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Promoting National Unity : the Role of Radio Broadcasting in the Process Promoting National Unity: The Role of Radio Broadcasting in the Process of Decolonisation in Namibia and Zambia Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie vorgelegt von Robert Heinze an der Geisteswissenschaftliche Sektion Fachbereich Geschichte und Soziologie Konstanz, 2012 Konstanzer Online-Publikations-System (KOPS) URL: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:352-2-1j9u0vf8uwc9l6 Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 26.6.2012 1. Referent/Referentin: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Osterhammel 2. Referent/Referentin: Dr. James Brennan 3. Referent/Referentin: Prof. Dr. Sven Reichardt Table of Contents I. Introduction......................................................................................1 1. Decolonisation, the State and Nationalism in Sub-Saharan Africa...............................3 2. Radio and National Identity.........................................................................................10 3. Radio in African History...............................................................................................15 4. Radio as an Agent of Modernity..................................................................................20 5. Theoretical Framework, Sources and Structure.........................................................24 II. Institutions.....................................................................................36 1. "This is Lusaka Calling": The Beginnings of Broadcasting in Northern Rhodesia..................................................................................................36 2. Takeover and Restructuring: From Corporation to Services.......................................47 3. "Unifying the People" and "Separate Development": Broadcasting in and to Occupied Namibia..................................................................................................57 4. Reuniting and Reconciling: the NBC in Independent Namibia...................................70 5. Government Control, Public Service Broadcasting and Issues of Censorship...........77 III. Broadcasters..................................................................................84 1. CABS and the "European" and "African" Service in the FBC.....................................85 2. "Zambianisation" in the ZBS: Africanizing Radio?......................................................77 3. Separate Worlds: Black and White Broadcasters in South West Africa....................111 4. Broadcasting Resistance: the Voice of Namibia.......................................................125 5. "It was not so easy, you know": the NBC as Laboratory of National Reconciliation.............................................................................................130 6. "Men Between": Broadcasters as Cultural Brokers..................................................142 IV. Programmes.................................................................................150 1. The Development of Programmes for Africans in the Colonies................................152 2. "Tiyende Pamodzi": Zambian Programmes after Independence..............................172 i 3. Afrikaner Culture and Nationalist Mobilisation: Programming for and against Apartheid...................................................................184 4. "Building the Nation": The NBC as Promoter of National Reconciliation..................208 5. Mediating Ideologies in Radio Programmes.............................................................213 V. Audiences....................................................................................218 1. “The African Listener”: Audiences and Reception in Colonial Broadcasting...........................................................................................221 2. A Unified Nation? Language, Hegemony and Nation-Building in Post-Colonial Zambia...........................................................235 3. Contested Hegemony: Afrikaner Dominance and Language Division in the SWABC.....................................................................243 4. The Struggle for Hegemony in Post-Apartheid Namibia...........................................256 5. (Post-)Colonial Broadcasting, Reception and Hegemony.........................................270 VI. Conclusion...................................................................................274 Bibliography........................................................................................291 ii Abstract Promoting National Unity: The Role of Radio Broadcasting in the Process of Decolonisation in Namibia and Zambia The thesis analyses the role of radio in African decolonisation based on two case stu- dies. It takes broadcasting systems as a whole into account, arguing that the effects of radio broadcasting in African societies can only be evaluated in a close analysis of the in- terrelations between all actors involved in radio. Colonial administrations began broadcast- ing to an African audience out of a desire to control information flows; but the medium was also an integral part of colonial efforts to mould African subjects into modern individuals. Post-colonial governments inherited this desire to modernise society, but at the same time distanced themselves from colonial political models. Radio became an instrument in efforts of "nation-building", producing national subjects in fragmented societies to ensure political and social stability. This was again embedded in larger ideas about modernising African societies, which were shared by nationalist politicians and broadcasters alike. Listeners, however, reacted differently to colonial and post-colonial ideological projects, refusing open propaganda and choosing from different sources. Broadcasters had to react to listen- ers' wishes if they wanted to keep their influence, because even tightly controlled state ra- dios could not establish information monopolies. Therefore, albeit indirectly, the nation was discussed and negotiated between politicians, broadcasters and listeners. The analysis of African electronic media, the actors involved and the interrelations be- tween different levels of broadcasting institutions, programmes and audiences shows that decolonisation was a complex ideological process, in which efforts at planned cultural and social change did not easily play out. Instead, ideas about post-colonial nations and the production of national, modern individuals were taken up and reinterpreted in social and political conflicts. iii Abstract (Deutsch) Promoting National Unity: The Role of Radio Broadcasting in the Process of Decolonisation in Namibia and Zambia Basierend auf zwei Fallstudien untersucht die Dissertation die Rolle des Radios im Dekolonisierungsprozess in Afrika. Dabei bezieht sie Rundfunksysteme als Ganze mit ein und argumentiert, dass der Einfluss des Radios auf afrikanische Gesellschaften nur durch eine Analyse der Beziehungen zwischen allen beteiligten Akteuren bewerte werden kann. Koloniale Verwaltungen begannen mit gezielten Rundfunksendungen für afrikanische Publika, um Kontrolle über Informationsflüsse zu erlangen; gleichzeitig war das Medium integraler Teil kolonialer Versuche, aus afrikanischen Subjekten moderne Individuen zu formen. Postkoloniale Regierungen übernahmen dieses Bedürfnis nach gesellschaftlicher und individueller Modernisierung, während sie sich gleichzeitig von kolonialen politischen Modellen distanzierten. Radio wurde zu einem Instrument in Versuchen des "nation- building" und sollte nun national Subjekte in fragmentierten Gesellschaften hervorbringen, um gesellschaftliche und politische Stabilität zu erreichen. Diese versuche waren wiederum eingebettet in umfassenderen Ideen, die Politiker und Runfunkmitarbeiter gleichermassen teilten. Die Hörer reagierten allerdings anders auf koloniale und postkoloniale ideologische Projekte, verweigerten sich offener Propaganda und wählten Information aus verschiedenen medialen Quellen. Radiojournalisten mussten auf Hörerwünsche reagieren, wollten sie ihren Einfluss sichern, denn selbst der stark kontrollierte Staatsrundfunk konnte sich kein mediales Monopol sichern und Informationsflüsse total kontrollieren. Auf diese Weise wurden Ideen über Moderne und Nation zwischen Journalisten, Politikern und Hören ausgehandelt. Die Untersuchung des afrikanischen Rundfunks, der beteiligten Akteure und der Beziehungen zwischen den verschiedenen Ebenen der Institutionen, Programme, und Publika zeigt, dass Dekolonisierung ein komplexer ideologische Prozess war, in dem Versuche, sozialen und kulturellen Wandel zu planen, nicht leicht umzusetzen waren. Stattdessen wurden Vorstellungen der postkolonialen Nation und der Produktion moderner, nationaler Individuen aufgenommen und in sozialen und politischen Konflikten reinterpretiert. iv I. Introduction "Since 1956 the purchase of a radio in Algeria has meant, not the adoption of a modern technique for getting news, but the obtaining of access to the only means of entering into communication with the Revolution, of living with it. [...] The radio set was no longer a part of the occupier's arsenal of cultural oppression. In making [sic] of the radio a primary means of resisting the increasingly overwhelming psychological and military pressures of the occupant, Algerian society made an autonomous decision to embrace the new technique and thus tune itself in on the new signaling systems brought into being by the Revolution." Fanon, Frantz. 1994 (1965). This is the Voice of Algeria, in: Id.: A Dying Colonialism, New York, 69-98, 83. Frantz Fanon,
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