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tde aepoie vdnefrcnitfo serya h aaoihc(Thorpe Palaeolithic the as early archaeological as and from interaction, conflict human for of the evidence part provided fieldwork integral have and careful an the by studies site arguably destroyed use conflict is apparently an Conflict we from analysis. learned through paper, episodes, be and conflict can this multiple deal by sites great In damaged a severely that been do? show archaeological has to which archaeologists Lebanon, in of can site a what of destruction example knowledge, of the loss with accompanying faced When Introduction Newson Biqa the in Niha Hosn sites: conflict-damaged of The 2 1 nmn at ftewrdtdy(Boylan today evil world inescapable the an of are they parts and many history, and in throughout occurred have Conflicts n,ovosy rtcigpol a ob h rtpirt uigsc eid.However, periods. such during priority first the be to has people protecting obviously, and, aaeet GIS site. Management, the of development and chronology Keywords: the including details, many reconstruct to recovered was ANTIQUITY  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity colo rhelg n nin itr,Uiest fLietr nvriyRa,Lietr E R,UK 7RH, LE1 Leicester, Road, University Leicester, of University History, Beirut, Ancient (Email: 11-0236, and Box P.O. Archaeology , of Bliss School Beirut, of University American (Email: Lebanon Archaeology, and History of Department [email protected] 9(05:4943doi: 449–463 (2015): 89 eao,Rmnstlmn,cnitacaooy otn,Clua Resource Cultural looting, archaeology, conflict settlement, Roman Lebanon, 1 [email protected] &RuthYoung Beirut ) Hosn Niha 0 ) km 2 50 N 2002 449 eeeydmgdi h 90 uigthe information during Sufficient War. Civil the Lebanese Biqa in damaged the on severely Hosn focusing in at temples study Niha and case settlement a Roman the by illustrated This is imagined. previously more than much information provide however, can, looting conflict or by destroyed sites Careful to tailored East. strategies Middle recording methodological the and design in research civil least or not war lost, being still of is data archaeological impact much unrest, the sites minimise areas protect to and in legislation destruction Despite and conflict. of damage of risk at always is heritage cultural and Archaeological .Tehmncs naycniti high is conflict any in cost human The ). ʾ Valley, ʾ aly hc were which Valley, 10.15184/aqy.2015.4 2003 ).

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites archaeologists, politicians and many others recognise that damage to heritage is irreversible and has very serious, lasting consequences. Boylan (2002: 44) notes the longevity of the practice of destroying, defacing or converting significant religious and national buildings and monuments in times of conflict. The impact of war on archaeological sites is rightly an area of great significance and concern to archaeologists and other heritage professionals, and it is increasingly becoming an area of research and debate, both within and outside academic circles. The reality is that cultural heritage has been destroyed and continues to be destroyed by conflict. Preventing or avoiding conflict itself (world peace) is the ideal, and, failing that, minimising damage to cultural property through education and awareness is a critical aim being addressed by many (Ali et al. 2013;Stone2013). Hamilakis (2009) has critically evaluated the issues raised when archaeologists work with invading military forces and their governments; his key recommendations include solidarity and collaboration with archaeologists within affected countries, and complete transparency whenever archaeologists are obliged to engage with military powers. We agree with these recommendations (indeed, we have both practised the former in various countries), but until the aims of universal peace and heritage education are even partially achieved, archaeologists in many parts of the world are faced with archaeological sites that have been heavily damaged, where there is an apparent concomitant loss of unique information. The aim of this paper is therefore rooted firmly in pragmatism; given the global impact of conflict on heritage and the lack of any long-term solutions to this situation, we argue that it is important to find ways of dealing with the many archaeological sites that have been so damaged. We do not suggest this as an alternative to prevention and long-term solutions but purely as a way of working with the resources that we do have, and we present the case study of Hosn Niha, a Roman-Byzantine village located in the Biqaʾ Valley of Lebanon, as an example of obtaining maximum information from a site badly damaged by conflict.

Lebanon: war damage to cultural property and heritage Lebanon is a signatory to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property (1954) and the Hague Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property (1954), but not the Second Protocol (1999) (ICRC n.d.). On the other hand, local laws have been passed in recent times to safeguard cultural property, such as N37, Law of Cultural Property 2008 (Savage & Rempel n.d.; UNESCO n.d.). Having this overarching legal framework in place is obviously good, but, historically, events have rendered its practice inoperable and so it has made no difference to the damage caused to the country’s irreplaceable cultural heritage. The key event—the —lasted from 1975–1990, with various different actions occurring within this time period, such as the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982– 1983. Some 40 000 Syrian troops entered Lebanon in October 1976 as part of an Arab Deterrent Force agreed at an Summit. These Syrian troops occupied Lebanon until 2005, when the assassination of Rafik Hariri (then former Prime Minister) resulted in the (demonstrations calling for an end to Syrian influence on Lebanese politics) and the subsequent withdrawal of the Syrian military presence. A further period of fighting occurred in 2006 and is known by various names such as the July War, the 2006 C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

450 xesv ei oeaeo h aaessandt t utrladacaooia sites archaeological and cultural its received ( to has Fisk sustained it Robert that damage years. ensured many the has over of n.d.). resource - (UNESCO coverage archaeological Cedars media an the of as Forest extensive least the Lebanon with not of Valley World importance Qadisha here, lesser-known the The two range explored and the wide Anjar and and , of a and Sites identified Tyre from Heritage , been Sites of Sites Crescent. have Heritage World Fertile civilisations known the and and periods Mediterranean of the of spheres cultural in war ongoing the increasing to an linked largely with is along which 2006, . violence, since neighbouring other and Lebanon bombings of fatal parts of number different in occurred have fighting eao a n h ebla–salWr(Hirst War – the and War Lebanon h a nwihmjrstssc sBabkadTr apa ohv mre unscathed” emerged have to “appear Tyre about and enthusiastic Baalbek as is such News sites (Milstein Geographic major National which by in way report the A ‘culture’. constitutes what of ( Hamilakis by Savage other in and items (summarised gold affected (Fisk for badly burials targeted in parts particularly also found were other were treasure sarcophagi Tyre, in and Museum Tombs and stores n.d.). Beirut Byblos archaeological Rempel of as and & University Sites such American country, Beirut). the the in both (both of from Museum thefts National the the and and country, years the 15 of of out chaos the in ( sanctioned Fisk war. practice civil a of Lebanon, in sites archaeological of destruction fatsn asn ontaiin fatfc rdcinfo n eeaint h next” one the intangible to an generation also one from but production heritage, artefact tangible of (Tahan a traditions of down part passing only artisans to not of damage and are have massive These homes July as away. traditional well with “[i]n swept “villages as been that that losses, and human heritage”, observed and tragic environment, caused was infrastructure, Lebanon its it in war where the findings, 2006, August Museums) of Council International nomto,wihi en ulse nogigrprs(aetsmay Heinz effective. summary: highly be archaeological (latest can new reports excavations of targeted ongoing deal great in a published of 2010 being recovery the is in which resulted information, have they and Heinz, Marlia Fisk 3; uloe xesvl ylcladntoa rauehnesi h 90 (Seeden 1980s the then in was site hunters The treasure itself. national site the and also earthen local huge but of by floor form valley extensively the the in bulldozed lines, across front ran their only and not 1982 in embankments, region -Loz Kamid the in fought studiedthanthemajorportcitiessuchasTyre(Ward hc r einlyiprat o xml,Kmde-o,amlipro ellctdin located multi-period a but status el-Loz, Heritage Kamid World Biqa example, of the not For sites important. more regionally many are course, which of are, there Lebanon, war”. in the heritage by affected been have Sites, Heritage World UNESCO three all Tyre, eao svr motn rhelgcly oae si sa h nescino the of intersection the at is it as located archaeologically, important very is Lebanon otatn eot fdmg uigteJl 06wrhglgtsm fteise raised issues the of some highlight war 2006 July the during damage of reports Contrasting lhuhstssc sBabktn odmnt esrprsaotwradcultural and war about reports news dominate to tend Baalbek as such sites Although .Ti okhssonta vnwe etuto per eeeoe ag area, large a over severe appears destruction when even that shown has work This ). 1993 2006 ʾ n usata rvnilstlmn fteitro,i yeo iefrless far site of type a is interior, the of settlement provincial substantial a and , 2006 5–1.Hwvr xaain eue nte20s ietdb Professor by directed , the in resumed excavations However, 250–51). : 0) CM(ie nTahan in (cited ICOM 107). : 2009 .Ti otat hrl ihThns( Tahan’s with sharply contrasts This ). 1993 ihrgr otedneso aigol eynro,clnaitview colonialist narrow, very a only having of dangers the to regard with ) 4)as oe h huad ftn fatfcssoe n shipped and stolen artefacts of tons of thousands the noted also 243) : 1993 1993 alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul 244–48). : a nocso eotdtewdsra otn and looting widespread the reported occasion on has ) 451 2006 0)as adta Bbo,Babk and Baalbek, “Byblos, that said also 107) : 2010 2006 1994 .Vroslclsdotrasof outbreaks localised Various ). 0)acuto CM(the ICOM of account 107) : 27) yin n Israelis and Syrians 72–73). :  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 1989 tal. et :

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites

Figure 1. Key features at the site of Hosn Niha and its walls, as mapped by differential GPS.

Hosn Niha: the site and project aims Although a large-scale site survey of the Biqaʾ Valley was undertaken in the 1970s (Marfoe 1978, 1995, 1998), relatively little is known about the development of the settlement in the region beyond the key site at Baalbek. This is particularly the case for the Graeco-Roman period, which saw great change in the valley as a considerable area was given over to colonists from outside the region. A few small-scale surveys and inscription collections have gathered data from this period, but this has been insufficient to answer specific key questions. One of these core questions, which relates to the development of off-tell settlement, is concerned with the appearance of stone temples at particular sites in the foothills of the mountains that frame the Biqaʾ Valley; and, since impressive standing remains of many of these temples survive, they have received much more attention than other sites (Krencker & Zschietzschmann 1938; Nordiguian 2005; Aliquot 2009). In contrast, we know very little about the local populations who paid for and built such temples. Neither do we have information about their wider cultural practices or indeed about their daily lives away from the temples. The narrow Niha Valley is located in the foothills of the fault zone on the south-western side of the main Biqaʾ Valley and runs perpendicular to it. The site of Hosn Niha is situated in the upper regions of the Niha Valley at the head of a small but relatively wide fertile vale of c. 100ha of useful agricultural land (Figure 1). Set on the lower slopes of the scarp, facing the vale, are the prominent remains of a monumental, stone-built, Roman-period C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

452 epecmlxo h eodcnuyA ( AD century second the of complex temple south-west. looking Niha; Hosn at temple monumental AD century second the of remains The 2. Figure iahsbe etnto o uoentaelr n coasitrse nishistory its in Burckhardt interested (e.g. scholars century and nineteenth travellers early European the Hosn since for of architecture destination site and the a temple, the been the to disturbance has of Due heavy nature Niha of encroachment. well-preserved signs agricultural and displays and setting which digging dramatic of monumentality, opportune much activity, village, military a of by site caused the is it, with associated rnkradZcitshani h al 90 pbihdi 98;mr eety a recently, more ( Yasmine 1938); Jean in by (published completed 1900s by was early were reassessment the complex detailed in temple-sanctuary Zschietzschmann the and of investigations Krencker earliest The temple. monumental 1870 shezcmn ( Zschietzschmann ocnb ietyrltdt h oflc.Salrsaeloigeet eentnecessarily not were events looting scale Smaller conflict. and the period to war civil related the directly during control be local can exerted times so different at who figures the (Yasmine various on to evidence” noticeable of [were] amount good actions a their 2006 irreversibly with of disturbed equipped traces final action hunters the “treasure this the Unfortunately, had village: when site. 1980s, during the situation the the excavate particularly of looting to been end and came the the War bulldozers had at that period Civil recorded it conflict the Lebanese He of that the phases time. noting during some study, considerably for temple-sanctuary worsened diggers clandestine his of alongside target site settlement which the present debris”. stone the a of hardly interpretation being no is an structures to there paid village clue ransacking, the otherwise a complete provide on of they would comment picture but only a their provide temple-sanctuary, “these with main that structures, other the any of to south-west attention the to (HN001) okn fe h uno h ilnim amn i ar u usr td of study cursory a out carry did Yasmine millennium, the of turn the after Working 0–0) neetnl,teeeryvstr aeycmeto h iebyn the beyond site the on comment barely visitors early these Interestingly, 204–206). : 4.Udutdy h ytmtcbldzn a euto h potnte provided opportunities the of result a was bulldozing systematic the Undoubtedly, 14). : 1938 2)as oktetm orcr ute sltdrlgossite religious isolated further a record to time the took also 122) : alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul 453 iue2 Figure .Blwti ope,ytinextricably yet complex, this Below ). 2005  , C 2006 niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity , 1822 2009 93;Warren 29–30; : .Kece and Krencker ).

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites

Figure 3. The area south of the temple sanctuary, between HN003 and the Wadi Niha; this was once the core area of the village but is now bulldozed piles of rubble; looking south-west. the direct result of conflict, although activities at the site during that period will have raised awareness of the site, and of the artefacts recovered, at a regional level. However, the disturbances had brought pottery sherds to the surface and allowed Yasmine to identify some of the residences established on the lower slopes (Yasmine 2006: 14, 47–48). From studies of this pottery, he suggested that the settlement occupation extended from its initial foundation as part of the Roman colony of in the first century AD until its abandonment at some unspecified time during the seventh century AD (Yasmine 2006: 57–58, 233). During preliminary visits to the site, it was clear to us that large areas of the settlement below the main temple sanctuary had suffered substantial damage, if not outright destruction (Figures 3 & 4). Indeed, the impression gained from other scholars was that very little valuable information could now be obtained from the site outside of the two monumental temples (Aliquot 2009: 303) and, in a recent work on the temples of Lebanon, it was stated that “the criminals have also extended their misdeeds to the village area that extends to the south and on the side of the mountain to the west of the sanctuary where mechanical means were employed to bulldoze the stratigraphy across the entire site” (Nordiguian 2005: 65). The perceived state of damage to the site raised serious questions about whether attempting to study the destroyed village remains would be possible at all and whether useable information would even be recovered. In other words, should the condition, presented by extensively war-damaged and looted sites, such as Hosn Niha, force archaeologists to ignore them and conclude that important potential research questions cannot be addressed? We would argue the opposite—that with the correct research design, critical questions can be addressed; that with the appropriate field and analytical techniques, very useful data can be collected from badly damaged sites; and that a great deal can be learned from unpromising beginnings. In deciding to investigate the site, the current project had a number of specific aims to address concurrently. The first of these was to place the development of the main sanctuary in context and reconnect the development of such temples, commonly found within the Biqaʾ region, to the villages located near them. Further, it is clear that beyond the temple- sanctuary at Baalbek and excavations of the Graeco-Roman levels at Kamid el-Loz, very C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

454 ed omltd a enitga otemtoooia prah(esn&Young & (Newson approach methodological the to integral Management 2014 Resource been Culture has potential and formulated, identified needs to areas data-rich research and could a future analyses settlement, of research generated, construction the initial it be which The of in site. whether environment, morphology the (GIS) determine across System and Information use to Geographic nature of order patterns the based different in about delineate methodologies to collection learn of attempt and to use to counting possible the begin indeed pottery to to was led and analysis quick consideration effective survey was This for that surface collected aims. way on be project a to main in how data or remains was the allow faced sites surface address would we damaged from that issue and and main data disturbed systematic, The of highly and looted. recording the or bulldozed record and heavily questions to recognition been and best have the aims that allow such research sites the from to of to areas information robust tailored useful sufficiently be obtain also must to methodologies but critical These site. is damaged methodologies a appropriate of use The strategies Fieldwork Graeco-Roman rural of Biqa development the the within colony to Roman relation the of in sites attempted settlement been has bulldozed was analysis which little edge), left the on seen track the south-east. (beyond looking War; HN003 Civil of Lebanese south-west the immediate of period the the to during area The 4. Figure seseto h xeto h aaet h ieisl n oqatf h aueadeffect development. and agricultural nature encroaching the detailed as quantify a such to make site, and to itself the site was on the aim processes to explicit other damage third of the A of extent Berytus. the of development of colony foundation, assessment Roman the the of understanding of nuanced structure more and a obtain to was fieldwork the ). alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul 455 ʾ aly hrfr,tescn i of aim second the Therefore, Valley.  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites

As well as using methods that could effectively help us to achieve the main research goals, it was also necessary to map and categorise the extent of destruction simultaneously and explicitly, despite the extensive site damage. This mapping allowed us to factor in any bias the destruction could have produced in our interpretations of the evidence. Furthermore, it would greatly assist in determining areas of future research, in addition to allowing us (and the Lebanese Department of Antiquities) to monitor any potential site damage. From ground observations made on preliminary site visits and during the fieldwork, examination of available aerial photographs from 1959, satellite imagery and accessible photographs of the site, we were able to establish four basic types of damage: bulldozing, clandestine excavations, older agricultural land expan- sion (pre-2005) and recent agricultural land expansion (post-2005). Evidence for each of these was plainly distinguishable: bulldozed areas were characterised by Figure 5. An area of small-scale illegal excavation at deep trenches surrounded by steep-sided location HN012, which has exposed structural walls. banks of rubble, up to 3m in height, interspersed with large levelled banks (Figures 3 & 4); clandestine excavations by pits with spoil heaps (Figure 5); agricultural land was ploughed and planted with vine and tree crops, or recently cleared (Figure 6). It seemed from these observations that while large areas had been heavily bulldozed, the displaced material had not been moved very far, certainly less than 50m in extent. During fieldwork, the spatial extent of these four types was mapped using plans and supplemented by Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements of specific features and then fed into the site GIS. When gathering data to address the central project aims during two short seasons in 2011 and 2012, two main approaches were used. The first involved recording any visible features using a differential GPS that allowed for the very accurate spatial positioning of surface features, while also providing a simple but accurate representation of them. The features recorded included tombs, the alignments of stones that constituted various wall types, and building structures (Figure 7). Moreover, as a supplement to this work, certain structures of potential importance were planned in more detail through a combination of GPS and by hand. While surveying the different wall structures, it was noted that there were a significant number of carved worked stones scattered across the site. These worked stones included column shafts, bases and capitals, door lintels and jambs, cistern or well-covers and sarcophagi. Each worked stone was photographed and its location coordinates were recorded on a handheld GPS. The second approach centred on the intensive recording of surface pottery. To record the density of surface pottery and obtain a sample of diagnostic sherds across the site, a series of transects were organised, along which team members walked and either collected diagnostic sherds or used clicker counters to register the numbers of sherds on the surface within a 1m-wide corridor. Obtaining indications of the density C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

456 iue7 N0:asbtnilsoesrcuesilsadn ntecr cuainae ftest;loigtwrsthe towards looking site; the of area occupation core the in standing still structure stone substantial north-east. a HN003: 7. Figure walls terrace modern the trees: fruit with west. planted looking and taken landscaped Photograph settlement. site, Graeco-Roman the the of of edge remains south-western from constructed the been at have area The 6. Figure oepitr odfeetatvt oe ihntestlmn.A h aawr collected were data ( the provide GIS As even project the settlement. and into the site, entered within settlement immediately zones the were preliminary activity they to settlement. which different assigned the from the to be pottery of of pointers could of sample sample some function limits representative a and provide a spatial date to obtain of and the site; to indicators define the purposes: from help two pottery of had to variety diagnostics designed of was collection pottery The surface the of alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul 457 iue8 Figure  ). C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites

Figure 8. Map showing transect quantities of clicked sherds and mapped areas of damage across the site.

Discussion The programme of feature-recording has directly challenged the long-held idea that the village of Hosn Niha had been so badly damaged that either nothing of value remained, or that what does remain is so badly damaged that archaeologists will gain no information from studying the village site (Krencker & Zschietzschmann 1938; Aliquot 2009). Instead, our systematic recording has revealed a diverse range of well-preserved structure types and other features beyond the main sanctuary (HN051–53). These include a subsidiary, non-Graeco- Roman-style cult high-place, building (labelled HN001 on the map of the site), quarries to the immediate north of the main sanctuary, zones of rock-cut tombs in the hillsides and a designated cemetery to the east with a variety of tomb types, from stone sarcophagi to individual cist tombs and communal rock-cut tombs. There are also several structures right across the site that we have interpreted as dwellings. Of these structures, only those that were well preserved with substantial standing remains were planned and explored in detail, such as the cult complex HN003 and the structure HN016, which is probably a Byzantine farmstead (Yasmine 2006: 15). However, our feature-recording methodology has systematically expanded our understanding of what survives, so that it is now clear that a number of dwellings and associated structures are still discernible at other locations around the site. To the south and east of the main cult complex, in situ terrace wall sections were noted, along with numerous short lengths of wall and illegally excavated pits that exposed C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

458 10 fbidnsadascae al noehn n erc al nteohr( other the on walls terrace and hand one walls on exposed recording walls the the between associated differentiation in and subsequent clarified buildings the further of and of was walls mapping area extant location of This the classifying lintels. by and door implied as was such situated, features, were worked-stone dwellings the where settlement, the engnrtdwti h I n ohv rvddu ihagnrlie fteetn of extent the of idea general a have ( with maps settlement us the density provided of data, have areas so raw occupation and this the GIS From the site. within the generated across been sherds diagnostic and sherds surface more and ground valleys. flatter the the of of dwellings climate advantage dispersed took sheltered for that courtyards evidence walled have within which set farmhouses, site, HN011; the and of the HN010 in end upper HN016, focused either (HN002, was an at occupation lined valleys settled side that that show small temple buildings results two main our to the area, belonging below central this slope certainly Beyond steep almost terrace. this preserved, on are that indicate walls example) complex, good a is HN012 feature alecoe pcs(..H02 see HN012; (e.g. site. spaces the across wall-enclosed series transect 50m the of results the from sherds surface clicked of map density GIS-generated 9. Figure .Ogigaaye ftedansi otr olce r loigu odvlpamore a develop to us allowing are collected pottery diagnostic the of analyses Ongoing ). h eut rmteitniefilwligeecs eeldcnetain fbt clicked both of concentrations revealed exercise fieldwalking intensive the from results The alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul iue9 Figure iue5 Figure iue1 Figure 459 .Tedlnaino h naie pcsof spaces inhabited the of delineation The ). .These ). .Teedelnswr rbbydiscrete probably were dwellings These ). nsitu in  C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity xoe al o which (of walls exposed iue 1 Figures &

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites

Figure 10. Calculated inhabited zone using density mapping of surface sherds, the recording of structure walls and other evidence such as the location of door lintels. nuanced understanding of settlement occupation and the morphological development of the village over time. For example, glazed sherds characteristic of the early medieval period were collected in the vicinity of, and within, stone structure HN003, but nowhere else (Figures 1 & 7), and a number of interpretations can be suggested from this, both in general terms and of a more specific nature. The glazed sherd distribution points to spatial and chronological differentiation in terms of site development: there was a period of re-occupation of the site in the early medieval period, with HN003 being constructed as a fortified farmstead. It is noticeable that certain areas have higher densities of surface sherds than others, especially by the course of the Wadi Niha in the south-west. These dense areas of surface pottery coincide for the most part with the greatest areas of bulldozing, and this correlation is to be expected as previously buried sherds have been exposed in the bulldozing process. We would argue that the areas that were attractive to bulldoze would have been the core of the settlement, possibly the original point of settlement foundation, the densest areas of occupation and perhaps the longest occupied parts of the village. Environmental factors support this initial interpretation, as these areas lie at the foot of the mountain slope at the point where the angle of the slope lessens considerably, while also lying on the intersection of communication routes both across and parallel to , and which are within C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

460 hs eut ecnetbihta vntog h oeo h ilg a enirreparably been has village the of remains core site the the though of amount even significant from that So a involved. in damaged, establish proportions term) can damage data the we GIS of measure results (a good fuzziness these a built-in provide do of they level data, certain input a the given accurate, completely be never n tutrleiec owratfrhrinvestigation. further warrant to evidence structural and oki eesr nti seto h project. Graeco- the large of periods—a more aspect but this certain occupation, on in medieval necessary early only is focused work site geographically far, small, the So a of site. and to settlement the habitation beginning Roman of suggest are occupation sherds the we pottery in Consequently, chronologically, morphology. the and and spatially temple both history and fluctuations, settlement’s settlement reveal the between have relationship analyses of the the also into of insights results and new first provide The Hosn detailed to structures. the at associated begun of data its already understanding good and of a village amount in the resulted significant has of a data organisation these obtain of to all address of possible integration can it The we Niha. made which has with questions of carefully information research years obtaining of the of to use linked number the closely a encroachment, methodologies over agricultural selected damaged additional badly and very destruction been conflict-related have structures village’s the Although Conclusion and mapped GIS was the village the within of tools in zone summarised analytical inhabited are spatial this the future of to simple where results damage and the using remains of example, what extent occupied of For the the catalogue investigations, focused. resource to a damage be as of can act extent to work the and the settlement in accurately the methodologies more site of collection quantify the environmentally areas the and to of and collected, us data part strategic allowed of this the analyses themselves, The only reinforces area. of this HN003, of re-occupation by nature optimal The signified flow. period, wadi medieval main early the of access easy n fol e rjcsi h ie eint aeo h hleg fivsiaiga investigating of economic challenge and socio-political the that to on clear activities take is post-abandonment It to other investigation. and/or region archaeological conflict systematic wider by warrant the damaged badly in too projects considered few site a only of one o nyi hstefis uhfil rjc nteBiqa the in project field such first the this is only Not aae 26 54.09279 5.00908 100.00000 34.41638 14.66733 32764 60570 3034 20846 8884 area Inhabited Damaged Roadways Bulldozed Agricultural (m Area classification Land in defined as village inhabited the the of within area type land corresponding each and of areas percentages calculated The 1. Table alNwo uhYoung Ruth & Newson Paul al 1 Table 461 sealso (see 2 fihbtdarea inhabited of % ) iue10 Figure nsitu in iue10 Figure n iheog uvvn features surviving enough with and ʾ . rat xlr hs sus tis it issues, these explore to area  C .Atog hs eut will results these Although ). niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Method The archaeology of conflict-damaged sites conditions during the period of the Lebanese Civil War encouraged the targeted and systematic destruction of the archaeologically rich site of Hosn Niha. Such acts foreground issues of cultural property protection during conflict periods and highlight the need for specific actions and understandings (Stone & Farakh Bajjaly 2008:7;Cunliffe2012:8). However, many sites such as Hosn Niha also face threats from human activities that are not necessarily directly linked to conflict situations. Damage to cultural heritage from agricultural expansion and looting, for example, also needs to be understood and addressed in terms of protection where possible. When protection has not been possible, or fully effective, the implementation of appropriate methodologies can permit us to obtain a great deal of information from sites that may appear too badly damaged to be worthy of detailed study. Moreover, through this multifaceted approach, we have been able to appraise the extent of damage to the site of Hosn Niha and further the original research goals. The results of this approach have given us an initial, relatively detailed assessment of the settlement of Hosn Niha, which will provide a valuable foundation for future research and Cultural Resource Management requirements. Although obviously not ideal in archaeological terms, to be able to gain such a lot of important data from a site that at first appearance (see Figure 4) seems to not be worth investing time and energy studying, is important in a world where (sadly) conflict occurs and affects vast numbers of archaeological and other heritage sites. What is clear is that even sites that have been very badly damaged by conflict, and other human and natural events, have the potential to tell us about human activity in the past.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Directorate General of Antiquities, Lebanon, especially Dr and Mr Rafi Gerjian for their valuable help. Thanks are also given to the School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, and in particular to Mr James Harvey and Dr Mark Gillings, and to Professor David Mattingly, who read a draft of this paper. We would further like to thank Professors Rubina Raja and Peter Stone for their critical input. Grateful thanks are equally passed to the American University of Beirut, especially colleagues in the History and Archaeology Department and archaeology students who helped in the survey: Jana Alameh, Georges Bellos, Dorothy Chacra, Patrick Hanna, Hassan El Hajj, Yara Idriss, Crystal El Safadi and Lamia Sassine. The fieldwork was funded through grants generously provided by the University Research Board, American University of Beirut.

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Method