Mummification in Bronze Age Britain

npeiu aesin papers previous In Introduction Booth J. Thomas Britain Age Bronze in Mummification ∗ 3 2 1 Pearson (Parker Britain prehistoric in ftedead the of Keywords: ihnapeevtv niomn uha panmpa o)o rica en (e.g. means corpse artificial a or of bog) deposition peat (e.g. sphagnum processes a natural as (Aufderheide such via embalming) environment tissue preservative soft a bodily within of preservation the as onhue tCahHla nSuhUs,WsenIlso ctad eesonto shown were Scotland, Pearson of (Parker Isles deposition Western to Uist, prior South mummified been on have Hallan Cladh at roundhouses niiul a enrcntutdfo h rsre ntmclprso eea people several of parts anatomical preserved single the Pearson articulated from (Parker ostensibly reconstructed these been that indicate had also individuals analyses DNA ancient and osteological alnaeulkl ob rsn nms at fBiano uoe u i a been has aim Our Europe. or Britain of parts most Cladh in at found present those be to to recovery and unlikely preservation are research of difficult Hallan circumstances a similar Britain, that prehistoric in given mummification area of nature and distribution extent, ANTIQUITY C N 0 niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity eateto at cecs aua itr uem rmelRa,Lno W B,UK 5BD, SW7 London Road, Cromwell Museum, History Natural Sciences, Earth (Email: of Department nttt fAcaooy C,3–4Gro qae odnW1 P,U (Email: UK 0PY, WC1H London Square, Gordon 31–34 UCL, Archaeology, [email protected] 9PT, of M13 Manchester Institute Road, Oxford Building, Stopford 3.614 (Email: Manchester, UK of University Sciences, Life of Faculty uhrfrcorrespondence for Author km Cladh Hallan [email protected] 937(05:15–13doi: 1155–1173 (2015): 347 89 rti,CahHla,Boz g,mmicto,bn itlg,treatment histology, bone mummification, Age, Bronze Hallan, Cladh Britain, [email protected] tal. et 500 ) 1, 2005 Antiquity ∗ ) nrwT Chamberlain T. Andrew , 2003 Hanna ; ehv rsne h rteiec o mummification for evidence first the presented have we , London 1.Seeosrcvrdfo eet aeBoz Age Bronze Late beneath from recovered Skeletons 41). : tal. et tal. et 2012 1155 ) 2005 .Teefidnsrieqetosaotthe about questions raise findings These ). rtrafrslcinaentytcertain. the yet not although are dead, selection for their criteria of proportion a populations on mummification Age practised Britain throughout Bronze has that results analysis demonstrate The skeletons. of identify mummified consistently previously method Isles can that Western developed a the been the in Scotland, Hallan at of Cladh skeletons of Age of site discovery Bronze the mummified Europe Following in in generally. widespread possibly more been and have Britain, also prehistoric may or it suggests that evidence Egyptian new but early practice societies, Peruvian with a associated is usually mummification Intentional , 2007 .Mmicto sdfie here defined is Mummification ). 2 iePre Pearson Parker Mike & tal. et 2005 10.15184/aqy.2015.111 , 2007 , 2013 m.parker- ;the ); 3

Method Thomas J. Booth et al. to develop a single method of analysis that can be used consistently to identify previously mummified skeletons more widely. Microscopic analysis of bone histology was one of the main methods used to infer mummification at Cladh Hallan. The most common, almost ubiquitous, form of diagenetic alteration observed within archaeological bone microstructure consists of bioerosive tunnelling produced by invasive microorganisms (Hackett 1981;Hedges2002; Turner- Walker et al. 2002; Jans et al. 2004; Nielsen-Marsh et al. 2007; Figure 1). There is a growing body of evidence indicating that this bacterial bioerosion is produced by an organism’s intrinsic gut bacteria during putrefaction (Child 1995;Bellet al. 1996; Jans et al. 2004; Guarino et al. 2006; Nielsen-Marsh et al. 2007; White & Booth 2014), suggesting that bacterial bioerosion of archaeological bone reflects the extent of bodily putrefaction experienced during the early post-mortem stages. Histological analysis of the femur of Cladh Hallan skeleton 2638, a composite adult male (Parker Pearson et al. 2005), revealed that it had been subjected to only limited levels of bacterial bioerosion, indicating that initial putrefactive activity was arrested. A similar conclusion was reached for the composite female-male skeleton 2613 (Parker Pearson et al. 2005, 2013). The condition of these two composite human skeletons contrasts with results of previous microscopic studies on archaeological articulated human bones, which usually show extensive tunnelling by bacteria (Hedges 2002;Janset al. 2004; Nielsen-Marsh et al. 2007). By contrast, faunal bones recovered from the same machair (shell sand) sediments at Cladh Hallan demonstrated extensive bacterial alteration (Parker Pearson et al. 2005; Mulville et al. 2011). Putrefaction is a highly destructive process and the most successful methods of mummification neutralise or remove visceral bacteria to prevent this stage of bodily decomposition (Aufderheide 2003). Putrefactive bacteria are likely to include osteolytic species responsible for bioerosion (Bell et al. 1996;Janset al. 2004), therefore bacterial attack can be expected to be absent or limited within bones from mummified bodies. The arrested pattern of bacterial bioerosion observed within the Cladh Hallan skeleton is theoretically consistent with mummification. Consequently, microscopic investigation may be the best and most consistent method for identifying previously mummified skeletons. A diagenetic signature for mummification? In most cases, previous investigations of the bone histology of bona fide mummified archaeological remains (Table 1) have not reported directly or in detail on histological preservation. The descriptions of samples and their images reveal, however, that mummified bones usually demonstrate immaculate levels of histological preservation. These results support the hypothesis that ancient mummified bones are unlikely to have been affected by putrefactive bioerosion. This typical absence of bacterial bioerosion in known mummified bone is not entirely consistent with the arrested pattern of attack observed within the Cladh Hallan skeletons. Those mummified bodies examined in previous histomorphological studies are preserved in ways that would have affected putrefaction immediately after death (Weinstein et al. 1981; Thompson & Cowen 1984;Stout1986; Brothwell & Bourke 1995;Garland1995; Hess et al. 1998; Monsalve et al. 2008; Bianucci et al. 2012). The evidence for the C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1156 iue1 rnmte ih irgaho ua,fehbn rnvrefmrlti eto tp,dmntaigperfect been demonstrating has (top), microstructure section internal the thin where bacteria. femoral (bottom) by transverse section altered bone femoral extensively archaeological fresh typical human, a a and of preservation micrograph microstructural light Transmitted 1. Figure h ehdo umfiainepoe eehda nosseto eae feton effect delayed that or suggests inconsistent bodies an Hallan had Cladh Pearson here (Parker the employed decomposition in bodily mummification putrefaction of of method halting the subsequent and onset rmammyadabgbd eeeaie sn hnscinlgtmcocp.These microscopy. light thin-section samples using bone examined of were microstructures body the bog a preservation, and tissue mummy soft a of from extent the and bioerosion umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification tal. et 1157 2005 .T etterltosi ewe bone between relationship the test To ). C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Method Thomas J. Booth et al.

Table 1. Catalogue of ancient human mummies whose bones have been subject to histomorphological analysis. Mummiﬁcation Specimen State Date Publication method Bone histology

Peruvian Skeleton AD 400–1600 Weinstein Desiccated by Perfect micro- mummy et al. 1981 wrapping and structure. deep burial in dry, coastal sand. Otzi¨ the Mummified 3370–3100 BC Hess et al. Desiccated by Perfect micro- Tyrolean body 1998 freeze-drying. structure. ‘ice man’ Species of gut bacteria identified under the periosteum. Tw o Mummified AD 1475 Thompson Desiccated by Perfect micro- Utqiagvik body &Cowen freeze-drying. structure. barrow 1984 mummies Francisco Mummified AD 1541 Stout 1986 Application of Perfect micro- Pizarro body lime (CaO). structure. Lindow II & Mummified 2 BC– AD 119 Brothwell & Deposition Well-preserved, Lindow bodies Bourke within a but with I/II 1995 sphagnum ‘globular peat bog. pseudopatho- logical points of collagen loss’. Worsley Man Partially AD 100 Garland Deposition Perfect micro- mummi- 1995 within a structure. fied sphagnum head peat bog. Zweeloo Mummified AD 78–233 Bianucci Deposition Perfect micro- Woman body et al. 2012 within a structure. sphagnum peat bog. Kwaday¨ Dan¨ Mummified AD 1670–1850 Monsalve Frozen in a OHI = 2–3, Ts’inchi body et al. 2008 glacier. although no bioerosion observed.

samples consist of the patella of a desiccated prehistoric mummy, retrieved from the town of Kawkaban in northern Yemen, and the tibia of a partially mummiﬁed Bronze Age body recovered from a sphagnum peat bog at Derrycashel in County Roscommon, Ireland. We made applications to analyse bone from a range of mummiﬁed remains; we were, however, granted access to sample only these two specimens. C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1158 retdso fe et eas fteai niomn DnBrothwell (Don environment arid the of because death after soon arrested sf isecnb bevdahrn oteprota ufc otergto h image). the of right the to preservation surface histological periosteal immaculate the demonstrating to mummy Yemeni adhering a observed from be section can thin tissue patella the (soft of Micrograph 2. Figure a utie ytepeevtv hmcl ntebgevrnet(aonKelly (Eamonn environment bog the decomposition in before extent chemicals some preservative to of comm putrefied the had bacteria by it that putrefactive curtailed likely was depriving is it rapidly, and tissue out soft retained dry (Aufderheide environments moisture arid essential in placed Bodies itlgclIdx(H) hc rnltstepretg frmiigitc bone intact preserved) (best remaining 5 to of preserved) (worst percentage 0 from the ranging (Hedges scale translates ordinal an which into microstructure (OHI), Index Histological cdceoin tiigb xgnu usacsadteiiilsae fbceilbioerosion bacterial of stages initial Buikstra periosteal the & and (Gordon the substances exogenous towards by observed staining erosion, were acidic cells) osteocyte ( house surface (outer) that microstructure bone the (OHI excellent is patella in faii erdto uha irfisrn,wietedsrbto fatc did attack Buikstra typical & of other (Gordon distribution no destruction the were of while wave there diffuse microfissuring, tissue; characteristic as soft a such by form degradation protected not acidic still was of bone signs the because erosion Booth & White h hl oeoe nacaooia iecl (Nielsen-Marsh timescale archaeological an over bone whole the Peacock & Walker h ottsu rsraino h eeiidvda ugssta urfcinwas putrefaction that suggests individual Yemeni the of preservation tissue soft The hnscin ftemmie oe eeasse sn h tnadOxford standard the using assessed were bones mummified the of sections Thin ti nieyta h takosre ihnteYmn ael a euto acidic of result a was patella Yemeni the within observed attack the that unlikely is It .). tal. et 1995 iue2 Figure 2014 Millard ; 2008 1981 ). .Ps-otmelreeto sect aua a enlne to linked been has lacunae osteocyte of enlargement Post-mortem ). .Aii erdto ol omlyrsl ntedsrcinof destruction the in result normally would degradation Acidic ). ;Garland = 2001 umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification ) lhuhelre sect aua ntrlcvte in cavities (natural lacunae osteocyte enlarged although 5), 2003 .Tehsooia rsraino h eeimummified Yemeni the of preservation histological The ). 1987 .Ol h o afo h ercse o body bog Derrycashel the of half top the Only ). ;Bell 1159 tal. et 1996 unrWle Peacock Turner-Walker & ; C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity tal. et 2007 1981 ;Smith es comm pers. Turner- ; 2008 tal. et pers. .). ;

Method Thomas J. Booth et al.

Figure 3. Micrograph of the tibial thin section from the Derrycashel individual; the tannins within the bog environment have stained the bone red; the microstructure is well-preserved, but limited accumulations of bacterial tunnelling (black areas) can be observed towards the periosteal surface.

2007). Enlarged osteocyte lacunae caused by exogenous staining are usually accompanied by discolouration of the surrounding bone microstructure (Garland 1987; Schultz 1997). Such discolouration was not apparent within the Yemeni sample. Therefore, the best explanation for the enlarged osteocyte lacunae observed within the Yemeni patella is that it was exposed to initial putrefactive activity, which was rapidly curtailed (Bell et al. 1996; Jans et al. 2004; Hollund et al. 2012). Histologically, the thin section of the Derrycashel tibia shows the bone to be well- preserved (OHI = 5), but it displays numerous enlarged osteocyte lacunae within the sub-periosteal zone that have amalgamated to form larger areas of alteration consistent with bacterial bioerosion (Hackett 1981; Figure 3). The survival of the whole bone and the distribution of attack are inconsistent with acidic erosion or staining. The Derrycashel sample demonstrates lower levels of bacterial bioerosion than were observed in the Cladh Hallan specimen, but, overall, this result suggests that the Cladh Hallan diagenetic signature is indeed consistent with mummiﬁcation using a technique that promoted partial soft-tissue preservation. The Cladh Hallan skeletons were recovered from alkaline machair sediments, yet previous Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analyses of these specimens had indicated that bone mineral crystals located towards the periosteal (external) surfaces had been altered in a manner consistent with acidic chemical dissolution (Parker Pearson et al. 2005). This result was used to suggest that mummiﬁcation may have been achieved through deposition within an acidic peat bog (Parker Pearson et al. 2005); the evidence from the Derrycashel bog body provides further support for this hypothesis. The histological analysis of the Kawkaban and Derrycashel samples is C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1160 niomnsotndslypten farse atra ieoinsmlrt those to similar waterlogged bioerosion or anoxic bacterial from arrested treatment Bones Jans (Janaway of equifinality. post-mortem remains of patterns mummified interpret problems from display to by bioerosion often hampered is bacterial environments body of a measurements of of use The mummies a Age Bronze producing further skeleton, that of Identification suggests the and of bone bioerosion mummified putrefactive signature. diagenetic of limits characteristic studies or microscopic prevents previous mummification with agreement in a aual eanfe rmbceilborso fe et,a h amla gut mammalian the as (Jans death, birth after after days bioerosion the in bacterial bones develops from only Neonatal microbiome free contexts. remain these from naturally recovered may skeletons within mummification previous h u atrawudas rdc iatcltdbnsta ipa iie ere of degrees limited display that bones disarticulated produce (Jans & also attack bacterial would (Rodriguez bacteria skeleton gut the the on putrefaction soft-tissue Booth of impact carnivorous the Bass by limits disarticulation and and skeletonisation insects exogenous rapid promotes Excarnation natcltdseeo a uvv rhelgclyi hog meit uilo the of burial immediate through which is in archaeologically way survive obvious (Duday can corpse most skeleton the articulated decomposition, an bodily accompanies that disarticulation hs ihsoigsmlsaefe rmbceilborso.Asgicnl ag proportion large significantly of A bioerosion. Most 5, bacterial or examples. from free 4 mummified are of the samples high-scoring scores with these high comparable remarkably produced preservation remainder were bone the excellent but Dorset, indicating burial, Farm, immediate with Canada consistent scores from assemblages Age individuals Iron and Neolithic 6 historical, ( the from further results the with a compared distinctive of addition thus skeletons the articulated mummification. in past identifying bioerosion for of method plausible levels examination that a limited or Microscopic provides remains only 4 articulated demonstrate attack. or of ancient findings bacterial bioerosion only scores These bacterial of the from OHI specimens. free are mummified high remain bodies the consistently the mummified either and demonstrated of skeletons skeletons 3% Hallan that than Cladh suggest Less the 2. to assigned than 5 less scored all almost uidso fe et,poue h oetOIsoeo tpfidin (typified 0 of score OHI lowest the were produced individuals these death, that evidence after good soon is there buried where later), and (Roman contexts period on htbceilborso eae ofnrr ramn npeitbewy ae on based ways predictable British, in were treatment 24 (Booth funerary which decomposition bodily to of of relates models sites, bioerosion European bacterial 25 that from found retrieved individuals 301 mummification representing from resulting bioerosion absent or reduced putrefaction Bass to extensive & contrast (Rodriguez from in resulting tissues, bioerosion soft advanced of exhibit typically bodies buried iue4 Figure h atrso atra ieoinosre mns rneAeseeos with skeletons, Age Bronze amongst observed bioerosion bacterial of patterns The irsoi td facaooia ua ogbn hnscin 9%femora) (97% sections thin long-bone human archaeological of study microscopic A 2008 1983 2014 ) utoe afo h rneAesmls(8oto 4 rdcdlwOHI low produced 34) of out (18 samples Age Bronze the of half over Just a). Hollund ; ;Bell .Dsebret eehn n te rcse htsprt h oefrom bone the separate that processes other and defleshing Dismemberment, ). 2006 tal. et 1985 .Bra rtcstebd rmseeoiigiscs n oe from bones and insects, skeletonising from body the protects Burial ). tal. et tal. et 1996 Rodriguez ; 2004 2012 Fern ; umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification Nielsen-Marsh ; ;mcocpcaayi antteeoeb sdt infer to used be therefore cannot analysis microscopic ); andez-Jalvo ´ 1997 1996 2014 ). unr&Wiltshire & Turner ; 1161 .Ms ape fbn eree rmhistoric- from retrieved bone of samples Most ). tal. et tal. et 2010 2007 tal. et ;Simmons .Gvnterpdt fskeletal of rapidity the Given ). 2004 C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 1999 ht Booth & White ; tal. et unrWle & Turner-Walker ; 2010 iue1 Figure ;White& 2014 )and ).

Method Thomas J. Booth et al.

Figure 4. Distribution of Oxford Histological Index (OHI) scores amongst: a) post-neonatal bones; b) post-neonatal bones from aerobic environments; c) articulated post-neonatal bones from aerobic environments, separated by phase; signiﬁcant proportions of Bronze Age samples retain high OHI scores in each case.

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1162 Fern ua ean eercvrdi aiu tgso kltldsriuain(Bell disarticulation skeletal of stages various in recovered were remains human (Lelong Oykel tBalyFni abigsie(isn&Knight & (Gibson Cambridgeshire sediments waterlogged in from their Fen recovered limited were Bradley had these that at of processes Two post-mortem bacteria. early putrefaction to to subject exposure been had bones Age Bronze of h vrl itntv itiuino rneAeOIsoe ( scores OHI Age Bronze of distribution distinctive overall the neryatrpgncpoesta iie oiypteato (Bell putrefaction bodily limited to that relate al. must process et skeletons Age anthropogenic Bronze early articulated of an samples amongst observed bacteria bioerosion soil metresof preservation exogenous or few bone conditions a histological environmental specific that only (Fern either suggest found by dictated results skeletons been These not from has sediments. originate similar samples within the contrasting yielded apart, these remains. have to bioeroded would cases, that extensively sites all sites of attributable of examples In Age group provide Bronze varied also are Most bones a well-preserved from specimens. results histologically individuals anomalous that Age captured unlikely Bronze these highly repeatedly of is have number It that small set. a sample possibility anomalous of but sampling large the one of influence removing disproportionate sites, different disarticulated). Age 16 be Iron articulated, (10 cannot the balanced amongst preservation more skeletons was histological articulated set variably Neolithic of sample of of levels distribution proportion The high a entirely. that demonstrate dismissed Neolithic possibility will articulated the 3 skeletons All but Only skeletons. bioeroded, articulated sample. articulated extensively Age from are Bronze originate samples the samples bone to Neolithic exclusive 35 is the samples of (n bone articulated human between articulated evenly preserved (n distributed disarticulated is environments and aerobic 16) from set sample Age eprt niomnsi aeyqikeog opeettebnsfo experiencing from bones the prevent to (Bell in enough altogether skeletonisation quick putrefaction bioerosion; soft-tissue rarely bacterial is some environments demonstrate temperate bones usually although carcasses result, this exposed for responsible from be could were exposure Sub-aerial bodies bioerosion. these bacterial of proportion substantial buried. a were that they therefore, before samples, mummified is, Age Bronze explanation to the simplest amongst remains observed the archaeological pattern articulated diagenetic only the the consistently demonstrate are bodies retaining Mummified while putrefaction articulation. bodily of skeletal effects deleterious the reducing significantly of method tal. et rsraini oecnitn ihmmicto hnwt xanto (Weinstein excarnation with than 1981 mummification with consistent more is preservation atal iatcltdeeet fsvrlidvdas(akrPearson (Parker individuals several of elements disarticulated partially 1998 h xlso fwtrogdaddsriuae oesmlsde o,hwvr affect however, not, does samples bone disarticulated and waterlogged of exclusion The ntne fwl-rsre rneAebn eeietfidfo ean tseveral at remains from identified were bone Age Bronze well-preserved of Instances l ftehsooial elpeevddsriuae rneAebnswr refrom free were bones Age Bronze disarticulated well-preserved histologically the of All andez-Jalvo ´ hmsn&Cowen & Thompson ; .We ti osdrdta h ld alnbde eecntutdoto the of out constructed were bodies Hallan Cladh the that considered is it When ). andez-Jalvo ´ 2010 2004 Hollund ; Nielsen-Marsh ; 2009 tal. et tal. et , 2010 tal. et 2012 2010 = ;Simmons .Adtoal,sm fteohrhg-crn rneAge Bronze high-scoring other the of some Additionally, ). Turner-Walker ; 2012 umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification 6 kltn.Terglrocrec fhsooial well- histologically of occurrence regular The skeletons. 16) tal. et 1984 ht Booth & White ; ;Stout 2007 tal. et tal. et .Mmicto ersnsteol plausible only the represents Mummification ). 1163 1986 2010 2012 1996 rtwl Bourke & Brothwell ; ). .Teucnetoa retdpatterns arrested unconventional The ). Fern ; 2014 2006 andez-Jalvo ´ .Imclt itlgclbone histological Immaculate ). n agelCs nStrath in Cist Langwell and ) C iue4 Figure niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity tal. et ) h Bronze The c). & b tal. et 1995 tal. et 2010 2005 ;Hess tal. et 1996 Simmons ; ; 1996 2007 ; tal. et tal. et Jans = ; ;

Method Thomas J. Booth et al.

Figure 5. Distribution of Bronze Age sites that included human remains that demonstrated diagenetic signatures consistent with mummification: square = site with articulated ‘mummified’ skeleton(s); circle = site with only disarticulated or partially articulated ‘mummified’ skeleton(s); triangle = site includes a ‘mummified’ skeleton from a waterlogged context.

2013; Hanna et al. 2012), the most parsimonious interpretation of all of the histologically well-preserved Bronze Age bone samples is that they represent parts of, or whole, previously mummiﬁed individuals. Archaeological bones from intermittently waterlogged environments demonstrate variably elevated levels of histological preservation, most likely corresponding with the varying degree of bodily decomposition that took place before the grave was inundated (Turner-Walker & Jans 2008; Hollund et al. 2012). The two waterlogged articulated Bronze Age skeletons from Bradley Fen and Langwell Cist were both free from bioerosion. Waterlogged environments often limit bacterial action but should not prevent putrefactive bone bioerosion completely; the absence of bacterial bioerosion from these samples is therefore unusual (Booth 2014). It is possible that these two waterlogged Bronze Age skeletons are those of previously mummiﬁed C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1164 unrWle Jans & Turner-Walker eadesdo hte iia ueaytetet eepatsdmr ieyamong widely more practised were societies. Age treatments Bronze to funerary European question—yet similar the raise whether results addressed—of These be practice. mortuary long-lived a was mummification ( Britain of areas large across extends mummification signatures diagenetic with demonstrating remains consistent skeletal human Britain Age Bronze in of distribution remains The human mummified Age Bronze of Distribution Hedges & (Nielsen-Marsh uncertain remain must interpretation bioerosion bacterial this and putrefaction that on waterlogging mean of effects variable the SK but Hallan individuals, Cladh the within putrefaction. observed bodily that limited to to identical bioerosion exposed surface, bacterial was of periosteal bone band the the intense below 853—an that microns SK suggesting Fen hundred 2638, Bradley few from a section thin observed femoral be transverse can a of Micrograph 6. Figure etsCutseeosdmntaemcocpcdsoorto n suigconsistent fissuring and ( discolouration treatment heat macroscopic low-level with demonstrate skeletons Court Court Neat’s Neat’s from individuals within 2006 observed (Morley were Kent attack in bacterial of patterns Arrested mummification Age Bronze of Methods ( are Age sites Bronze These Late Age. and Bronze Early the the during to Britain dated that throughout suggests this practised included; was are remains mummification waterlogged and disarticulated whether of regardless ,atog umfiaintcnqe a aedfee ewe h w ie.The sites. two the between differed have may techniques mummification although ), 2010 n rde e nCmrdehr ( Cambridgeshire in Fen Bradley and ) 2008 Hollund ; umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification iue7 Figure ee Barrett & Deter ; tal. et 1165 c 2070B) niaigfrhroethat furthermore indicating BC), 2200–750 . 2012 ). 2009 ,sgetn htteebodies these that suggesting ), C iue6 Figure niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity isn&Knight & Gibson ; iue5 Figure ; al 2 Table 2000 ), ;

Method Thomas J. Booth et al. may have been mummified by desiccation through smoking. In contrast, the Bradley Fen skeletons display no post-mortem alterations that are indicative of a particular method of mummification; their provenance close to substantial wetlands however, raises the possibility that they were preserved through initial deposition within watery anoxic environments. Bone samples from Windmill Fields in Teesside (Annis et al. 1997), Cnip Headland on the Isle of Lewis, Western Isles of Scotland (Lelong 2011) and Canada Farm in Dorset (Green 2012;Baileyet al. 2013) were free from bacterial bioerosion, which indicates that bodily putrefaction was curtailed at an early post-mortem stage, and that their treatment may have involved evisceration (Figure 8). The evidence for variability in methods of mummification is consistent with suggestions that Bronze Age communities made innovative use of available local resources to preserve their dead (Parker Pearson et al. 2005). Techniques that produced a partial or ephemeral mummy might have been deliberately used by British Bronze Age communities to enable fragmentation, circulation and recombination of bodies and anatomical parts. Consistent production of such relatively short-lived mummies might partly explain why preserved soft tissue of Bronze Age individuals has not usually survived archaeologically (with the exception of some bog bodies); Britain’s temperate climate is generally poorly suited for long-term soft tissue preservation above or below ground in any case. The Cladh Hallan bodies had been manipulated into tightly flexed positions (leg flexion at the hip was above 45ᵒ), suggesting that they may have been wrapped (Parker Pearson et al. 2005). Body position was highly variable amongst the Bronze Age mummified skeletons identified here and there is no significant association between posture and OHI score (n = 27, Kruskal–Wallis X2 = 3.50453, p = 0.3202). There is no regional variation in posture amongst the mummified specimens and positions often varied considerably across single sites (Table 2). Evidence for tight wrapping of bodies in the Bronze Age does not equate to mummification, although prior mummification may provide an explanation for articulated skeletons that appear to have been manipulated beyond what might be possible on a fresh corpse (Parker Pearson et al. 2005).

Conclusion Microscopic analysis of diagenesis in a dataset of 307 samples of human bone recovered from 26 archaeological sites in Europe reveals that 16 of those 34 British human remains dating to the Bronze Age (c. 2200–750 BC) demonstrate an unusual pattern of arrested bacterial bioerosion. These same patterns of histological preservation have been observed regularly within bone samples from mummified individuals. The Bronze Age assemblage includes samples of skeletons retrieved from the Cladh Hallan settlement where there is a suite of evidence that at least two (composite) bodies had formerly been mummified (Parker Pearson et al. 2005, 2007, 2013). The simplest explanation for the persistence of these diagenetic signatures is that Bronze Age populations throughout Britain practised mummification on a proportion of their dead. The numbers of disarticulated bone samples that display the diagenetic signature of prior mummification and the occasional evidence for deliberate reconstruction of anatomical parts suggest that a significant proportion of buried Bronze Age mummies may be composites. C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1166 Table 2. Catalogue of Bronze Age samples; skeletons that demonstrated histological signatures of mummiﬁcation are highlighted in bold. Angle of ﬂexion at Radiocarbon Site Location Type Phase Site details Specimen Articulation hip date (cal BC) Waterlogging OHI

Canada Farm Down Farm, Ring ditch Beaker/Middle Green 2012; F8 Articulated <90ᵒ >45ᵒ –No0 Dorset, Bronze Age Bailey et al. England 2013 F3 Partially articulated <45ᵒ 1620–1390 No 2 F6 Articulated <90ᵒ >45ᵒ –No0 < ᵒ > ᵒ

F1 Articulated 90 45 2620–2470 No 5 Britain Age Bronze in Mummiﬁcation 2470–2290 F5 Partially articulated <45ᵒ –No0 F4 Partially articulated <45ᵒ 1620–1390 No 0 Windmill Ingleby Barwick, Cemetery Early Bronze Annis et al. Sk 2 Articulated <90ᵒ >45ᵒ 2200–1970 No 5 Fields Stockton-on- Age 1997

1167 Tees, County Durham Sk 3 Disarticulated – 2400–2040 No 5 Sk 5 Articulated <45ᵒ 1740–1530 No 0 Sk 6 Articulated <45ᵒ 2030–1885 No 0 South Broadstairs, Kent Round Early–Middle Perkins 1994, B 6 Partially articulated >90ᵒ –No1 Dumpton barrow Bronze Age 1995 Down C

niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity B10 Disarticulated – – No 1 B 5 Articulated >90ᵒ 1951–1703 No 1 B 2 Partially articulated >90ᵒ –No0 B 7 Partially articulated <45ᵒ –No0 Langwell Strath Oykell, Cist Early Bronze Lelong 2009, Sk 1 Articulated <90ᵒ >45ᵒ 2200–1960 Yes 5 Farm Cist Highlands of Age 2012 Scotland Cnip Isle of Lewis, Cist Early-Middle Knott 2010; SF 19 Disarticulated – – No 5 Headland Western Isles, cemetery Bronze Age Lelong 2011 Scotland

Method Thomas J. Booth et al. No 4 –No4 –No0 –No4 1190–840 No 0 1440–1130 No 2 1750–1530 No 0 1882–1770 No 0 1370–1050 No 5 1891–16371882–1770 No No 5 4 1620–1410 1880–1640 No 5 Radiocarbon date (cal BC) Waterlogging OHI 1500–1260 1500–1210 ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ 45 45 45 ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ > > > – 1880–1630 No 5 45 45 45 45 45 90 90 45 45 ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ hip < < < < < > > < < 90 90 90 Angle of ﬂexion at < < < (composite) (composite) articulated articulated ‘C’ Disarticulated – – No 0 Sk 2 Partially articulated Sk 1 Partially SF 20SF 50 Disarticulated Disarticulated – – – – No No 5 5 Sk 853 ArticulatedSk 573Sk 785 Articulated Extended Articulated – Yes 5 SF 54B Partially Sk 2792 Partially articulated Sk 2727 Articulated Sk 2673 Articulated Sk 2545 Articulated Sk 2613 Articulated Sk 2638 Articulated Sk 2635 Articulated Sk 2614 Articulated , 2006 2007 , ; 2013 2005 Knight Barrett 2009 Morley 2010 Parker Pearson Gibson & Deter & Age Age Age Early Bronze barrow Settlement Late Bronze Settlement Late Bronze Round Hebrides of Scotland Cambridgeshire, England. Isle of Thanet, Kent, England. Cladh Hallan South Uist, Outer Bradley Fen Whittlesey, Neat’s Court Queensborough, Table 2. Continued Site Location Type Phase Site details Specimen Articulation

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1168 fbceilatc ossetwt umfiain icluaino h rnu,tehadatclred fln bones (photograph smoking long by of preservation ends artificial articular with consistent and Wilkinson). Paul burning teeth and low-level cranium, Morley pattern to Geoff arrested the an exposed of demonstrated of courtesy was which discolouration Kent, individual Sheppey, the mummification; of Isle that with the suggest on consistent barrow round attack Court Neat’s bacterial the from of 2614 SK 7. Figure eiiaino ihsoe adadpoet.Icesn ocrswt h genealogical earlier the the of with cemeteries round-barrow concerns ( the Age Increasing in Bronze evident property. are and ancestors individual land of significance over rights of legitimation manufacture. innovations cultural textile Age the or Bronze of ceramic other aspect example, and one for metalworking as of in, introduced appearance was bone the practice Age with this Bronze associated that changes on infer to mummification us of lead signatures might samples diagenetic of appearance common The ehp oepasbei h rbbegoigrl fdcae netr nthe in ancestors deceased of role growing probable the is plausible more Perhaps c 2010 C ..Garwood e.g. BC; 2200–1500 . umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification 1169 2007 .Tescn ilnimB nBritain in BC millennium second The ). C niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity

Method Thomas J. Booth et al.

Figure 8. The primary burial (F1) from the Canada Farm ring ditch; the bone microstructure of this skeleton was perfectly preserved, suggesting that putrefaction was arrested at a very early post-mortem stage, possibly by evisceration (photograph courtesy of Martin Green). was associated with increasing pressures on land use and intensification of agriculture (Field 2008: 71–83), especially from 1600–1500 BC onwards, as is evident in the laying out of co-axial field systems (e.g. Yates 2007). Whatever the motives were for adopting practices of post-mortem preservation, these results confirm the value of microscopic examination of bone microstructure. Indeed, it may be the only consistent method for identifying formerly mummified skeletons in the archaeological record. Further research is required to confirm the extent and nature of these practices in later prehistoric Britain, and whether they extended into continental Europe. One line of inquiry could involve investigating skeletons from Bronze Age sites that demonstrate anomalous early radiocarbon dates, although the success of this approach would depend upon the precision of dating methods and the interval between death and burial. C Antiquity Publications Ltd, 2015

1170 A B B D B B C A B D References Green. Martin Archaeology), and (Tees Bournemouth) Rowe Peter remains: of Unit), (University Olivia sample Archaeological Smith Company), (Cambridge to Martin Geoff Survey Knight York), access Archaeological Mark of Thames granting Heritage), (University and (Northlight for Brothwell (Swales Lelong Don people Wilkinson Ireland), Paul following of Archaeology), Museum the (MOLES the (National Morley thank at Mulhall undertaken Isabella to studentship and like doctoral Kelly Council would Eamonn Research We Humanities Sheffield. and Arts of an University of part formed research This Acknowledgements ROTHWELL OOTH IANUCCI ELL AILEY UFDERHEIDE NNIS HILD UDAY ETER Oxbow. remains funerary of archaeology archaeology the ofdeath),inR.Gowland&C.Kn or (archaeothanatology mort la de Countries the from Netherlands. body bog a in dyschondrosteosis &A.Z R mummies eot etOtooia eerhadAnalysis. and Research Osteological Kent Unpublished barrow. 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1172 R S S T R T S methods and bodies buried of Decomposition 1985. – S eevd oebr21;Acpe:2 eebr21;Rvsd 9Jnay2015 January 19 Revised: 2014; December 22 Accepted: 2014; November 3 Received: TOUT MITH IMMONS CHULTZ ODRIGUEZ ODRIGUEZ URNER HOMPSON eopsto fbre isi ev lysoil. clay International heavy Science a Forensic in pigs the buried of of study decomposition a evidence: forensic of validation ahnm:teps-otmft fhmnremains human of fate post-mortem the taphonomy: (ed.) Sorg M.H. & Haglund W.D. in medicine, forensic and to palaeopathology contribution a remains: skeletal excavated 0–2 oaRtn(L:CCPress. CRC (FL): Raton Boca 201–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.006 Science Archaeological of mechanisms. Journal and patterns I: Holocene. European nseea dnicto:tecs fFrancisco of Pizarro. case the identification: skeletal in Press. remains human Sorg M.H. & (ed.) Haglund W.D. in bodies, submerged n oebooyo h arwmummies. barrow Anthroplogy the of biology bone and Sciences Tennessee. human east of in rates cadavers decay to relationship its and htmyadi hi location. Sciences their in aid may that ..C M.J. oescSciences remains. Forensic surface and buried decomposition in on rate insects of influence The 2010. 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01402.x dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0379-0738(99)00018-3 ..18.Teueo oehistomorphometry bone of use The 1986. S.D. , .. ..N C.M. C.I., , ,B.&P.W .19.Mcocpcivsiainof investigation Microscopic 1997. M. , oesctpooy h otmre aeof fate post-mortem the taphonomy: Forensic . ..C P.A. T., , OLLINS ..&KS C K.S. & D.D. , ,W.C.&W.M.B and buried of Decomposition 1997. W.C. , 8 423–32. 28: 0 836–52. 30: ora fFrni Sciences Forensic of Journal 1 83–88. 21: 07 oedaeei nthe in diagenesis Bone 2007. . 318 oaRtn(L:CRC (FL): Raton Boca 93–108. : ILTSHIRE ROSS 5 889–92. 55: IELSEN ,R.E.A -M 99 Experimental 1999. . OWEN ASS ARSH ora fForensic of Journal 93 netactivity Insect 1983. . DLAM 0:113–22. 101: http://dx.doi.org/ 94 g tdeath at Age 1984. . ora fForensic of Journal ...J M.M.E. , 4 1485–93. 34: umfiaini rneAeBritain Age Bronze in Mummification 1 296–300. 31: ora of Journal &C.M Forensic ANS http:// Arctic OFFATT & : . 1173 Y T T T T W W ATES URNER URNER URNER URNER HITE EINSTEIN 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.024 aruhf Jahrbuch time. deep through persistence tissues: 0077-7749/2012/0253 165–83. edssesi otenEngland southern in systems field International carcasses. pig deposited experimentally from bone results internal microstructure: the to bioerosion for responsible .S U. j.palaeo.2008.03.024 227–35. 266: Palaeoecology Palaeoclimatology, Palaeogeography, analysis. histological using histories taphonomic http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.03.027 Palaeoecology Palaeoclimatology, bogs. in Scandanavian diagenesis bone of results Preliminary http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oa.642 Osteoarchaeology bone. archaeological in occurring alteration major ultra-structural the is porosity spongiform Sub-micron ajpa.1330540304 321–26. Anthropology Physical of Journal American histomorphometry. skeletal mummy quantitative Peruvian by a revealed in disease bone Ancient 1981. ..2007. D.T. , ,L.&T.J.B -W -W -W -W YVERSEN ,R.S.,D.J.S ALKER ALKER ALKER ALKER http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ rGooi n Pal und Geologie ur ¨ ,H.K 3:92–102. 239: ,G.,C.M.N P E.E. & G. , ,G.&M.J skeletal in bioerosion Early 2012. G. , C http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ ad oe n rsie rneAge Bronze prestige: and power Land, OOTH niut ulctosLd 2015 Ltd, Publications Antiquity 2 407–14. 12: ARS Palaeogeography, IMMONS nentoa ora of Journal International 04 h rgno bacteria of origin The 2014. . &M.J.C oescScience Forensic ANS IELSEN EACOCK http://dx.doi.org/ 08 Reconstructing 2008. . aontologie &C.O.L ¨ xod Oxbow. Oxford: . 6:151–59. 266: -M OLLINS 2008. . ARSH Neues OVEJOY 265: 2002. . , 54: .

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