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SIXTEEN SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS 12. - With the widespread use of iron and a IS. Assake - Patana or Potali or change in the method of production and Poudanva organisation of production from the 6th 14. - Mahismati, Ujjain B.C. onwards, there emerged 15. - large territorial states, mostly situated 16. Kambhoja - Rajapura or Rajaori north of the Vindhyas and extending During the lifetime of all the from the northwest frontier to . above-mentioned sixteen States were was divided into sixteen States as reduced to only four. These four important 'Mahajanapadas' just before the rise of kingdoms were those of , Avanti, in India. A list of these States is and . Ultimately in the fourth century BC the Magadha State became all powerful and under the Mauryas all these four States were welded together into one thereby giving rise to the mighty Mauryan empire. VATSA KINGDOM The most famous ruler of this kingdom was Udayana, the contemporary of Buddha. He had strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with the powerful rulers of Avanti, Magadha and . He is the hero of given in the Buddhist text (the Anguttara many romantic legends, Priyadarshika Nikaya). and Ratnavali - the two dramas of These sixteen States and their capitals throw a good deal of light on Udayana and were the following: his relation with the kingdom of Anga and 1. Anga - Champa Avanti. The Vatsa kingdom was annexed 2. Magadha - , to Avanti during the reign of Palaka, the 3. Kasi - son of . 4. Kosala - Sravasti KINGDOM OF AVANTI 5. - This kingdom, with its capital at Ujjaini 6. - Kushinagar, Pawa (or modern Ujjain) in Buddha's time was 7. Chedi - Sothivatinagar or ruled by Chanda Pradyota Mahasena. He Suktimati had matrimonial alliance with Udayana, 8. Vamsa or - Kausambi Vatsa the ruler of Vatsa, to whom was married his daughter, Vasavdatta. The Buddhist 9. Kuru - Asandivant texts informed us that even Ajatasatru; the () mighty ruler of Magadha had to fortify his 10. - Ahicchatra (Uttar), capital Rajagriha because of the fear of Kampilya (Dakshina) an invasion by Pradyota. The last ruler of 11. Matsya - Viratnagar () this dynasty was defeated by

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and the whole kingdom was annexed to and Permanides in Greece brought the growing kingdom of Magadha in the about social and religious awakening. fourth century B.C. In India, numerous religious sects arose KOSALA MAHAJANAPADA in the middle Gangetic plains in the B.C. We hear of as many as 62 Another great kingdom that came into religious sects. Of these sects and prominence in the 6th century B.C. or Buddhism were the most important, and in the life-time of Buddha was Kosala. they emerged as the most potent religious Buddha's contemporary ruler of Kosala reform movements. was Prasenajit, who is counted as one of the Anga - Its capital was the bank of river Champa most important rulers of his time. Sakyas Which formed the boundary between a in of Kapilvastu (to which Buddha himself the east and Magadha. It was one of the belonged) accepted the suzerainty of most flourishing cities. 'Digha Nikaya' Prasenajit. Moreover, Prasenajit's position refers to it as one of six principal cities of had become more important because of India. conquered it and merged his sister's marriage with Bimbisara, the it in Magadha. King of Magadha. Later on this marriage, Kashi- It was wealthy and prosperous kingdom. however, led to a war between Kosala and Its capital was Varanasi which is one of Magadha. the foremost cities of India. The Jatakas aks of a long rivalry between Koshi and Of all the States Magadha forged ahead Kosala. It was an important State which as the most powerful and prominent was conquered by Kosala sometime State in from the 6th century before Buddha. to the B.C.. Three different Kosala - It comprised the State of Oudh. The dynasties ruled Magadha till it was finally kingdom was divided into North and incorporated by Mauryas. South, evidently by the river Reconstruct a new socio-religious order. Sarayu. Sravasti was the capital of Confucious in , Zoroaster in Northern Kosala and Kusavati, the capital

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of Southern Kosala. Its king Isukara was the king of . Presenajit, a contemporary of Buddha, Initially a , it had become a figures as one of the most important rulers republic in the time of Lord Buddha but of the time. later on declined. Vajji- It was a confederacy which consisted Panchala- The kingdom roughly corresponds of eight or nine clans of which the to the modern Badaun, Farrukhabad and Lichchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas the adjoining districts of . and the were most prominent. The kingdom was divided into two parts. During the life time of lord Buddha it The Northern Panchala had its capital at was an independent state Ahichchhatra while Southern Panchala but later on it was conquered by Ajatshatru had its capital at Kampilya. King Chulani and merged it in Magadha. Brahmadatta was an important ruler of the Malla- The kingdom of Mallas consisted of . nine territories, one of each of the nine Matsya- It roughly corresponds to the modern confederate clans. At the time of the rise territory of Jaipur. The capital of kingdom of Buddhism two of these confederate was Viratanagara which was named after clans were prominent, one with its his founder king . The Matsyas headquarters at Kushinara and the other had no political importance of their own with Pava as its chief town. The river during the time of Buddha. According to Kakustha formed the boundaries between the it was conquered by the the two territories. The Mallas lost their king of chedi but later on merged in independence not long after Buddha's Magadha. death and their dominion were annexed Surasena - It was situated at the south-east of to the Magadhan empire. Matsya State with its capital at Mathura. Cheti or Chedi-It was situated in the Modern The capital was also known at the and its near areas. Its time of Megasthenes as the centre of capital was Suktimati and Shishupal was once its king. The chedis were one of the most ancient tribes of India. Vatsa- The kingdom was very rich and prosperous and was noted for high quality of its cotton fabrics. Its capital was Kaushambi which is now represented by the village of Kosam on the right bank of the . Its most important king was Udayana who was a contemporary of Lord Buddha. He is the hero of three dramas worship. Later on the kingdom viz '' of Bhasa and became an integral part of the 'Priyadarshika' and 'Ratnavali' of Harsha. Magadhan empire. He conquered . Avanti- It was an important kingdom of Kuril - It comprised of the neighbouring areas . The kingdom was divided of the present and Meerut regions. into two parts. The capital of Northern According to the Jatakas, Avanti was 'Ujjain' whereas 'Mahishmati' the capital of Kurus was near was the capital of Southern Avanti. Its modern Delhi. According to Jaina Sutras, king Pradyota or Chand Pradyota was a

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in the sixth century B.C., the kingdom of Magadha was the first to make a successful bid for supremacy and establish its suzerainty. With Raj Grihaas as its capital, this kingdom was situated in the and of Bihar. Its political power and prosperity reached its zenith in the reign of Bimbisara and Ajata- shatru who one-by-one conquered all the neighbouring states and extended/their empires. PERSIAN INVASION OF INDIA contemporary of Lord Buddha. He was In the sixth century B.C. Persian King followed by the four kings who ruled for Darius or Dara I (522 - 486 B.C.) tried 24, 50, 21 and 20 respectively. The to conquer India. He greatly extended last ruler Nandi Vardhana was defeated by his empire all around and then in order Shishunaga and Avanti was incorporated to conquer India. He first sent his admiral with the growing kingdom of Magadha. Skylax to explore the Indus River. Gandhara- It included the modern district When the admiral achieved his aim he of Peshawar and Rawalpindi. It also invited his master, who at once responded comprised of Taxila, Kashmir and North- to his call and invaded the north-western Western areas. Taxila was the capital of India sometime after 518 B.C. and before Gandhara which was both a centre of 486 B.C. He conquered a large territory trade and an ancient seat of learning. King includ-ing the North-West Frontier Pushkar Sarin was a contemporary of king Bindusara of Magadha who waged the war against king Pradyota of Avanti. Kamboja- It roughly occupied the province around Rajouri including the Hazara District of North-West Frontier province and probably extending as far as Kafiristan. According to Rhys David concludes that Dvaraka was the name of the capital of the Kamboja kingdom during he early Buddhist period. Asavaka- It was originally a kingdom based in the basin of Sindhu. The kingdom is placed Province and certain portions of Sind and in the North-West in the 'Markandeya . Purana' and the 'Brihatsamhita'. Its capital Effects of the Invasion was 'Potali' corresponding to Paudanya of The conquest and later on occupation of Mahabharata. At the time of Buddha the north-west India by the Persians left far ruler of was a king whose son was reaching effects on the . Prince Sujata. i. Indian traders now began to sell their Magadha- Of all the kingdoms that flourished goods throughout the Persian Empire

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without the least hitch and thus Indian against and other Indian chiefs. trade got a great impetus. ## Alexander at once marched forward and ii. The Indians learnt a new script - the reached Taxila where king Ambhi was Kharosthi script -from the Persians, already prepared to help him with all his which remained in use in Northern India forces and resources. Here a message was up to the third century A.D. sent to king Porus to submit, but he flatly iii.The was also greatly refused and got ready for a fight. influenced during this occupation. ## Then he made a sudden attack on the Some scholars are of the opinion that the Indian forces. Porus and his forces gave style of Asoka's Edicts as well as the a heroic fight but Alexander came out construction of his pillars especially to be victorious. To commemorate this their capitals (where animals like the victory Alexander is said to have laid the lion, the bull and the horse etc., and foundation of two cities Bucephala and different birds are made) are borrowed Nicaea at the site of the battle. from the Persians. ## Alexander had proceeded up to the Beas iv. According to Dr. V.A.Smith many ith a view to conquering the Magadhan Indian rulers like Chandragupta Empire, but here his fatigued army refused Maurya learnt many court ceremonials to- cross the river. Alexander tried his best from the Persians. to rouse the morale of his soldiers but to no avail. ALEXANDER'S INVASION Effects of Invasion # # Alexander ascended the throne at the age Although Alexander's invasion failed of twenty and at once he embarked upon to Hellenise India and did not leave any the policy of conquests. Within a very short direct effects of great impor-tance yet it time he over-ran many countries of the produced many indirect consequences, world including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, some of which are the following: Turkistan, Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and 1. Alexander's invasion left the Punjab Bactria, etc. state and its warlike tribes so weak and # # After conquering in 328 B.C. impotent that it became very easy for Alexander also thought of conquering to conquer them. India. Consequently in about 326 B.C. he Thus, Alexander's invasion indirectly invaded India. paved the way for political unity of India. # # First of all various independent tribes 2. Alexander's invasion brought India in (including Assakenos) who inhabited the close contact with the European countries. hilly tracts beyond Indus faced the foreign Now four new routes (three by land and invader. Though the Assakenos gave a one by sea) were found by which Indian tough resistance, they were defeated and scholars, merchants and religious leaders killed in thousands. Then many other hilly began to go to European countries. chiefs themselves submitted to Alexander. 3. The date of Alexander's invasion of India # # Alexander marched forward and crossed (i.e., 326 B.C.) has helped us a lot in the river Indus by constructing a bridge solving the Indian chronology. of boats near Ohind. Here at Ohind he 4. After Alexander's return those Greeks met the representatives of king Ambhi of who were left behind established Taxila, who offered his services to him their independent states on the North-

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West frontier of India. It was with the an elected chief. The four kingdoms establishment of these Greek states (Indo- maintained matrimonial relation, though Bactrian and Indo- Parthians) that a close fighting among themselves for supremacy relation between the Indians and the was common. Magadha emerged as the Greeks was established and both affected strongest power with an able line of rulers. each other. While Magadha was establishing their way 5. The Indians .learnt a good deal from the over northern India, the regions of west, Greeks in the field of coinage, astronomy, Punjab, Sind and Afganistan were divided and sculpture. into many states. Kamboja and Gandhara 6. In the religious field the Hindu religion are two of the sixteen Mahajanapadas and affected the Greek a lot mentioned in the Buddhist scriptures. and many Greeks adopted the Hindu MAGADHA religion and Hindu names. The history of the Magadha kingdom PRE MAURYAN PERIOD was unleashed in south Bihar in the 4th century BC and the drama commenced Indian history before the seventh century in the Saisungha dynasty by a chieftain was not dated. The lack of written records named Sisunga in about 642BC. and other material certainly breaks Bimbisara was the fifth king of this the continuity at several points yet the kingdom. He contributed extending practices of the ancient and the Vedic his dominions by the conquest of Anga periods exists till today as traditions. the modern and Monghyr The first recorded date is considered as district. He is said to reigned for twenty 326BC, the of Alexander's invasion. eight years, according to the . He The Mauryan period dates slightly later is regarded as the person who laid the and historical traditions recorded in foundation of Magadhan greatness. His gives us some information of the policy of diplomacy and war, and able kingdoms of Northern India in the seventh administration made Magadha a great century BC. empire. Vast territories in the northern part of India were covered by forest and inhabited by HATYANKA DYNASTY (544 - 413 tribes. Civilized settlements existed in the B.C.) plains of the Indus and the . Four o The first important ruler of Magadha was important kingdoms of this period were Bimbisara (544-492 B.C.) of Haryank the Magadha, the Avadh, the Vatsa and the Dynasty a contemporary of Buddha and . The other small kingdoms were patronised Buddhism. Conquered Anga Kasi, Matsya, Kuru and Panchala. Besides and strengthened his position by marriage these kingdoms there were many non - alliances keeping three wives - first from monarchial clans. The most important Kosala (sister of Prasenajit) second from was the Virji confederation of eight clans, Vajjis (a Lichchavi princess) and third of which the Licchavis, who ruled from from the chief of Madra clan of Punjab. Vaisali as their capital was prominent. The o Magadha's most serious rival was others were Sakyas of Kapilavastu and Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. Its the Mallas. These clans had no hereditary king Chanaprodyata Mahasena fought rules. An assembly was in charge of Bimbisara. But ultimately the two became administration helped by a council and friends and Bimbisara sent royal physician

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(Jivaka) to Ujjain. Maurya Dynasty under which the o The earliest capital of Magadha was at Magadhan empire reached the apex of its Rajgir, which was called 'Giriraja' at that glory. time. Causes of the Rise of Magadha o Ajatasatru (492-460 B.C.) seized the 1. Advantageous strategic geographical throne after killing his father Bimbisara location both at Rajgir and Pataliputra. and pursued an aggressive policy of Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five expansion. He subdued the Kosalan king hills rendering it impregnable. Pataliputra and enlarged his kingdom by conquering was a water fort (Jaladurga), besides it Kashi and Vaishali. occupied a pivotal position commanding o (460-444 B.C.) succeeded river communications all sides for Ajatasatru and is remembered for building movement of the army. the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga 2. Closeness to the source of natural and the son at Patna. The famous city of resources like iron ores enabled the Pataliputra was founded in this way. Magadhan princes to equip themselves SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY (413-334 with effective weapons. Agricultural tools B.C.) of iron, which increased production and added to royal taxation. o It is said that Udayin was among the five 3. The alluvium soil of Gangetic plains and successor kings who had acquired throne sufficient rainfall was very conducive for by patricides; the people of Magadha agricultural practices. finally outraged by this, deposed the last 4. Rise of towns and use of metallic money of the five in 413 B.C. and appointed boosted trade and commerce that increased Shishunaga, a Viceroy of Banaras, as royal revenue. king. 5. Use of elephants on a large scale in its war o The most famous events was the capital supplied by the eastern part of the country was shifted to Vaishali. Their greatest added to the military power. achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti and its final incorporation 6. The unorthodox character of the Magadhan in the Magadhan empire. society as a result of racial admixture. DYNASTY (344-321 B.C.) ANCIENT REPUBLICS o The founder of the Dynasty was o The records give the names of about , he added to the ten republics that existed in Northern India Magadhan kingdom, Kalinga, from where during the life-time of Buddha. The Sakyas he brought an image of the Jina as a victory of Kapilvastu, the Mallas of Kushinagar trophy. Mahapadma Nanda claimed to be and Pava, and the Liehchhavis of Vaisali 'ekarat' the sole sovereign who destroyed were the most important republics. all the ruling princes. o The country of the Sakyas most probably o The Nandas were fabulously rich and stood pn the borders of India and Nepal, enormously powerful, they had developed and included the lower slopes of the an effective taxation system, built canals Himalayas. These people continued to and carried out projects and had govern themselves on democratic lines for a strong army. quite a long time, but during the reign of Virudhaka, Prasenajit's son, this republic o The Nandas were overthrown by the was annexed to the Kosala empire and a

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large number of the Sakyas were cruelly Arthashastra by Chanakya or Kautilya butchered. is treatise on statecraft. It gives us a o The most important republic was that of picture of administration, society and the the Lichchhavis of Vaisali. These people economy of the country. Mudrarakshasa were chivalrous, war - like and great is a play by Visakadatta. It is lovers of freedom. The neighbouring said to be a political literature revealing republics and states were always afraid the struggle unleashed by Chandragupta of them. Ajatasatru defeated these people Maurya with the help of Chanakya to after a prolonged war of about sixteen overthrow the Nandas. It is also an insight years. into Chandragupta life. He, like a clever diplomat, first of all The Jataka and Chronicles of Ceylon created dissensions among them and gives us an idea that period. broke their back. Then he defeated them Indika written by Megasthenes gives and annexed their territory to his empire. an account of the Mauryan capital, o The administrative machinery of these administrative system and social life. The ancient Indian republics worked more or rock edicts of Ashoka also provides ideas less on democratic lines. The executive about the Mauryan rule. head of these republics was chosen by Indica written by Megasthenes which the people themselves. The members exists as writings by later writers throw of the Assembly were also elected by light on the people, government and the common people. All the questions institutions of India under Chandragupta concerning the people and State were Maurya. His topographical account of discussed in this assembly. the Mauryan capital Pataliputra when he THE MAURYAN EMPIRE (322BC TO visited it as an ambassador and description 188BC) of the administrative system are reliable. The Ceylonese Chronicles, the Dipavamsa The period of the Mauryan Empire marks a and Mahavamsa gives the accounts of the new epoch in the history of India. It is said conversion of Ceylon. They also have to be a period when chronology becomes helped in reconstructing the history of definite. It was a period when politics, art, Ashoka. trade and commerce elevated India to a glorious height. A period of unification CHANRAGUPTA MAURYA of the territories which lay as fragmented The Mudrarakshasha describes kingdoms. Moreover, Indian contact Chandragupta as Mauryaput. Another with the outside world was established account by Somadeva represents him effectively rule during these period. as the son of the last Nanda monarch The source of our knowledge about the from his Sudra concubine Maurya by Mauryan empire is based on name from which was derived the name (i) Arthashastra of Kautiliya Maurya. The Mahavamsatika connects the (ii) Sanskrit play Mudrarakshasa Mauryans with Sakyas who belong to the solar race of . According to the (iii) The Jatakas of the Buddhist Jains tradition Chandragupta was the son (iv) The accounts of Megasthenes of the daughter of the chief of a village (v) The Ceylonese Chronicles the of peacock -tamers (Mayur Posakh). The Dipavamsa and The Mahavamsa peacock figures that appear in the emblem (vi) The accounts of the Greeks of the Mauryas in the some punch marked

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and sculptures testify this.Others are administration of prince Susima. To the of the view that he was a commoner and inherited Mauryan territory of Bindusara not a prince. he added parts of south. Chandragupta was brought to the limelight Ashoka (273-232 B.C.) of the Mauryan empire by Chanakya Ashoka had served as governor of Taxila who had a grudge against Dhananda and Ujjain previously. A Buddhist text who insulted him in the court. The Nanda 'Dipavamsa' says that he usurped the dynasty had lost all its capability owing throne after killing his 99 brothers, except to the extravagant life led by the rulers. the youngest one. He fought the Kalinga The tyranny that was unleashed spread war in 361B.C. The 9th year, of his reign, an air of discontent. The defeat of Punjab which proved to be a turning point in his in the struggle with Alexander, set the carrier and he became a Buddhist upasaka conditions for having a change in the rule. and undertook Dharmayatras. According to Mudrarakshasha, Buddhist He inaugurated his - yatras from and puranic accounts Chandragupta the llth year of his reign by visiting defeated the Nanda army after invoking Bodhgaya. In the 14th year of his reign a revolution against the Nanda rulers in he started the institution of 'Dhamma Patliaputra. He acceded to the throne in Mahamatras' (the officers of righteousness) 321BC. His empire included Magadha to spread the message of Dhamma. and Punjab. The Junagarh rock inscription During his reign the policy of Bherighosa of Rudradaman proves the inclusion (physical conquest) was replaced by that of the Saurastra in his empire. The Jain of Dhammaghosa (cultural conquest). In tradition also establishes Chandraguta course of his second tour in the 21st year 's connection with north Mysore. It also of his reign he visited Lumbini, the birth said to include the Hindukush in the place of Buddha and exempted the village west. The four satrapies also became from Bali (tribute) and the Bhaga (the parts of the Mauryan empire during royal share of the produce), which were Chandragupta Maurya. In course of 18 reduced to one eighth. Ashoka's Hellenistic year Chandragupta consolidated his contemporaries were Antiochus II empire. After which he is said to have philadphus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, abdicated the throne and became disciple Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia and of the Jain Saint Bhadrabahu, and settled Alexander of Epirus. These are mentioned in Shravanabelagola (Mysore). After a in his thirteenth Rock Edict. reign of 24 years he died in about 297BC. Ashoka's Dhamma: Ashoka was careful Bindusara enough to make a distinction between Bindusara, also called "Amitrachates" his personal belief and his support for meaning slayer of enemies, by the Greeks, Buddhism and sectarian conflicts and succeeded to the throne of the Mauryan to promote a harmonious relationship empire after Chandragupta's abdication. between the diverse elements of the vast He also had the opportunity of having the empire. His Dhamma was an ethical code guidance of Chanakya who continued as aimed at building up an attitude of social minister. The period of his accession to responsibility among the people. the Mauryan throne witnessed a series of It was not synonymous with Buddhism; revolt by the people of Taxila. The first it was aimed at building up an attitude revolt was effected owing to the improper of mind of social responsibility based on

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man's dignity and humanistic approach. highest functionaries at the centre called It was not a sectarian faith. It emphasized tirthas and were paid fabulously. They truth, non-violence, toleration, were 18 in number: Mantrin ( Chief compassion; obedience etc., which were Minister), Purohita( Chief Priest), common to almost all religions prevailing Senapati ( Commander in chief), and in India and none could object its basic Yuvaraja( Crown prince) were the highest tenets. functionaries among the tirthas. Ashokan Edicts: There were 14 major Mantriparishad: There was also a rock edicts, two separate Kalinga edicts, 7 mantriparishad to assist the king in day- pillar edicts, and many other inscriptions to-day administration. Kautilya again engraved separately in areas such as and again emphasized the importance of Maski, Bhabru, Samapa etc. In the north- Mantriparishad. Kautilya mentions 27 west the Ashokan scripts were bi-lingual superintendent (adhyakshas) mostly to i.e., Greek and Aramaic. Generally, most regulate economic activities. The famous of the edicts within Indian sub-continental were as follows: boundaries have been composed in the o Panyadhyaksha: Commerce. Brahmi script. o Samsthadhyaksha: Markets, KUNAL AND SAMPRATI (232B.C. checking wrong 1/187B.C.) practices. o Pautavadhyaksha: Weights and o Ashoka died in 232 B.C. and with him measures. departed the glory of Mauryan empire. Vishnu Puran gives the names of his seven o Navadhyaksha: State Boats. successors but with no details, probably o Sulkadhyaksha : Tolls/Customs. the empire was divided into two parts of o Akaradhyaksha : Mines. eastern and western. o Sitadhyaksha : Crown lands. o The western being ruled by Kunal and later o Akshapataladhyaksha : Accounts. for sometime by Samprati where Indo- o Manadhyaksha : Measurement. Greeks began to make early inroads and o Pattanadhyaksha : Ports. until 180 B.C. had virtually supplanted the later Mauryas. o Ganikadhyaksha : Courtesan. o The eastern part being ruled by o Devatadhyaksha : Religious from Pataliputra. He was the seventh king institutions. in succession from Ashoka. He was killed o Lakshanadhyaksha : Mint. by his commander in chief Pushyamitra, Espionage: Spies operated in the guise of who ascended the throne in 187 B.C. The sanyasis, wonderers, beggars etc and were royal dynasty founded by him is known as of two types 'Sanstha' and 'Sanchari', The Sunga dynasty. former worked by remaining stationed at Administration a public place and later by moving from A vast and highly centralised bureaucratic place to place. rule with the king as fountain head of all o Pulisani: Public relation officers gathered powers. The King claimed no divine rule, public opinion, reported to the King. rather it was paternal despotism. Kautilya o Prativedaka: Special reporter, had direct called the king 'Dharmapravartaka1 access to the king at any hour. or promulgator of social order. The o Gudha Purusha: Secret agents mentioned

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in Arthashastra of five members each, being entrusted Army: Mauryans had a big army and with matters relating to industrial arts, there is no evidence of its reduction even care of foreigners, registration of births by peace loving Ashoka. According to and deaths, regulation of weights and Pliny-Chandragupta maintained 600,000- measures, public sale of manufactured foot soldiers, 30,000 and 900 goods and the last with collecting toll elephants. According to Megasthenes, on the articles sold-this being one tenth the army was administered by six of the purchase price. Head of the city committees consisting of five members administration was Nagrika. Nagarika each taken from a board of 30 members. was assisted by two subordinate officials The six committees or the wings of the namely: Sthanika and Gopa. army were: the army, the cavalry, the Revenue Administration: Land revenue elephants, the chariots, the navy and the was the main source of income of the transport. The officers and soldiers were state. Peasants paid Vi of the produce paid in cash. Salaries of some important as 'Bhaga' and an extra tax 'Bali' tribute. officers were: Senapati-48,000 pana; According to the Arthashastra, the land Nayaka-12,000 pana; Mukhyas-8,000 belonged to king, irrigation tax was also pana; Adhyaksha-4,000 pana levied by the government. Besides, other Provincial Administration: Except the taxes like 'Pindakara' (assessed on group capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was of villages), 'Kara' (levied on fruits and divided into four provinces controlled by flower gardens), 'Hiranya' (paid only in a viceroy-either a prince or a member of cash) were also collected. the royal family. Economic Condition: Both agricultural District Administration: Provinces were and industrial sector made much headway; sub-divided into districts and had three colonisation of lands for agricultural main officers: purpose took place on a large scale due 1. Pradesika responsible for the overall to royal incentives. Industrial arts and administration of the district. crafts proliferated as a result of swift communication through a network of 2. Rajuka revenue administration and later good and long roads and incentives given judicial particularly in rural areas and was by the government. under Pradesika. A striking social development was the 3. Yukta probably accountants. employment of slaves in agricultural Sub-District and Village Administration: operation on a large scale. It seems that Sub district consisted of a group of the punch-marked silver corns, which villages numbering 5 to 10 and was carry the symbols of peacock and hill and administered by 'Gopa' (accountant) and regent formed (he imperial currency of the 'Sthanika' (Tax collector). The villages Mauryas. were administered by the village headmen Social Condition: who were responsible to the Gopas and Sthanikas. o Megasthenes divided Mauryan society into seven castes-philosophers, farmers, City Administration: The administration soldiers, herdsman, artisans, magistrate of capital Pataliputra has been described and councilors, certainly he confused by Megasthenes, which according to him, caste with profession. Again he notices the was administered by six boards consisting absence of slavery, but it is contradicted

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by Indian sources. to invade. o Kautilya recommends the recruitment KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAN of and in the army, EMPIRE but their actual enrolment is extremely doubtfull. In addition to the four regular The Sungas castes, he refers not less than five mixed After the Mauryan rule Pushyamitra, the castes by the general name 'Antyavasayin' founder of the Sunga dynasty established (living at end), who lived beyond the pale his rule. The Sungas ruled for over a of society. hundred years. The extent of the Sunga o The position of improved kingdom under Pushyamitra extended somewhat for hitherto agricultural from Punjab and extended to the southern labourers and domestic slaves. They could regions of the Narmada. The Sunga now own land. The existence of several dynasty had a line of ten rulers. The last sects must have caused social tention. of the Sunga king was Devabhuti The Sunga period though is less DECLINE OF THE MAURYAS reflected as a great role in Indian history 1. Brahmanical Reaction: Har Prasad yet it significant in the matter of its Shastri holds that Ashoka's pro-Buddhist administration, religion, art and literature. policy annoyed Brahmans culminating The Sungas administrated the kingdom in the killing of the last Mauryan ruler with the help of a mantriparishad. This Brihadratha by his Brahman army general council existed in the centre and the Pushyamitra Sunga. provinces. The provinces were governed 2. Ashoka's Pacifist Policy: which resulted by viceroys. During the Sunga rule in the emasculation of the army, but we Brahmanism revived its vigour. The have no evidence of his disbanding the Bhagavata form of religion was prevalent. army or even reducing their number. (H.C. The Bharbat stupa and the ivory works in Raichoudhary). its exquisite manner proves the promotion 3. Economic Weakness: D.D. Koshambi of art. Patanjali's Mahabhashya is an draws our attention to the debased coins example of the flourishing literature of the of later Mauryans and maintains that the Sunga. heavy economic pressure caused due to a The vast army and bureaucracy was the chief The dynasty was a Brahman cause for the downfall. dynasty founded by Kanva, the 4. Administrative Weakness: minister if Devabhuti, the last Sunga king. attributes decline to the top heavily This period is said to have witnessed the centralized bureaucracy; no competitive rule of four kings extending to a period requirement system, no means of gauging about 45 years. The extent of Kanva public opinion, lack of nationalism territory was confined to the areas of among people, but all these were a remote Sunga rule. Susarman was the last ruler of possibilities in those days. the . The Kanvas were over 5. Ashoka's weak successors: Ashoka's weak thrown by the Satavahanas. successors and division of the empire into Satavahanas the parts might have adversely affected The Satavahanas were also called the strength and resources of the empire in Andhras. The Aitareya Brahmana claims resisting Indo-Greeks who were the first

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the Andhras as, the exiled and degenerate organisation of workers doing various sons of Viswamitra. Ashoka inscriptions trades. Broach, Sopara and Kalyan were mentions the Andhras as border people. important trade points. The Satavahana They were Dravidian people who lived rulers patronised Prakrit which was the between the Godavari and the Krishna. common language used on documents. was the founder of the Satavahana The Satavahana empire is said to be dynasty. He was succeeded by his brother partitioned into five provinces. The Krishna. western territory of Nasik was possessed Scholars are of the opinion that the by the Abhiras. The Ikshavakus dominated original home of the Andhras - Andhra over the eastern part in the Krishna bhrityas was the Bellary district. Others -Guntur region. claim their records to be found in the The Chutus possessed the southwestern Northern Deccan and central India. parts extended their territory to the north Satakarni was the successor after Simuka, and east. The south eastern parts were and is a considerable figure, known for his under the Pahalvas. performance of two aswamedha sacrifices. The Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri His reign was followed by the rule of near Cuttack speaks of a remarkable rule Gautamiputra satakarni. He is said to have of a contemporary of the Sungas known defeated the Yavanas, Sakas and Phalanas as Kharavela of Kalinga. He ruled from and re-established the ancient glory of the about 176Bc to 164 BC. He is said to be Satavahanas. Gautamiputra satkarni was the third ruler of the Cheta dynasty. succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri In the first year of his rule he is said to be Pulamavi in about 130 AD. He extended have furnished and improved his capital his rule towards the Andhra country. Yajna Kalinga. In the second year he subdued Sri Satakarni was the last great ruler of the and destroyed the capital of the Mushikas Satavahanas. disregarding the rule of Satakarni. After him the weak successors resulted In his eighth year he destroyed the in the contraction of the territory of the fortification of Gordha and entered as far Satavahanas. Hostility with the Saka as Rajagriha in the Gaya district. He also rulers also led to the ultimate parceling conquered king Brihaspatimittra of the of its territories and decleration of Magadha. He also built the Udayagiri and independence . Khandagiri caves to provide shelter to the The Satavahana society reflected the Jain monks. existence of four classes. The persons It can be concluded that he was as who controlled and administered the accomplished ruler and a generous districts, followed by the officials. They guardian of the people. were followed by the Vaidhya, cultivators. The fourth class were common citizen. The head of the family was the Grihapati. Both Buddhism and Brahmanism was practiced during the Satavahana rule. A state of religions tolerance existed among of various sects of people following varied faiths. Trade flourished and there existed

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