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A Case Study of Code- Switching in Multilingual Namibian Keyboard-To 31 A Case Study of Code- 1. Introduction In a linguistically diverse setting like Nami- Switching in Multilingual bia, it is not surprising that code-switching Namibian Keyboard-to- he Republic of Namibia in southern constitutes a widespread practice among the Africa cannot only be characterized population and is not limited to face-to-face Screen Communication communication – especially in the light of T by its cultural diversity and multi- Journal Article ethnicity, the population’s de facto multi- devices like smart phones and other new Frederic Zähres lingualism seems ubiquitous (cf., e.g., Busch- technologies versus the related new forms of feld & Kautzsch 2014: 122-123; Kautzsch & communication, which have emerged only in Despite its multilingual setting, Namibia’s Schröder forthc.: 1). Interestingly, the coun- recent times and have spread so fast around sociolinguistic situation has attracted little attention by researchers at this point. try has maintained a monolingual language the globe that (linguistic) research only hardly keeps pace with it (cf. Brock & While English has been the sole official policy – with English as the sole official lan- language for over 20 years, at least 10 guage – ever since its independence in 1990 Schildhauer fc.; Dürscheid & Frick 2014). other languages can be encountered in the (cf. Frydman 2011; Wallace 2011: 309). This Keyboard-to-screen communication – either southern African country, whereas English in the form of text messaging or, more is seldom acquired as L1. mostly ideologically-based decision, how- Keyboard-to-screen communication ever, does not reflect the linguistic daily life recently, represented by the smart phone (KSC), i.e. messaging services such as SMS of Namibians, neither in the past nor cur- application WhatsApp – is a popular means of and WhatsApp, is omnipresent in our rently. Also, the consequences of this communication, also in Namibia. current daily lives. As the medium fre- monolingual language policy on sectors like This case study aims at catching a quently exhibits elements of spoken language, the language used on WhatsApp education have attracted the attention of glimpse of Namibia’s insufficiently-re- can be an interesting source for pheno- researchers more recently to investigate, searched current sociolinguistic situation by mena that often occur in oral language use. among other aspects, language use and analyzing multilingual WhatsApp messages This case study aims at shedding light attitudes (cf., e.g., Buschfeld & Kautzsch provided by Namibian informants. Also, re- on the sociolinguistic situation of Namibia search on the digital medium WhatsApp still by analyzing occurrences of codeswitching 2014; Kautzsch & Schröder fc.), language within KSC of Namibians. Findings include contact phenomena (cf., e.g., Kamati 2011; is at an early stage and observations could the preference of English over the L1 Stell 2014a; Simasiku et al. 2015), and shed light on typical features of WhatsApp during casual conversation with discourse- potential nativization effects on the English communication. For this, the linguistic related code-switching to the L1 for spoken in Namibia (cf., e.g., Buschfeld & situation of Namibia will be briefly outlined emotional or urgent matters. Additionally, code-switching appears to be a non- Kautzsch 2014; Schneider & Schröder 2015; in the next section, followed by a summary of marked feature of KSC in Namibia. Kautzsch & Schröder fc.). the current state of research on Keyboard- to-screen communication – with a focus on Student Paper 1 0 p l u s 1 10plus1: Living Linguistics | Issue 2 | 2016 | Contact Linguistics L I v I n g L I n g u I s t I c s Frederic Zähres | A Case Study of Code-Switching in Multilingual Namibian Keyboard-to-Screen Communication 32 WhatsApp. Then, the multilingual Namibian Basters (cf. ibd.). Also, European missi- which lasted until independence in 1990, the WhatsApp messages and, subsequently, the onaries found their way to the area during oppressive apartheid system was employed analysis will be provided and discussed. A the nineteenth century (cf. Wallace 2011: by the South African National Party in the concluding section will summarize the 54-56). This pre-colonialization contact zone middle of the twentieth century. Soon, findings. would not only connect the speakers of the resistance against the South African Bantu and the Khoisan languages, respect- oppressors emerged in form of the South 2. Namibia tively, but also introduced Indo-European West African People’s Organisation, languages to the country. SWAPO in short, and – literally – fought for 2.1 History of Namibia Not even fifteen years later, Germany Namibian independence, which was colonized South-West Africa until World ultimately gained in 1990 (cf. Buschfeld & Namibia’s history can be divided into several War I. The German rule of German South- Kautzsch 2014: 126-127; Wallace 2011: eras defined by distinct periods of language West Africa was not a peaceful period but 309). The drafted constitution includes, contact that have shaped the country’s served as a major phase of language contact among several other important changes, a current cultural and linguistic landscape. between the Germans and the South-West monolingual language policy that lists Before colonization, the area of present- Africans as German was an official language English as the sole official language of the day Namibia was home to several groups of of the period (cf. Frydman 2011: 182) – and Republic of Namibia as “Namibia’s liberation indigenous Khoisan peoples – the Nama, the remnants of that period can still be found in movement […] deemed it necessary to Damara, and the San – who were joined by present-day Namibia, especially when loo- replace Afrikaans, the ‘language of the different Bantu-speaking settlers – the king at Namibian place names, for example oppressors,’ and to establish a language Herero, the Ovambo, and the Kavango – in Lüderitz or Mariental. policy in preparation for an independent the seventeenth century (cf. Buschfeld & After the era of German South-West Namibia” (Frydman 2011: 182). Kautzsch 2014: 124-125). In the following African had ended in 1915, the country centuries, ethnically mixed groups immi- became a League of Nations mandate 2.2 Sociolinguistic Situation in grated to the territory: the first group governed by South Africa (cf. Wallace 2011: Present-Day Namibia consisted of Oorlams from Cape Colony who 205). German lost its status as an official migrated towards South-West Africa in the language and was replaced by both Today, the status of English as the sole late 1700s and early 1800s. Around 1870, a Afrikaans and English – with the latter never official language is not reflected in the second group came from South Africa to reaching the status of a de facto official diverse population, which is mostly multi- settle down in the Rehoboth territory, language (cf. Frydman 2011: 182). During lingual (cf. Buschfeld & Kautzsch 2014: 127). coming to be known as the Rehoboth the South African administration period, 10plus1: Living Linguistics | Issue 2 | 2016 | Contact Linguistics Frederic Zähres | A Case Study of Code-Switching in Multilingual Namibian Keyboard-to-Screen Communication 33 Despite being labeled as the ‘language of the found that, in classrooms, code-switching is gence towards Afrikaans rather than English, oppressors’, Afrikaans is commonly en- often employed to facilitate understanding it seems that Afrikaans does not possess the countered in Namibia – and, to a lesser ex- and to overcome a language barrier that is connotations of an ‘oppressor language’ in tent, even German is still spoken. However, clearly present (cf. Kamati 2011; Simasiku et present-day Namibia. English has gradually spread among the al. 2015). However, more recently, researchers Namibians since independence: media such Stell (2014a: 98, 102-105) has dis- have found potential signs of nativization of as television, radio, and news-papers are covered that English only functions as a English within the speech of Namibians (cf. available in the English language and also means of interethnic communication for Buschfeld & Kautzsch 2014; Kautzsch & international programs are broad-cast (cf., non-whites – most notably the native Bantu- Schröder fc.; Schneider & Schröder 2015): e.g., Buschfeld & Kautzsch 2016: 5-6; language speakers, whereas Afrikaans re- This includes potential mergers and splits on Ejikeme 2011: 69-70). Also, the English mains a more general lingua franca within the phonological level, elements in the language has gained ground among the groups also including Coloureds and lexicon, morphosyntactical constructions, population and is regarded as a prestigious Whites1. In Namibia, Afrikaans still is the and also pragmatic features that are either language (cf. Buschfeld & Kautzsch 2014: native tongue of several ethnic groups closely related to other South African 141-143, 147-148). (including Coloureds and Rehoboth Basters) varieties of English or might even constitute However, the mainly ideologically- and a second language of various other unique features of a Namibian variety of based monolingual language policy is viewed groups (e.g., Namas, Damaras, Hereros) who English – future research will shed more light controversially by parts of the Namibian grew up with a Bantu or Khoisan language on this. Namibians themselves call their population (cf. Frydman 2011). Even today, themselves. Thus, as groups show conver- variety of English Namlish (cf. Buschfeld & English is usually not acquired as a native Kautzsch 2014: 27), which indicates a language but rather learned in schools as a certain linguistic awareness regarding the 1 The Bantu-speaking groups in Stell’s (2014a) study second language, where it eventually be- were represented by Ovambos and Hereros. English spoken in Namibia. In any case, all of comes the primary medium of instruction Especially Ovambos would primarily make use of this inevitably implies that English has from Grade 4 or even Grade 1 onwards (cf. the English language – in intra- and interethnic gained much ground in Namibia during the communication. Whether this is linguistically or Kamati 2011: 1; Stell 2014b: 227).
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