The Dogs of Cladh Hallan: An Exploration of Beliefs

A Zooarchaeological Report of Cladh Hallan, ,

Word count: 4997

Title Figure: Illustration of SP 3380.

(Illustration by Author)

1

Abstract This report examines the role of Canis Familiaris in the Iron Age in Britain and the ritual significance that may have surrounded them, by focusing on the canids within a single case study at the Iron Age site of Cladh Hallan, Outer . Canid remains at Cladh Hallan include two complete dog burials, as well as a number of other articulated and disarticulated remains. These are analysed and considered in the context of this site and other comparative assemblages.

1 Introduction the Iron Age, and is best known for its This paper will be exploring the canid well preserved wheelhouses that date from remains of the site Cladh Hallan, a late c.1100-200 BC, see figure 2, and thought Bronze to Iron Age settlement in South to have been occupied until 500 BC Uist, Scotland (see fig. 1). Excavated by (Mulville et al. 2009, 52; Parker Pearson et Mike Parker Pearson in 1994-2002. The al. 2005, 2007). site was occupied from the Early Bronze to

Figure 1: Map of the location of the site of Cladh Hallan, South Figure 2: Plan of the three wheelhouses at Cladh Hallan. Uist, , signified by a triangle. (Parker Pearson et al 2005, 532) (Parker Pearson et al 2005, 530)

2 buried in particular orientations or in 2 Dogs of the British Iron Age association with humans (Maltby 1988). Remains of the domesticated dog (Canis The ideas of deliberate killing of dogs for Familiaris) are particularly rare in the symbolic reasons was first discussed by archaeological record in the Iron Age (see Grant (1984a), based on the discovery of appendix A), however, the Iron Age (700 articulated dog remains in grain storages at BC – 50 AD) sees an increase in the Danebury Hillfort. This prompted numbers of dog elements being reported discussion about the significance of dog (Morris 2008, 23; Hunter and Ralston burials at Iron Age settlements and the 1999; Wait 1985; Hill 1995). The emergence of the term ‘special animal relationships between humans and dogs in deposits’. Grant suggested that the dogs this period have shown themselves to have found in the storages were being treated in been complex, as will be discussed. Unlike a significant way and could equate to other domesticated species, it has been sacrificial offerings (Grant 1984a, 221- demonstrated that dogs were not usually 227). This theory was later supported by kept as a food species – due to the lack of the work of Wait (1985), with the butchery marks (Smith 2005, 2). Whilst surveying of a further 28 Iron Age this could be used as evidence of a special settlements and storage pits, in which more relationship, it could also have been due to articulated dog remains were found. dogs proving uneconomical for food Therefore, it is clear to see that dogs were purposes (Smith 2005, 2). However, it is being treated differently, and in a easier to argue in favour of a special substantial way. Although the burials of relationship with this species when this Cladh Hallan differ as they were found by low representation is paired with a high the hearth of House 401, not grain storage incidence of unusual burials, such as those pits, the significance they hold still meet within the grain storages at Danebury the criteria of a ‘special animal deposit’ Hillfort (Grant 1984b, 221-227) and those (Morris 2011, 5). Arguably, this makes for within House 401 of Cladh Hallan. a more special deposit due to the proximity to the humans. By considering the significance of dogs in the Iron Age, this These burials are often complete or nearly report will aim to analyse and compare the complete, articulated remains, and are burials to other sites. given special treatment, such as being

3 3 Methodology laboratory. The examination consisted of The canid remains had previously been laying the burials out on the laboratory recorded at university name redacted for table as accurately as possible (see fig. 3). anonymity in the university name redacted This was done to both extend analysis and for anonymity Osteoarchaeology Research allow a closer understanding of the bones Group laboratory by redacted for anonymity, using the reference collection, and entered into Microsoft Excel. Fragments were recorded by element and zone, with notes made for specific taphonomy, such as osteoarthritis. This data set, as well as the physical remains and on-site photographs were combined to complete a full analysis and re- themselves. examination of the material in context.

Figure 3: The front of dog 3380 reconstructed in the laboratory.

(Photograph by Author) The data sets of the elements – of which were sorted into phases 6 through 16 - were analysed. The phases consisted of a To allow for the easier reconstruction, the series of contexts believed to fall within remains were sorted by section and bagged the same time span. The data sets were separately. Physical examination allowed used to understand the contexts of the site for the discovery of particularly interesting and the burials. Also to highlight wear, such as the canine wear discussed in pathologies, what elements were present or section 5.3. The dogs were aged using not present and in what contexts each Gipson et al (2000) (see fig. 4 and 5). burial belonged. This involved the creation The heights were calculated using of pivot tables and graphs, and colour Harcourt (1974), the long bones being coding by small find number to allow for measured in millimetres using callipers. quicker analysis. The measurements of the femora, humeri, ulnae and radii were used in the calculations. These measurements were After this initial data analysis, the bones then averaged and cross checked using were examined physically in the Clark (1995). Results of this are discussed

4 in section 5.2. A further four reference (1974), this was done to provide a standard collection dogs were measured and their by which to compare the Cladh Hallan wither height calculated using Harcourt dogs.

Figure 4: Guide for the ageing of Grey Wolves using wear, used Figure 5: Guide for the ageing of Grey Wolves using wear, used on the Cladh Hallan dogs, canines and incisors. on the Cladh Hallan dogs, M1 and PM4.

(Gipson et al 2000, 754) (Gipson et al 2000, 754)

4 Results The Minimum Number of Individuals At the site, there were dogs found (MNI) has been calculated at 7 dogs (see throughout phases 6 to 16, with 405 Graph 2). Certainly, and as seen in graph elements recovered. Other species found at 1, the most elements were recovered in the site included sheep, red dear and pig. phase 12.

Graph 1: Graph of the number of elements found within each phase. 5 4.1 Phases 6-9 low percentage could also be explained by These phases were one of the least active an exceptionally high rate of activity in periods. In total, making up 2.9% of the other phases. In phase 8, the dog elements total canid assemblage (see Table 1). This begin to appear within and around House could be due either to lack of activity with 401, however are mostly disarticulated. dogs or simply a poor survival rate. This

Phase Element 6 8 9 Total

Humerus 1 1 2

Maxilla 1 2 3

Metatarsal 1 1

Metacarpal 1 1

Pelvis 1 1

Radius 1 1

Scapula 1 1

Tibia 1 1

Upper Molar 1 1

Upper premolar 2 2 Grand Total 14

Table 1: Table of the canid elements and totals of phases 6-9 of Cladh Hallan.

4.2 Phase 10-11 occasionally as food sources at other sites, These phases, while still small, made up a with similar cut marks being found – such larger percentage of the overall as at Levroux, France (Horard-Herbin assemblage – 18.3%. Phase 10 features 2014, 28; Hambleton 1999). Phase 11 had dog 3626, a left forelimb, in which using dog 3490 within its assemblage, a left Harcourt (1974), a height was calculated forepaw. This, like the left forelimb, was (see Table 2). There were also interesting used to calculate a height for the individual marks on a humerus in phase 10, featuring (see Table 2). Pathology was also present

diagonal scratches. This could act as in phase 11, a PH1 had evidence of possible evidence of butchery, more osteophytes on the distal end. Therefore, specifically the skinning of the dog prior to this can provide evidence of lame and/or burial (Harcourt 1974, 171). There have old dogs. been suggestions of dogs being used

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Height (cm) Dog No. Harcourt (1974) Clark (1995) Difference (cm) 3490 - 54 - 3626 55 - - 3376 51 46 5 3380 60 62 2 Ref. 1 58 - - Ref. 2 52 - - Ref. 3 42 - - Ref. 4 46 - -

Table 2: Table of the heights calculated from Harcourt (1974) and Clark (1995), including both Cladh Hallan specimens and reference collection specimens.

4.3 Phase 12 as evidence for the survival of lame and/or This was by far the most active phase, dogs. Evidence of remodelling was found providing the most diagnostic evidence. In on a rib from dog 3380, which can be used this phase, 72.3% of the total elements as evidence for the care of dogs after were uncovered. A large proportion of the injury. The phase featured the two most elements in this phase were articulated. As prominent dog burials of the site – dog far as pathological evidence, an astragalus 3380 and 3376. Both dog burials were was identified to have an osteochondroma found within House 401 (see fig. 6 and 7) lesion at the distal end. Like in phases 10 by the hearth of the wheelhouse. and 11, this can be used

Figure 6: Plan of the three roundhouses at Cladh Hallan, including the placements of the human and dog burials of dog 3376 and dog 3380.

(Parker Pearson et al 2005, 533)

7 0 0 30cm

30cm

Figure 7: (left) Illustration of dog 3380 and (right) dog 3376.

(Illustrations by Author)

Interestingly, 3380 is thought to have been Analysis of the M1, PM4 and canines of possibly buried alive, due to the well 3380 using Gipson et al (2000) show the formed coprolite found within the burial dog to be of around 5 years old, however (Mulville et al 2012, 210). 3380 was a this figure varied greatly across age fully articulated burial only missing the estimations, as will be discussed in section right hind leg, however, the burial was 5.3 and seen in table 3. excavated separately. Therefore, the front of the burial is classified as context 1291 and the hind in 659.

Element Wear Age (Gipson et al 2000)

Upper Canine >2 yrs

M1 8 yrs

PM4 6 yrs

Lower Canine 2-4 yrs

Lower Incisors 2 yrs

Table 3: Table of the wear ages of dog 3380 predicted using Gipson (2000).

The height (see Table 2) was calculated the expected height range for canids in the using Harcourt (1974), and predicts the Iron Age (Harcourt 1974, 151) but 3380 is wither height of 3380 to be 60cm and 3376 larger. The wear pattern on the teeth of to be 51cm. This put 3376 in the range of 3380 is usual, the canines show extreme

8 wear, exposing dentine (see fig. 8). complete burial previously, however, the Continuing, the mandibular and maxillary burial was disturbed by a later posthole incisors age 3380 far younger (2 years old) (Mulville et al 2012, 211). Disarticulated than the molars (6-8 years old). elements can be found within the fill of the posthole, and it is possible that the posthole could have been made with a In contrast, 3376 was beheaded prior to previous knowledge of the burials burial, this is thought to have been pre- existence and placement. Due to evidence burial as the hole would not have of microbial attack, it is believed that the accommodated the dog with the skull, as dogs were buried enfleshed (Mulville et al seen in figure 9 (Mulville et al 2012, 211). 2012, 211-214). 3376 is thought to have been a more

Figure 8: (left) Right maxillary canine of 3380 and (right) left Figure 9: Dog burial 3376, showing that the burial pits would not mandibular canine, demonstrating the extreme wear. have accommodated a skull.

(Photograph by Author) (Mulville et al 2012, 211)

4.4 Phase 13-16 all of the canid elements from the site were The final phases, 13-16 follow a similar recovered in or around House 401. In trend to phases 6-9, making up in total phase 16, there was interesting and only 6.4% of the assemblage. Phase 13 is familiar wear found on an upper left significant due to the recovery of a tooth canine, similar to the wear on the canines pendant, SF 3406. The elements of phase of 3380. There was also evidence of a 16 were recovered outside of House 401 – digested right humerus.

9 5 Discussion appears to represent more than the 7 dogs At Cladh Hallan, there is clearly a trend in calculated to be on the site, however, it is the phases regarding MNI which very possible that the same individual corresponds to the activity levels in the could have spanned across multiple phases phases, as shown in graph 2. This graph and are therefore counted separately.

MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals) by Phase 3.5 3 2.5 2

MNI 1.5 1 0.5 0 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Phase

Graph 2: Graph of the number of the MNI within each phase.

5.1 The Burials previous work of Parker Pearson and The dog burials of Cladh Hallan are Sharples (1999) on the orientation of unique and offer a variety of possible roundhouses and their symbolic explanations, they are both dated to significance, with NE signifying death and between 810-450 BC (Mulville et al 2012, SE signifying birth (see fig. 10). 210). First, the orientation of the dog burials will be explored. Although both dogs were buried by the hearth of House As 3380 is thought to have been buried 401, they were buried at different alive and with the skull, and in orientation orientations –3380 facing SE and 3376 with birth or life, it is clear that this could facing NE. Regarding the hearth have been constructed to correlate to this placement, due to the protective properties belief. 3376 is known to have been killed associated with dogs of the Iron Age it is prior to burial, and without the skull, with possible that it could signify a permanent this burial facing death it is possible to say guard dog and protection for the household that this dog was buried in this specific (Smith 2005, 38-39; Wheeler 1943, 115). orientation to symbolise death. Another theory can be suggested using the

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Figure 10: The orientational symbolism of the Iron Age roundhouse, as theorised by Parker Pearson and Sharples (1999).

(Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999, figure 1.6)

The burials are also interesting when used foreknowledge of the burial. This could in the context of the other species burials signify another change in belief - perhaps within the House 401. In an earlier context the dogs no longer held their significance (2727), a crouched child was found buried or symbolism. This evolution in belief is close to the dual-dog burial. This child is certainly something that if found one of the only human remains on site to anywhere, could be found at a site such as exhibit little post mortem modification and Cladh Hallan, due to its long occupancy. is believed to have been 10-14 years old at death (Parker Pearson et al 2005, 535). As this was found within an earlier context, it The recovery of the canid tooth pendant is possible evidence of a progression or (SF 3406) is significant in that it could evolution of beliefs. The knowledge of the further the ideas the animals symbolic child burial could have been known to the value at Cladh Hallan, as they were worn inhabitants and the addition of the dog by humans. It has been suggested by some burials could indicate a need to protect or that the material itself could have been guard the child, a belief developed after used to represent qualities of the animal it the child had been buried. comes from (Budge 1930). Therefore, by creating a canid tooth pendant, perhaps the inhabitants of Cladh Hallan were hoping to As discussed in section 4.3, the burial of harness the protective nature of the dog. 3376 was later disturbed by a posthole, an The tooth itself could symbolise a more act possibly carried out with defensive energy, as dogs use their teeth to

11 attack and defend themselves, it is possible 5.2 Height Discrepancies it was seen as a pendant of empowerment As seen in table 2, there were height as well as protection. Tooth pendants made discrepancies between both the method of of dog elements have been uncovered at calculation and the long bones results other sites, such as the late Iron Age site of themselves. Overall, Harcourt (1974) gave Bramdean in Hampshire. Here, dog a higher estimate than Clark (1995). These metapodial pendants were found within the differences in wither height estimations pits of the settlement (Perry 1982, 57-74). could be due to a variety of factors. Firstly, Clutton-Brock (1981) has suggested that the morphology of dogs were beginning to the making of such pendants indicates an vary at this time, with the possible affection for the dogs and a significance to emergence of selective breeding (Harcourt humans, so much so that they deem them 1974) and it is possible that the differing important to wear. This truly shows a long bone estimations account for this. special dynamic between dogs and humans of the Iron Age. Wither height calculations of four other reference collection dogs places the Cladh Lastly, it is possible that the dog burials Hallan dogs at roughly the size of a were intended as a form of ritual for the Labrador. However, this differentiation building of the new House 401. The house between the wither heights calculated from itself had been through intensive the different long bones also occurred in remodelling over the course of the the reference collection. For example, in settlement, as seen by the 15 phases in reference dog 1, the radii calculations gave which the house contained dog remains. A a wither height of 540.17mm, but the ritual could have taken place, involving the humerus calculations gave an estimate of sacrificing and burial of 3376 and 3380 to 604.58mm – a 64.41mm difference. signify the rebuilding of the house, acting However, this level of variation is to be as a marker for the event (Brück 2019, expected, as explained by Harcourt (1974, 210). 173), as the measurement and re- measurement of elements can vary drastically, as ultimately the calculations are both an estimate and subjective. Overall, Harcourt’s method is useful in that it can provide an approximate height

12 so that informed conclusions can be consumed could be sand contaminated. drawn. The method could possibly be Further, due to the burial conditions, with improved by the introduction of more 3380 being supposedly buried alive, it is participants – at least two - in the possible that the dog was kept in a kind of measuring process, with an averaging of confinement and could have damaged the the results prior to calculation of the canines gnawing on this – however, due to height. This could allow for a lower error the extent of the wear, this seems less margin and less impact with the subjective likely as this confinement would have had nature of the process. to have occurred continuously, long before death. This is especially when paired with the information about the burials and 5.3 Age and Tooth Wear possible arguments that the dogs were As discussed in section 4.3, the tooth wear treated with respect (Clutton-Brock 1981) on 3380 was unusual, in particular the wear on the canines (see fig. 8). It appears as though the front of the maxillary There is evidence to suggest that this wear canines have been worn significantly could have been the result of consumption against the back of the mandibular canines, of shellfish within their shells, isotopic with all four exhibiting advanced wear. analysis has revealed evidence of seafood The right maxillary canine has evidence of consumption. According to Jones and dentine exposure. It has been suggested Mulville (2015, 668), the dogs analysed that this type of lesion is caused by stick displayed higher δ13 C values that indicate chewing, sand contaminated food or a consumption of a seafood, however, not chewing of a confinement (Jansens et al frequently. This could provide a basis for 2016, 1118). All of these suggestions are the argument that the usual wear exhibited possible, the Cladh Hallan site is coastal on the dogs, namely 3380, is due to and it is reasonable to think the food being shellfish consumption.

13 Graph 3: Graph of the δ13C and δ15N values of the sample specimens, indicating infrequent seafood consumption. Error bars to 1σ

(Jones and Mulville 2015, 672)

However, the isotopic analysis only Lastly, it is also a possibility that 3380 had suggests infrequent consumption and an underbite (D Bennet 2019, personal therefore it is possible that this did not communications, 28th February). This is occur enough to have caused the extreme arguably the most likely explanation as the wear exhibited. Although it is certainly not jaw is particularly small when compared to impossible and should be considered. the size of the rest of the specimen (see fig. 11).

Figure 11: Reconstruction of the mandible and maxilla of dog 3380.

(Photograph by Author)

14 During the reconstruction of the skull of consumption, as the shells and sand could 3380, it could be seen that the canines did have caused excessive wear when in fact naturally collide, fitting with the chewing. It could also be due to the angle of the wear patterns. However, when underbite, the dog could have been the reference collection canid skulls were compensating for the underbite by compared, there was little to no collision adjusting how it carried objects, such as of the maxillary and mandibular canines. sticks. Perhaps these objects were more The Iron Age was a time of the beginning often placed between the canines or the of morphological differences in canids, back of the mouth and the front teeth more especially through selective breeding to rarely used. This type of wear could also produce particular types of dog, at this suggest gnawing on bone, a likely time, brachycephalic dogs were being bred possibility for the dogs at Cladh Hallan. in Levroux, France (Horard-Herbin et al 2014, 26). Therefore, it is not inconceivable that the dogs of Cladh 5.4 Importation Hallan had been bred to have smaller Of the many canid elements found on the snouts, resulting in an underbite. site, there was a distinct lack of neonatal Unfortunately due to the destruction of and juvenile. This lends itself to the idea 3376’s skull, this theory cannot be tested that the dogs were being imported to Cladh in both dogs. Relating back to the dogs Hallan as adults, as there is no evidence of found in France, it is possible the dogs had canid husbandry on site. However, it is been imported and could have originally possible that the dogs were being bred been closer to where this modification was offsite and brought to the site as adults, taking place. once they could provide services such as hunting and guarding.

The ageing of 3380 from the teeth, as discussed in section 4.3, did provide quite It is also a possibility that the dogs were varied results. The discrepancy in the ages bred on site, but the younger remains lost from the front at 2-3 years and the back at due to activities such as boiling or burning, 6-8 years could be explained by activities in which the porosity of the elements were that cause high wear, that have advanced increased and make the condition more the wear in the M1 and PM4. This could be unstable (Madgwick 2008, 11). Further, it linked to the ideas of shellfish could also be due simply to the fragility of

15 neonatal and juvenile bones. It is important uncovered (Smith 2005, 17). It appears to remember that a lack of material found that the dog populations at Danebury were does not always signify the absence of the not morphologically homogenous and this material from the site at all. could be used as possible evidence for selective breeding.

6 Comparative Sites The English Iron Age sites were chosen It is at Danebury that the term ‘special due to their similarities to Cladh Hallan, animal deposits’ was first coined by Grant such as the longevity of Danebury and (1984a), in which horses and dogs were human-canid burials at Maiden Castle, to buried together in grain storage pits. This provide a comparative against the Scottish is unlike Cladh Hallan in that the dogs sites. Cill Donnain and were were buried within the house and with chosen as Scottish comparisons and to act another dog. This could perhaps indicate a as a contrast. difference in belief, or the same belief or ritual being exhibited for different expected outcomes depending on the 6.1 Danebury Hillfort, Hampshire location of the burial. Like Cladh Hallan, Danebury had a long occupation spanning from the 6th Century to 1st Century BC but unlike Cladh Hallan, 6.2 Maiden Castle, Dorset dogs were most common in the earlier The Late Iron Age site of Maiden Castle is phases (Cuncliffe 1984, 11-172-173). also a Hillfort, and features a human-canid burial. The burial is of a young woman, who was buried along side a decapitated Similarly to the situation at Cladh Hallan, lamb and a juvenile dog (Wheeler 1943, Danebury exhibits a lack of neonatal and 350) (see fig. 12). It is thought that the dog juvenile remains. This could perhaps was buried outside of a coffin and when deepen the argument for importation if paired with the decapitated lamb, is there is a lack of husbandry at multiple thought to have had ritual or symbolic Iron Age sites. However, there was a large significance (Smith 2005, 36). variation in the sizes of the long bones

16 Figure 12: The burial of a young woman, a lamb and a juvenile dog at Maiden Castle.

(Wheeler 1943, 350)

Another canid burial at Maiden Castle chosen as it is also a South Uist featured four human skeletal remains, of wheelhouse site and therefore the most whom all had severe wounds thought to comparable to Cladh Hallan. have been inflicted during battle. This cemetery was also associated with a canid skull (Wheeler 1943, 351). It is possible 6.4 Dun Vulan, South Uist that the skull was used as a form of A total of 9 canid elements were recovered protection for the deceased, however, it at Dun Vulan (Mulville 1999, 258). Like could also be possible that the dog had Cill Donnain, this is significantly less also died in battle. This could suggest that elements than those uncovered at Cladh dogs were also being used for defence in Hallan. war, as one of their many uses in the Iron Age. The fragmentary remains are believed to have belonged to a single dog. Using the 6.3 Cill Donnain, South Uist measurement of a calcaneum at 46.6mm, it A total of 5 canid elements were recovered was calculated that the dog was quite at Cill Donnain (Vickers et al 2014, 61). large, only slightly larger than dog 3380 – Although significantly less than that of the largest measured dog at Cladh Hallan Cladh Hallan, it is important to compare (Mulville 1999, 258). other Outer Hebridean sites to realise the significance of Cladh Hallan. Despite the lack of canid remains, Cill Donnain was

17 6.5 Comparative Summary paired with other research, such as that by To summarise the comparative sites, it is Parker Pearson and Sharples (1999), it is clear to see from the Scottish site possible to draw possible conclusions comparisons that Cladh Hallan is an about the orientation of the burials within exception in the amount of canid elements the wheelhouse. that were uncovered. Although, as seen by section 6.4, there appears to be some homogenous morphology in the Iron Age The wear on the teeth of 3380 is unusual, Scottish dog breeds. but with a lack of other examples of this wear pattern, it is difficult to draw a solid conclusion about the causes of the wear. Looking at the English sites, it can be seen However, with the suggested causes, it that human-canid burials are represented could be possible with further research, all over the country and possibly suggests including full reconstruction of the that dogs were held to the same symbolical skeleton and experimental archaeology standard throughout the country. Danebury concerning what would best cause the also exhibits a similar trend to Cladh wear, to draw better conclusions. Hallan regarding the lack of neonatal or However, the wear being unusual could juvenile remains. This could perhaps suggest a unique diet for the dogs, and suggest importation, off-site breeding or possibly even humans, at Cladh Hallan. perhaps just a uniformly low survival rate of the young remains. Using the comparison sites, it is clear to see that dogs certainly held a ritual and 7 Conclusions symbolic significance in the Iron Age in In conclusion, Cladh Hallan is certainly a Britain, from the special animal deposits at unique site. The amount of canid elements Danebury Hillfort to the human-dog uncovered is far more than the burials at many of the Iron Age sites. In comparative sites both in the Outer particular within Cladh Hallan due to the Hebrides and the rest of Britain. The proximity of the dog burials to the burials of 3380 and 3376 within House everyday lives of the humans, within 401 can be interpreted in many different House 401, and even more significantly by ways but it can be agreed that the burials the hearth of the house. With the discovery must have held ritual significance. When of the tooth pendant at Cladh Hallan and

18 the metapodial pendants at Bramdean, it is in a power or symbolism that dogs could clear to see that people must have believed provide to humans.

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Vickers, K., ul Haq, S., and Hamshaw-Thomas, J. 2014. The Faunal Remains. In M. Parker Pearson and M. Zvelebil (eds) Excavations at Cill Donnain: A Bronze Age and Iron Age Wheelhouse in South Uist. Oxford: Oxbow Books

22 Wait, G. 1985. Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain. Oxford: BAR – British Series 149.

Wheeler, R. E. M. 1943. Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, No XII - Maiden Castle, Dorset. Oxford: Oxford University.

Appendix A – Table of Scottish Sites and the Amount of Canid Elements

Site Reference Amount Period Western Isles

23 Udal Finlay 1984 6 Northton Finlay 1984 2 Sollas Finlay 1991 5 A’Cheadach Mhor Young and Richardson 1959-60 1 A’Cheardach Bheag Finlay 1984 1 Bac Mhic Connain Finlay 1984 P Iron Age Hornish Point Halstead 1998 3 Baleshare Halstead 1998 7 Kildonan Ul Haq 1989, Hanshaw-Thomas 1991 5 Dun Vulan Parker Pearson and Sharples 1999 9 Cnip McCormick 1991 1 Inner Isles Dun Mor Vaul Noodle 1974 X Iron Age Dun Ardtreck Gilmour and Cook 1998 X

Key: P - Present but unquantified X – Ten or More

Appendix B – Further Reconstruction Photographs

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(Top) Front of 3380 (Bottom left) Left forepaw of 3380 (Bottom right) Occipital of 3380

25