ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE WESTERN ISLES: THE MOLLUSCAN EVIDENCE Matt Law PhD in Archaeology School of History, Archaeology and Religion, Cardiff University June 2017 SUMMARY Using assemblages of marine and non-marine mollusc shells from recent excavations in the Western Isles of Scotland, with reference to previously published studies, this thesis contributes to an enhanced understanding of the cultural palaeoecology of insular societies. Chaoter 1 sets out the topics that will be covered in this thesis. Chapter 2 introduces the methods and principles that drive molluscan analysis; Chapter 3 outlines the natural history of the Western Isles; and Chapter 4 the archaeology. Previous work on molluscs from the islands are summarised in Chapter 5, and emergent themes identified. Chapter 6 presents the results of analyses of new non-marine molluscan assemblages from 9 sites, ranging in date from the Mesolithic to the Norse period. Comparative data collected from a transect of samples for modern snails are also presented, along with a statistical meta-analysis of the data. Chapter 7 presents the results of marine shell analyses from 4 sites, ranging in date from the Early Bronze Age to the Norse period. The results are discussed in terms of their regional and wider significance in Chapter 8, and the thesis concluded in Chapter 9. Studying non-marine and marine molluscs from a wide range of sites across the islands has made important contributions to the archaeology of the Western Isles. The movement of new species of snail into and across the islands emphasises the connectedness of prehistoric communities across wider social networks on the Atlantic coast of Europe. The study of non-marine molluscs and the use of statistical analysis contributes to a broader understanding of taphonomy and site formation processes. Combined analysis of marine and non-marine mollusc shells highlights the agricultural practices and land use of prehistoric and Norse farmers. Studies of larger marine shells indicate changing tastes at the time of increasing contact with the Norse diaspora. i DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY I hereby declare that, except where indicated by specific reference, the work submitted herein is the result of my own investigation, and that the views expressed are my own. I further declare that no portion of the work presented has been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed _____________________________________________________________________________ Date_________________________________________________________________________________ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been written without the help, guidance and support of many people throughout its development. Firstly, I would like to thank my primary supervisor, Dr Jacqui Mulville for her encouragement and vision at the outset of the project, and her continued support and attention to detail over the subsequent six years. Professor Niall Sharples acted as second supervisor, and provided access to the Bornais and Sligeanach material. His unparalleled understanding of Hebridean archaeology and energetic interest in marine shell assemblages and wider issues of coastal resource acquisition were an inspirational force guiding this study. Nigel Thew’s 1980s study of four assemblages of snails from the islands set the tone for much of this research by taking archaeological land snail analysis in important and exciting new directions. I am incredibly fortunate that he has been consistently willing to discuss ideas about snails in the Hebrides, and to travel from Neuchâtel to Cardiff several times to check identifications. His importance to this work, and my gratitude, cannot be overstated. At Cardiff, I benefitted from membership of an active research group comprising wonderful people with overlapping interests, who were always willing to give practical help and discuss ideas. My thanks to Dr Julia Best, Dr Jennifer Jones, Dr Rich Madgwick, Rhiannon Philp and Adrienne Powell. Parts of this research were carried out with support from Cardiff University Postgraduate Fund and Cardiff University Ursula Henriques Fund. Conference attendance was made possible thanks to funding from Historic Scotland, the Association for Environmental Archaeology, and the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. I am grateful to staff of Hollinrake Archaeology, L – P : Archaeology, and the College of Liberal Arts, Bath Spa University, for keeping me employed throughout this research. Samples were generously made available for this study by Dr James Barrett, Dr Rosie Bishop, Dr Mike Church, Kevin Colls, Dr James Gerrard, Professor John Hunter, Professor Mike Parker Pearson and Dr Helen Smith. Dr Becky Rennell provided survey equipment for use at Baile Sear. Dr Alan Lane iii commented on the ceramic finds from Baile Sear. The staff of the Department of Biodiversity and Systematic Diversity at the National Museum of Wales, especially Jennifer Gallichan, Dr Ben Rowson and Harriet Wood, were always supportive and keen to allow me access to their collections to check identifications. My thanks to Professor Ken Thomas, my MSc course director at UCL, who first introduced me to the potential importance of molluscs for understanding human pasts; and to Dr David Smith, my undergraduate tutor at Birmingham, whose environmental archaeology lectures first set me on this path. Above all, I would like to thank my parents and Brooke for their generous support over the past six years. I owe a tremendous debt to the work of the late Professor John G. Evans, who I never met, but whose presence still looms large in the Department of Archaeology and Conservation at Cardiff. iv CONTENTS Summary ................................................................................................................................. i Declaration of originality ........................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... iii Contents ................................................................................................................................. v List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Contents of this thesis ...................................................................................... 4 1.2 Naming of sites ................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Radiocarbon dates .......................................................................................... 71 2 Molluscs in Archaeology ................................................................................................. 7 2.1 Historical development .................................................................................... 7 2.2 Introduction to molluscs ................................................................................ 13 2.3 Statistical analyses .......................................................................................... 26 2.4 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 34 3 Geological and Environmental Context ........................................................................ 35 3.1 Geology .......................................................................................................... 37 3.2 Climate ........................................................................................................... 41 3.3 Vegetation history .......................................................................................... 42 3.4 The machair .................................................................................................... 48 3.5 The arrival of the Hebridean fauna ................................................................ 60 3.6 Terrestrial resources - agriculture and animal husbandry ............................. 62 3.7 Marine resources ........................................................................................... 66 3.8 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 68 4 Archaeological Background........................................................................................... 69 4.1 Mesolithic ....................................................................................................... 71 4.2 Neolithic ......................................................................................................... 73 4.3 Beaker to Middle Bronze Age ......................................................................... 75 4.4 Later Prehistory .............................................................................................. 75 4.5 Norse .............................................................................................................. 77 4.6 Gaelic Lordships, Post-Medieval and Modern ................................................ 78 4.7 Conclusions