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Black Holes Wormholes B LACK H OLES WORMHOLES &TIME M ACHINES About the Author Jim Al-Khalili was born in 1962 and works as a theoretical physicist at the University of Surrey in Guildford. He is a pioneering popularizer of science and is dedicated to conveying the wonder of science and to demystifying its frontiers for the general public. He is an active member of the Public Awareness of Nuclear Science European committee. His current research is into the properties of new types of atomic nuclei containing neutron halos. He obtained his PhD in theoretical nuclear physics from Surrey in 1989 and, after two years at University College London, returned to Surrey as a Research Fellow before being appointed lecturer in 1992. He has since taught quantum physics, relativity theory, mathematics and nuclear physics to Surrey undergraduates. He is married with two young children and lives in Portsmouth in Hampshire. B LACK H OLES WORMHOLES &TIME M ACHINES J IM A L -KHALILI University of Surrey Institute of Physics Publishing Bristol and Philadelphia c IOP Publishing Ltd 1999 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Multiple copying is permitted in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency under the terms of its agreement with Universities UK (UUK). British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 7503 0560 6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data are available Reprinted with corrections 2000 Reprinted 2001 (twice), 2003 Production Editor: Al Troyano Production Control: Sarah Plenty and Jenny Troyano Commissioning Editor: Michael Taylor Editorial Assistant: Victoria Le Billon Cover Design: Kevin Lowry Marketing Executive: Laura Serratrice Published by Institute of Physics Publishing, wholly owned by The Institute of Physics, London Institute of Physics Publishing, Dirac House, Temple Back, Bristol BS1 6BE, UK US Office: Institute of Physics Publishing, Suite 929, The Public Ledger Building, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA Typeset in TEX using the IOP Bookmaker Macros First printed in the UK by J W Arrowsmith Ltd, Bristol Reprinted in the UK by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall To Julie, David and Kate CONTENTS PREFACE ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii INTRODUCTION xv SPACE 1 THE 4TH DIMENSION 3 To do with shapes • What is space? • 2Dworld and 2D’ers • Curved space • Is there really a fourth dimension? 2 MATTERS OF SOME GRAVITY 22 Apples and moons • Einstein’s gravity • Free fall • Rubber space • Twinkle, twinkle • Cooking the elements • Champagne supernovae in the sky 3 THE UNIVERSE 41 The night sky • How big is the Universe? • The expanding Universe • Hubble, bubble . • Space is stretching • Did the Big Bang really happen? • The edge of space • A closed universe • An open universe • What shape is the Universe then? • Invisible matter • 1998: a big year in cosmology • Is the Universe infinite? • Why is it dark at night? • Before the Big Bang? • Summary 4 BLACK HOLES 78 More to light than meets the eye! • Invisible stars • Beyond the horizon • A hole that can never be filled • Spinning black holes • Falling into a black hole • To see a black hole • Not so black after all • White holes vii BLACK HOLES, WORMHOLES & TIME MACHINES TIME 5 TIMES ARE CHANGING 111 What is time? • Who invented time? • The first moment • Does time flow? • Something called entropy • Arrows of time • Stephen Hawking gets it wrong • A possible solution 6 EINSTEIN’S TIME 139 What is so special about special relativity? • The two faces of light • Thought experiments and brain teasers • Slowing down time • Shrinking distances • Light—the world speed record • When time runs backwards • Little green men • Fast forward to the future • Spacetime—the future is out there • Gravitational times 7 TIME TRAVEL PARADOXES 174 The Terminator paradox • Trying to save the dinosaurs • Mona Lisa’s sister • No way out? • Parallel universes • Where are all the time travellers? TIME MACHINES 8 WORMHOLES 195 A bridge to another world • Alice through the looking glass • When science fact met science fiction • Wormholes—keeping the star gate open • Visiting a parallel universe 9 HOW TO BUILD A TIME MACHINE 216 Time loops • The Tipler time machine • Cosmic string time machines • A recipe for a wormhole time machine • Insurmountable problems? 10 WHAT DO WE KNOW? 240 The mother of all theories • The end of theoretical physics • Astronomy versus astrology • The fascination of science BIBLIOGRAPHY 254 INDEX 259 viii PREFACE Over the past few years there has been an explosion in the number of books and television programmes popularizing current scientific ideas and theories and making them accessible to a wider audience. So is there any need for this, yet another book on a subject that has received more attention than most: the nature of space and time and the origin of our Universe? The other day, I was looking through the web site of a large Internet book club. Under the category of science and nature, I searched for all books with the word ‘time’ in their title. I found 29! Of course, Stephen Hawking’s Brief History of Time is the best known of these, but there were many others with titles like About Time, The Birth of Time, The Edge of Time, The River of Time and so on. It seems that questioning the nature of time at a fundamental level is the ‘in’ topic at the moment. What was most surprising for me was to see that many of those 29 titles had been published since I began writing this book. Established science writers such as Paul Davies, John Gribbin and Richard Dawkins were an inspiration to me as an undergraduate in the mid-1980s. But they were preaching to the converted. At best, they were aimed at the ‘intelligent layperson’, whoever that is supposed to be. My ambition has therefore been to write a book at a more basic level, which would explain some of the ideas and theories of modern physics for anyone to understand, provided of course that they are interested enough to pick up such a book in the first place. I have also tried to make it a little more fun, aiming (probably without much success) for a sort of Stephen Hawking-meets-Terry Pratchett. ix BLACK HOLES, WORMHOLES & TIME MACHINES Many scientists would argue that difficult subjects like Einstein’s theories of relativity can only be ‘dumbed down’ so much before reaching a level where the explanations are no longer correct. I hate that term: dumbed down. It sounds so patronizing. And while it is flattering to be considered by society to be more intelligent than everyone else, scientists are just people who have spent many years being trained to understand the relevant jargon, abstract concepts and mathematical formulae. The hard part is to translate these into words and ideas that someone without their training can appreciate. Because of the way this book developed it has been written with a teenage audience in mind. However, it is aimed at anyone who finds its title fascinating or intriguing. It does not matter if you have not picked up a science book since you were fifteen. So how did this book come about? Well, about three years ago the then head of my physics department at the University of Surrey, Bill Gelletly, suggested that I should give, as one of a series of lectures to first year undergraduates covering a range of general interest topics in modern physics, a lecture on ‘wormholes’. Such a topic is certainly not part of a traditional undergraduate degree course in physics. In fact, fans of the TV series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine are probably better informed about wormholes than your average physicist. Anyway, I thought it would be fun, and proceeded to do some background reading in preparation for the lecture. On the day, I was surprised to find in the audience many students not on the course, as well as postdoctoral researchers and members of staff. There seemed to be something magical about the title. Each year, my department sends out a list of speakers, from among its academic staff, and lecture titles to local schools and colleges. This is mainly as publicity for the department in the hope that these lectures might play a part in our recruitment drive to attract new students. I offered my ‘wormholes’ talk as one of these. Such was its success, I was asked by the Institute of Physics whether I would be the 1998 Schools Lecturer. This involved the substantially greater commitment of having to travel around the country giving the lecture to 14–16 year-olds, with audiences of x Preface several hundred at a time. And, having put a significant amount of preparation into this performance, I found that I had accumulated far too much fascinating material to cram into a one hour lecture and decided to put it all down in a book. I have tried as much as possible to be up to date. In fact, when the manuscript came back to me from the publishers for final corrections and changes, I had to completely revise the chapter on cosmology. Due to recent astronomical discoveries, many of the ideas about the size and shape of the Universe had changed during the few short months since I had written that chapter. Jim Al-Khalili Portsmouth, England, July 1999 xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Looking back over the second half of 1998 when the bulk of the book was written, I realise that I owe my greatest debt of gratitude to my wife Julie and my children David and Kate for putting up with me.
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