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Quaternary of the

Environments, Climate Change, and

Edited by YnHoune ENzBr The Hebrew University of Orpn Bln-Yosnr

H aruard Univ e rsity, M as s achus etts

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Library of Con g re s s C atalog uin g - in- P ub lication D ata Names: Enzel, Yehouda, 1955- editor. I Bar-Yosef, Ofer, editor. Title: Quaternary of the Levant : environments, climate change, and humans / edited by Yehouda Enzel and Ofer Bar-Yosef. Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge Universiry Press, 2017. Identifiers: LCCN 2016041650 I ISBN 9781 107090460 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: period, . I period Middle

East. I Paleoanthropology - Middle East. I Paleoclimatology - Quatemary. I Paleoecology - Quatemary. Classifi cation: LCC CN7 7 2.32.M628 Q37 20 11 I DDC 939.4 - dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016041650

ISBN 978- 1 - I 07-09046-0 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. 7 6 The Epipalaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic of

ANDREW N. GARRARD

76.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT in the upper Qadisha (Cedar) Valley as as elsewhere (Morilin et aI. 2Ol l). From ca. I 6 ka BP, there appears to have been a rapid re- The topography of Lebanon is dominated by two parallel mountain establishment ol humid or warmer conditions, and deciduous oaks ranges (see also Avni, Chapter 2 of this volume): appear to have recolonized ca. 13 ka. Two other records were to the west rises to >3,000 m, and Mount Hermon and the Anti- obtained for the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene from an Lebanon range to the east rise to 2,800 and 2,600 m respectively. oxygen and carbon isotopic anclysis of deposirs from These are separated by the major fault valley of the Bekaa, which Jiita () just norrh o[ , and lrom a pollen core from is drained by the and by the Assi River, the head- the wetland area in the southern Bekaa Valley (Hajar et al. waters of the Orontes. These ranges are bounded on the west by the 2008r Verheyden et a\.2008). Both of those hint ar higher aridity Mediterranean coast (Fig.76.1). The current annual rainfall varies around the time oi the Yorrnger Dryas. according to aititude and the impact of the rain shadows created by the two mountain ranges (Kushnir et al., Chapter 4 of this volume). It varies from 700 mm along the coast to a maximum of 1,500 mm 76.2 RESEARCH ON THE EPIPALAEOLITHIC AND over Mount Lebanon. It drops to 300-400 mm in the Bekaa before PRE.POTTERY NEOLITHIC rising to 500-600 mm over the Anti-Lebanon. Finally, on the east- ern Syrian side of the range, it drops to 200-300 mm (e.g. Service The most active period of archaeological field research on the

Mdtdorologique du Liban 1971;' Fig. 3.1). The vegetation in un- Pal aeol i th ic and Neolithic of Lebanon occurred i n the [ 5 or so years disturbed areas shows marked zonation according to rainfall and prior to the outbreak of war in 1975. There were a wide range of altitude. On the westem flanks of Mount Lebanon, it varies from surveys and excavations undertaken at this time, and good recent evergreen oak and pine forest below 1,000 m, to deciduous oak reviews are in Yazbeck (2004), HAidar-Boustani (2013) and Shaw woodland up to ca. 1,500 m, to cedar, fir, and juniper lorest up to (Chapter 61 of this volume). Earlier accounts are in the syntheses ca. 2,000 m, to sub-alpine habitats above. In those parts of the Anti- of Cauvin (1968), Besanqon et al. (1972,19'75-1977), Copeland Lebanon where woodland survives, it ranges from deciduous oak to (1975) and Hours (1975, 1992).The inventories ofStone Age sites juniper at higher elevations (Abi-Saleh & Safi 1988). in Lebanon produced by Copeland and Wescombe (1965,1966), In recent years, several palaeoenvironmental projects have been and Copeland and Yazbeck (2002), are useful sources on the indi- undertaken in Lebanon, which have provided information on con- vidual sites. However, in spite of the relative surge of fieldwork at ditions through the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. The most that time, the Epipalaeolithic is less known than the late Lower, detailed data has come from a 36 m core driiled in the karstic Yam- Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic; the Pre-Pottery Neolithic is poorly mouneh Basin, which lies at i,360 m on the eastern flanks of Mount known relative to the Pottery Neolithic. Lebanon (Figure 76.1; Develle et al.2010; Gasse a|.2011, and, Since the late 1990s, archaeological field research has restarted this volume). A combined study of the sedimentation record, pollen in Lebanon, but in relation to the Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic this samples, and the 3t8O analysis of carbonates from ostracods has has been largely restricted to excavations at the cave sites at Moghr indicated a harsh Last Glacial Maximum with little arboreal vegeta- el-Ahwal in the Qadisha Valley (Garrard & Yazbeck 2004,2008, tion. There appears to have been a drop in the circulation of karstic 2013) and to small-scale re-evaluations of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic groundwater at that time, and it has been suggested that this may A site of Nachcharini in the Anti-Lebanon and the late Pre-Pottery have resulted from it being stored in ice above 2,000 m on Mount Neolithic B site of Labwe South in the Bekaa (Garrard et al. Lebanon. Evidence for possible glacial moraines have been found 2003; H[idar-Boustani 2013) (Fig. 76.1).

691 Figure76.1 PalaeolithicandNeolithicsitesinLebanonandadjacentareas. l-AbuHalka(UpperPalaeolithic);2-Keou6(Middlepalaeolithic);3-Moghr el-Ahwal(MiddleandEpipalaeolithic,Neolithic.):4-Masloukh(LowerPalaeolithic); 5-(Neolithic); 6-NahrIbrahim(Middtepalaeolithic);j- (Middle Palaeolithic); (Epipalaeolithic); 8 - Jiita 9 - Ksar 'Akil (Middle, uppeq and Epipalaeolithic), Abri Bergy (Epipalaeolithic), (Upper and Epipalaeolithic); (Lower l0 - and Middle Palaeolithic); 1 1 - Borj Barajne (Epipalaeolirhic, Neolithic); Teil aux Haches (Neolithic); Tell aux Scies (Neolithic); l2 Naamd (Middle - Palaeolithic); l3 - Mouktara (Neolithic); 14 - Borj Qinnarit (Lower palaeolithic); 15 - Bezez (Lower, Middle,andUpperPalaeolithic,Neolithic),AbriZumoffen(LowerPalaeolithic); l6-(Middlepalaeolithic);17-JoubJannine(Lowerpalaeolithic); l8-Saaid6(Epipalaeolithic,Neolithic); l9-TellArdTlaili(Neolithic);20-TellLabwe(Neolithic); 21 -Nachcharini(Epipalaeolithic,Neolithic);22- Tell Nebe Mend (Neolilhic); (Lower, 23 - Yabrud Middle, Upper, and Epipalaeolithic); 24 -Baaz(Epipalaeolithic, Neolith.ic); 25 - Ghoraif6 (Neoiithic); 26 Tell Aswad (Neolithic);27 Ramad (Neolithic); - -"fell 28 - Berekhat Ram (Lower Palaeolithic); 29 - Quneitra (Middle palaeolithic);30 - Ain Mallaha (Epipalaeoliihic;, Beisamoun (Neolirhic ). Epipalaeolithic/Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Lebanon 693

The tbllowing provides a brief review of our knowledge of the fiom Jiita II, which lies in a deeply incised craggy valley slightly Epipalaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic in Lebanon, and this is further inland, and at this site, Capra is the dominant species with followed by a summary of the excavation results from Moghr el- Dama forrntng a lower percentage. Ahwel, with its Kebaran to Late Neolithic sequence.

76.4 TH.I' GEOMETRIC KEBARAN AND NATUFIAN 76.3 THE KEBARAN Untii the recent excavations at Moghr el-Ahwal (see below), the The Kebaran is the best known of the Epipalaeolithic periods, hav- leometric Kebztran was only kno*i [' or the excavnred cave-site ing been excavated at three sites in the foothills of Mount Lebanon of Abri Bergy levels II-I in Nahr Antelias (Copeland & Waechter northeast of Beirut, and from the surface of a small nr"rmber of 1968) and from the surface of a number ol open-air sites. These open-air sites. The excavated sites are Ksar 'Akil (Bergman er a/., included Neba'a el-Mghara. located ar about t.200 m elevarion in Chapter 30 of this voiume) rnd Abri Bergy in the Nahr Antelias, the Nahr el Sulib to the norrheast of Beirut (Hours I970). and several -3 km inland fiom the present coast, and Jiita II in the Nahr el sites in the (fossil dunes with palaeosols) to the imrne- Kelb, -8 km inland (Fig. 76.1). The small cave at Abri Bergy was diate south of Beirut (Fleisch 1970.1. The industries are character- excavated several times between 1900 and 1948, the last being by ized by geometric microliths and panicularly by oblong. abruptly Ewing (Copeland & Waechter 1968). The cave was destroyed by backed and bi-truncated trapeze-rectangles. and by other tools such quarrying in 1969. The large rockshelter of Ksar 'Akil was the sub- as short borers and Falita points {Besangon et rtl. l9j5- lgjj: 42- ject of two major excavations, the Iirst being undertaken by Ewing 43; Copeland & Yazbeck 2002: 145t. Apart from the lithic assem- and others (193'/-38 and 194748), who excavated extensive 20 m blages, very little other data is available from rhe sires except fbr Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits as well as 2 m of Epipalae- a few details on the of Abri Bergy, which incltdes Dnma, olithic (Bar-Yosef 1970: 48-501 Copeland 19751 Bergman et al., Capra, Capreolus, rare Sas, ancl a single specimen of t/r.ras (Hooi- this volume). This was lollowed later by the rigorously controlled jer l96t:56t. excavations of Tixier ( 1969-1975) who excavated to a depth of 7 m Prior to work at Moghr ei-Ahwal, the Natufian was aiso only (Tixier & Inizan 1981;Meliars & Tixier 1989). The rockshelter at known from a few localities in Lebanon (Copeland 1991; Garrard Jiita II was carefully excavated by Hours (1964-7 5) (Chavaillon & & Yazbeck 2013r. The only reporred si{e with a rich and exten- Hours 1970; Hours 1973, 1976,1992). sive occupation is Saai

Figure 76.2 View southwest ofNachcharini Cave.

and excavated finds from Nachcharini Cave (Copeland 1991). No by el- and Salibiya pdnts. The industry was bladelet domin- traces of the Natufian were fonnd during recent reinvestigations at ated and appeared specialized re]ative to those from contemporary this cave (Pirie 200 1 ; Garrard et al. 2003). village sites in the southem Levant. Given the high elevation of the site, it is likely to have been used seasonally by hunting groups. Faunal remains from the original excavations of Schroeder have 76.5 THE PRE.POTTERY NEOLITHIC been studied by S. (pers. comm.) and include Ovis orien- tnlis, Capra aegagrlrs, Cervus elaphus, Dama mesopotamica, and The Pre-Pottery Neolithic is very poorly known in Lebanon rela- Grtzella sp. tive to the Pottery Neolithic, and, so far, no definite traces have The Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B is known from a small number been found of the Early or Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (Haidar- of localities in westem Lebanon and in the Bekaa. On the coastal Boustani 2013). The Pre-Pottery Neolithic A has been identified side of the mountains, this includes surface coliections from Tel1 in surface collections from the multi-period open-air site of Borj aux Scies in the Sands south of Beirut and II in the Barajne in the Sands south of Beirut and at Tell aux Haches in foothills, 12 km northeast of Beirut (Cauvin 1968; Fieisch 1970). the same area. At both sites, the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A is char- It is also known from Moghr el-Ahwal in the Qadisha Valley. In acterized by el-Khiam points (Cauvin 1968; Fleisch 1970; Kukan the Bekaa, Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B has been found in the (Kirkbride 1969), in small-scale 1 978; Copeiand 199 1). This period is best known from Nachcharini, basal levels of Tell Labwe South a small cave within a cra1gy chain of dolines, high in the Anti- excavations at Saaidd I on the western side of the Bekaa (Hours Lebanon at 2, 120 rr (Fig. I6.1,7 6.2).It was excavated by Schroeder 1969), and in the basal levels of a deep trench in the Great Court- in 1972 and 1914 (Kukan 1978; Copeland 1991), and reinvesti- yard of Jupiter's Sanctuary at the Roman site of (Rokitta- gated in 2001 (Pirie 2001; Ganard et al.20O3). The reinvestigation Krumnow 2011). At Tell Labwe South, it was characterized by involved cleaning the old sections and sieving the contents of a large Byblos and Amuq points, long denticulated sickle blades and the looter's pit cut through the original trenches. There were hints of use of naviform bipolar blade core technology as well as obsid- Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B from the original excavations, ian. Recently, the site has been reinvestigated by Hziidar-Boustani, but the densest occupation was Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. It was char- Ibiifrez and colleagues who identified Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic acleized by Hagdud truncations (bitruncations on bladelets) and B at the base of the mound (Haidar-Boustaru 2013; Khahdi et al. Epipalaeolithic/Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Lebanon 695

Figure 76.3 View north over Timsah Rock at Moghr el-Ahwal. (A black and white version of this figure will eppea? in some formats. For the colour version, please refer to the plate section.)

2013). No animal or plant remains have been reported from these The south-facing are contained in a karstic rock formation Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B localities, so it is uncertain whether known locally as Timsah (Crocodile) Rock (Fig. 76.3) and whilst domesticaies were present. the smaller cave/shelter (Cave2) is 3-5 m deep and 11 m wide, the larger cave (Cave 3) is 30 m deep by 5-8 m wide. The radiocar- bon ages from Cave 2 indicate Geometric Kebaran, Natufian, Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, and Late Neolithic; Cave 3 ages indicate 76.6 EXCAVATIONS AT MOGHR EL.AHWAL IN THE Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran to Natufian (Garrard & Yazbeck QADISHA VALLEY 2008, 2013). In both cases, the Geometric Kebaran formed the densest occupations, characteizerl by microlithic trapezes and rect- The scarcity of information relating to late Palaeolithic and angles in association with many end-scrapers and retouched pieces Neolithic settlement from the coastal mountains of Lebanon as well on blades, alongside a smaller number of burins, notches, and den- as further north in western and the Hatay province of ticulates. The Natufian contained a small number of lunates with resulted in the initiation of a survey and excavation project in the abmpt retouch. In the two caves, a portion of a bone sickle haft Qadisha Valley of northwest Lebanon between 2003 and 2008. The and a uniserial bone harpoon were found, closely paralleiing exam- valley drains the highest sector of Mount Lebanon to the southeast ples from the Natufian at (Garrard &Yazbeck2Ol3; ol , and its vegetation zones were described in Section 76. i. Meignen et al., Chapter 27 of this volume). At Cave 3, a stonelined Approximately 20 Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites were identified, pit with a plaster base was found stratified within Natufian levels. and excavations focused on two adjacent caves at Moghr el-Ahwal, Cave 2 has several human burials. At least one of these was Geo- -620 m asl, overlooking the Qadisha ravine (Fig. 76.1; Ganard & metric Kebaran and comprised the articulated lower legs and one Yazbeck 2004, 2008, 201 3). foot of an adult with two small polished pebbles in association. A.N. Garrard 696

Several of the other burials were Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B BesanEon, J., Copeland, L. & Hours, F. 19'72. Tableaux de prdhistoire (based on direct dating of the bones) and comprised the disarticu, Libanaise. Premibre partie. Hannon. Revtte Libtutuise tle Gdogra- lated remains of at least two adults, a juvenile, ancl an infant. Apart !-o'",'t^ut*:t , , ,, ut"*il;'";fl"l"t#J;i"f,i"fi'6F.'- " t91s-19'TT Tableaux de prdhistoire from two small fragmenrs, no cranial remains were founcl in urro-

cietion. su€tgesting that the skulls may have been separated before Cauvin. J. 1968. Le.s otttill,tges ndolithirltrcs Je Byhlos er tlu lirrornl Iibatt,tis. final burial. Fouitles de Byblos Tome lV. : Adrien Maisonneuve. The fauna from the Epipalaeolithic leveis at the caves (Y Cauvin, J. 1994. Naissance des Divinitds. Naissance cle I'Agriculture.Pais: Editions du Edwertls. pers. comm.) is dominated by Caprrt Lteqogrus- bt't CNRS. Clrvin. M.C. & Cluvin, J. t993. Lasequence neolithique PPNB au Levrnr Bos primigenius, Cerwts elaphus, Dama ntesopotamica, includes Nord. Poleorient l9/l: 23-8. Capreolus capreolLts, Sus scrofa, and Lepr,ts capensis. plus a range Chavaillon. J. & Hours. F. 1 970. Jiira Il t Dchr el Maghrra). campagne 1 97 l, of rodents, carrrivores, birds and Testudo. No faunal remains were. rapport prdlimin aire. Bulletin du Mttsee de Beyrouth 23: 215-31.. lound that coLrld be tlefinitely artributed to the Neolithic. Churcher, C.S. 1994. The verlebrate fauna from the Natufian level at Jebel es-Saaid6 (Saaidd II), Lebanon. Pal1orient 2012:35*58. Copeland, L. 1915. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of Lebanon ancl Syria in the light of recent research.In Problems in : Nortlt 76.7 DISCUSSION and the Levctnt,ed. F. Wendorf & A. Marks. Dallas: Southem Methodist University Press, pp. 317-50. Copeland, L. 1991. Natuflan sites in Lebanon. In The Nantrtan Ctrlture in Both the Middle and Late Epipalaeolithic and the Pre-Pottery the Levant, ed. O. Bar-Yosef & F. Valla. Ann Arbor: International Neolithic are poorly known from Lebanon relative to other regions Monographs in Prehistory, pp.2142. of the Levant. The recent excavations at Moghr el-Ahwal in the Copeland. L. & Horrrs. F. 1977. Engraved and plain bone rools irom Jiira (Lebanon) and their Early Kebaran context. Proceedittgs pre- Qadisha Valley have provided new data on these periods, but many of the his to r ic S o c ie ty 43 : 295-30 l. LrncertCinties remain aborrt the overul I distribution olpopuluiion and Copeland. L. & Waechter. J. 1968. The rtone indusrnes of Abri Bergy. the economic status the Pre-Pottery of Neolithic B communities. Lebanon. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology (London) 7: 15- On the coastal side of Mount Lebanon, detailed suwey has been .35. inhibited by the rugged terrain and extensive surviving forest, and Copeland, L. & Wescombe, P 1965. Inventory of Stone Age sites in with the exception of the Sands south of the Beirut promontory Lebanon, Part I. Melanges cle I'universitd Saint-Joseph 4I:3C_175. Copeland, L. & Wescombe, P. 1966. Inventory of Stone Age sites in and the Akkar Plain in the north, the coastal plain is narrow, as Lebanon, Put2. Melanges de l'[Jniversitd Sainr-Joseph 42: I,li4. it has been at periods sea leve1. quite of lower It is likely that the Copeland, L. & Yazbeck, C. 2002. Inventory of Stone Age sites in Epipalaeolithic communities were sma11 and widely dispersed, and Lebanon. Part III. Additions and revisions, 1967-2001. Melanges lvith the extent of forest in the early Holocene (Gasse et al.2011; de I'lJniversite Sairu-Jose,ph 55: I 2 I-325. Chapter 19 of this volume), it is unlikely that the area would have Develle, A.-L., Herreros, J., Viddl. L., Sursock, A. & Gasse, F. 2010. Con- trolling factors on a paleo-1ake oxygen isotope record (Yammo0eh. been attractive to early farmers. Lebanon) since the Last Glacial Maximum. Quatennry Science Within the Bekaa, extensive survey ol the tells has only yielded Revievs 29:865-86. a few surlace traces of Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, whilst earlier sites Fleisch, H. 1970. Les sables de Beyrouth (Liban) et leurs industries pr6his- may be hidden under deep alluvium. The Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic toriques. ln Friihe Menschheit und Umyvelt, Rust-Festschrifi, Fun- B in the deep sounding at Baalbek raises the possibility that Pre- clamentu Reihe A/2, ed. H-R. Schwabedissen. K6ln: B6hlau Verlag, pp. I70-81. Pottery Neolithic B may be fbund at the base of other major sites Garrard, A.N. & Yazbeck, C. 2004. Qadisha Valley Prehistory Project (Haidar-Boustani So plant 2013). far no or animal remains have (Northem Lebanon). Results of 2003 survey season. Bulletin been reported from any of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B excavations ,l' A rt h d ol o gi e et d' A rch i t ecru re Li banai se s 8: 546. in Lebanon, and it is uncefiain if domestication began early or later Garrard, A.N. & Yazbeck, C. 2008. Qadisha Valley Prehistory Project, in this region. Wasse (2001) speculated that wild goat populations Lebanon. 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