 158- 159; with minor stylistic changes)

From this information, we may deduce that, in the later second Endnotes and early third centuries CE, merchants from the Roman empire came more frequently to Southeast Asia clearly along maritime routes and 1 The maximum transgression of the shoreline, 5 For the type, see Sena Chiesa (1966: 149-50, nos. were not uncommon in the regions along the Vietnamese coast, from which in the past has been connected with the 217-220, esp. 217, pl. 11) – perhaps holding a Funan in the south to Jiaozhi in the north. After the collapse of the Dvāravatī period during the second half of the patera; Zwierlein-Diehl (1979: 169, no. 1281, pl. first millennium (Phongsi & Thiwa 2524), occurred 116) – second century CE carnelian, here Mars Han empire, one Roman merchant was sent in the year 226 CE to the much earlier, probably between 6,000 and 5,000 holds out a small Victory. For the style, see Guiraud court of the Wu dynasty (222-280) in the area of present-day Nanjing BCE, see Tanabe et al. (2003: fig. 1 and fig. 8A-B); (1988 : no. 542, pl. 37) and Zwierlein-Diehl (1991: (Crespigny 1990: 479-480, n. 38; Graf 1996: 201-202; McLaughlin also Montri (2011); see also Trongjai, this volume. 306, no. 2763, pl. 223). 2010: 136-137). To arrive in southern Vietnam these groups of Roman Although shoreline progradation was rapid, owing 6 For the motif, see Maaskant-Kleibrink (1978: 209- traders must have either bypassed the Thai-Malay Peninsula or more to the deltaic processes of the Chao Phraya and 210, nos. 482-483, the latter also an amethyst with likely must have crossed it one way or another. the Mae Klong rivers, in the case of U Thong convex face, pl. 90) and Pannuti (1983: 30, no. 39, there would have been only a minor difference of although without himation) showing a carnelian less than 20 kilometres between the shoreline of intaglio, convex face, flat back from Pompei (pre- the early historic period and the present shoreline 79 CE). Conclusion (Tanabe et al. 2003: fig. 8E and fig. 8F). 7 Found in 2006; measurements 0.85 x 0.6 cm. 2 Martin Henig (Glover 1989: n. 5) compared this At present, the surprisingly rich archaeological evidence of objects 8 For the motif of a rider on a walking horse with of Mediterranean origin found at sites in Southeast Asia raises more with an intaglio from Aquileia (Italy), see Sena Chiesa (1966: 392, no. 1341, pl. 68). For additional one front leg raised, see Zwierlein-Diehl (2007: questions than it answers. Some of the objects may be assigned to early comparisons with further references, see Zwierlein- 131, 423, fig. 520), interpreted as the young C. dates such as the first century BCE and the first century CE, butit Diehl (1991: 107, no. 1949, pl. 54); for a stylistic Caesar in military dress and therefore dated to is doubtful whether they indicate direct trade. It seems more likely, at comparison with a gem from Carnuntum (Austria), around 8 BCE; Pannuti (1983: 108, no. 161), from the present state of research, that they would have reached southern see Dembski (2005: 142, no. 914, pl. 94). Pompei (pre-79 CE date) depicting a youth likewise with his cloak flying out behind; Middleton Thailand by intermediary trade along the maritime routes via India. 3 Martin Henig (see note 2) gave as references (1991: 154, app. 11a-b), said to be from Persia This seems a plausible explanation for the finds of earlier date, and three intaglios from Aquileia (Sena Chiesa 1966: and dated to the second half of the first century in particular for the pendant and mould imitating coins of Tiberius. 240-241, nos. 602-604, pl. 31), and several BCE-beginning of the first century CE, showing a Intaglios could have been brought to southern Thailand by their own intaglios from Gadara in Jordan, see Henig & helmeted warrior looking back. However, the style Whiting (1987: nos. 102-105); in addition, see owners and been lost from or taken out of their ring settings. They and, in particular, the iconography of the rider also Maaskant-Kleibrink (1986: 44-45, no. 90), differ. could have been traded by intermediaries to Southeast Asia as luxury Zwierlein-Diehl (1991: 315, no. 2825, pl. 230), goods, or used in trade as gifts of high prestige to the local rulers. Middleton (1991: 81-82, no. 120 and 2001: 41, 9 An anonymous reviewer suggested a Bactrian In the later second and in the third century CE, traders from no. 22) and Weiß (1996: 84, no. 147, pl. 20). origin, however, so far no convincing parallel has been found. The intaglio with a horse and a the Roman empire, probably from its eastern provinces, may have 4 The motif has been erroneously identified as Graeco-Bactrian inscription (Middleton 1998: 102- arrived more frequently, as indicated not only by the finds of the Perseus with the head of Medusa by Bennet 103, no. 83), interestingly likewise engraved on a pendants imitating coins of later emperors but also in written sources. Bronson (1990: 217), followed by others including layered sardonyx, is very different in style. Thanks Archaeological evidence for still later direct or indirect contact with the very recently by Piriya Krairiksh (2012: 43, fig. are due for this reference to Erika Zwierlein-Diehl Mediterranean, or at least with Egypt, is the find of the early Byzantine 1.10). For comparisons of the satyr motif, see who feels that a Bactrian origin may be excluded Sena Chiesa (1966: 189, no. 391, pl. 20), Henig for the Bang Kluai Nok intaglio (pers. comm.). lamp at Phong Tuek, in , which dates from the (1978: 206-208, nos. 159-177, esp. 161), Maaskant- fifth or sixth century CE (Borell 2008b). Kleibrink (1986: 109, app. 18), Henig & Whiting 10 For the unstable stance of the right figure, compare (1987: no. 241) and Middleton (2001: 36, no. 18). the satyr on a cameo at the Hermitage museum in Saint Petersburg (Neverov 1988: 50, no. 39).

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11 This scene has been erroneously described as the 14 The chemical analysis was carried out by James Bellina-Pryce, Bérénice & Pennsylvania Press, pp. 53-66 and Nadu, India. Oxford: Archaeopress, abduction of Ganymed by Bunchar Pongpanich Lankton in 2009. Praon Silapanth 172-179. pp. 269-274. (2552: 150) and Michael Wright (2552: 48, ills 5-6, 15 The chemical analysis was carried out by Pisutti 2008 Weaving Cultural Identities 2012 Roman Coins and on Trans-asiatic Networks: Upper Cherian, P.J., Selvakumar, centre). For the scene of rural life, see Hamburger Dararutana, Department of Earth Sciences, Derivatives. Paper presented at V. & Shajan, K.P. (1968: 21, 35 no. 141, pl. 7); for the motif of dog Thai-Malay Peninsula – an Early the 14th International Conference Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, , Socio-political Landscape. Bulletin 2007 The Muziris Heritage and eagle with its prey under a tree, compare with and Yatima Thongkam. It has also been analysed of the European Association of Project: Excavations at Pattanam Sena Chiesa (1966: 385-386, nos. 1291-1293, pl. de lʼÉcole française dʼExtrême-Orient 93 Southeast Asian Archaeologists, by James Lankton, see Boonyarit & Rarai (2552: [for 2006]: 257-293. – 2007. Journal of Indian Ocean 65) and Zwierlein-Diehl (1991: 87, no. 1810, pl. 96); also Boonyarit (2011: 87). Dublin, 18-21 September 2012. Archaeology 4: 1-10. 34); for the shepherd, see Maaskant-Kleibrink [Unpublished] 16 For a full discussion of these pendants, see Borell Berggren, J. Lennart & (1978: 250, nos. 658-659, pl. 115), Henig (1994: Jones, Alexander Crespigny, Rafe de (2012). Bourdonneau, Éric 112-113, no. 208), Middleton (2001: 61, no. 36), 2000 Ptolemyʼs Geography. An 1990 Generals of the South. The 2009 Réhabiliter le Funan. Óc Eo Foundation and Early History of Weiß (2007: 226-227, nos. 333-338, pl. 45), and 17 According to information provided by the Annotated Translation of the Theoretical ou la première Angkor. Bulletin de Guiraud (2008: 148, no.1313, pl. 25). U Thong National Museum, this find was brought Chapters. Princeton/Oxford: the Three Kingdoms State of Wu. lʼÉcole française dʼExtrême-Orient 94 Canberra: The Australian 12 This was brought to our attention by Yatima into the museum from the community in 2006. In Princeton University Press. [for 2007]: 111-158. February 2007, Brigitte Borell had the opportunity National University. Thongkam (pers. comm.), who also showed us a Boonyarit Chaisuwan to see it and take the photographs. Bouvet, Phaedra Dembski, Günther photograph of the fragment. 2011 Early Contacts between 2008 Étude préliminaire 18 The back of the mould is prepared for casting India and the Andaman Coast in 2005 Die antiken Gemmen und Kameen 13 This opaque bright red glass (also called sealing- de céramiques indiennes et aus Carnuntum. Wien: Phoibos. wax red) is a special glass colour not easily collared disc beads. See also Wannasarn (2550: 28, Thailand from the Second Century “indianisantes” du site de Khao achieved in antiquity (Welham et al. 2000). It fig. 3, top). BCE to Eleventh Century CE. Sam Kaeo IVe-IIe siècles av. J.-C. Dihle, Albrecht should not be confused with the opaque red glass In Manguin, P.-Y., Mani, A. & Bulletin de lʼÉcole française dʼExtrême- 1984 Antike und Orient. Gesammelte Wade, G. (eds), Interactions between of a different red hue usually encountered in Orient 93 [for 2006]: 353-390. Aufsätze. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. 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