Dar Tropentandwlrt, Beltri ge zur troplschen Landwlrtachan und Vl terinairmedlz in, 10 1. Jahrg ang, April 2000, S. 13- 38. Diseases and Pests of Tea: Overview and Possibilities of Integrated Pest and Disease Management

Heinrich Lehmann-Danzinger"

Key words: Tea, Pesls, Diseases, Integrated Pest Management, Epidemiology, Root Diseases, Blister Blig ht, Exobasidium vexans, Scarlet Tea Mite, Brcvipa/pus plloellicis, Phytophagous Mites, Natural Enemies, Insecticides. Fungicides

Abstract

From the viewpoint of plant protection (phytomedi cine), the demand for tea free from pesticide residues is in conniet with the demand for high quality from the consumer, and with the demand fo r high yield and low labour input, fro m the producer. High yield in tea has been mainiy achieved by the eiiminatio n of tree shade, and redu ctio n of losses due to diseases and pestS with pesticides. Elimina tion of shade changed the agro-envi­ ronment, with increased growth of weeds, higher in put of fertilizers, and with increased susceptibility to certain diseases (stem canker due to sun-scorch, grey blig ht) an d pests (mit es). However, shade also can be detrimental to yield wi th unsui table tree species, or too much shade in the rainy season which encourages the incidence of blister bli gh t (Exobasidium vexans) and some pests (tea mosqui to bug). Economic loss of tea due to diseases is higher compared to pests (pests),the blister blight being the main disease. Pressure of diseases an d pests on tea depends also on the control stralegy and the climatic environment. Red ucing pesticides may be feasib le by reducing the threat of diseases and/or pests through cultivatio n in Jess disease and pest prone envi­ ronments (alt itude, shade), in choosing disease or pcst to lerant clonal tea-varieties, by choosing pesti cides with low interfere ncc on natural cnemies of pests and diseascs, and by applyi ng pesticides according to cconomic thrcshold. The long stand ing time of the tea bushes favours slow developing rool diseases. These are reviewed and the intc­ gratcd control is discussed in detail wi th eradication, wi th pesticides, and with improve­ ment of soil micronora. Leaf and stcm discases are reviewed. Integrated pest an d dis­ ease management of blister blight and the scarlet tea mite (Brevipa/pus phoenicis), are discussedindctail.

- Dr. Heinricll Lehmann·Oanzinac" tmtitut fij. PfIanz.enpatbotoaie ur>d pnanzenschutt, Georg-August Univenitilt GOttlngcn, G.i$ebach51 •. 8, 0·37077 G!lningen, Germany. E·mait: hle [email protected]

13 I InldücioD

Tea'originales in the mountainsofSoutheasrAsia. It is a small evergreenree, which Hcbes a heighlof10-15mwilhourculdng. If, cultivarionitispruned down to 0.5 to 1.5 m in heightto alloweasierpickingofthe lqvs. nereare differenlteavadeties, butrhe ßost iryottanr äte C@ellia shers,l ve. rtue66 and C si"e6,] var 6saaaa- ftc forner has small, hard and serated leaves,ß nore temperatu@toleEnt (it en dlh- stand '5"C), Dore arcmafc, but has lower yiel&. fte lalter originatesin south-east (Asam), haslargesoftand snooth edgedleaves,ß dildly aromatic,high yielding andcannotwilhsbnd eventheslightestfrcst. Nowadays,hybddsoflhe twovadeü* are mosly grown. A n€wer devclopmentis the sel€ctionof clones (seesection Blister blighloftea"), which tre Dultiplied by cutrings-

Most of the woild t€a prcduction, is prcdrced in Asia (8 L47,), se6nd is trrica (15.5%), which isfollowed by blin hede(2.070) (FAo, 1999).Teaisbestgrownin deepand well drainedacidic soils (pH 4.5-5.0),well dishibubd Binfall of 1500-2000mm per yea4 mild averagelemporaturesof18120'C and sufftcieolsunshine. ft€se eelogical condtions arcprevalent in the hopi6 alhighcr altiaudesbelween800-2000 m (1400- 2100 dear the equato4. Aeording to &! (1972) dnhun minfdl ror conoercial yieldsis U5G14m mdvyar, dependingon how n is diskibured.fte lempeElureshould notfalbelow 13"Cand shouldnotexceed an averageof30"C.lnthesubhopicstea hd adormancyperioddud.gwinterandaleindrypeiods.fteoplimumsunlightinren, sily for tea ß 5070 to 80% from full ndiation (EDEN1976j PuRsEcDw 1968). Suppres- sion ofweedsissnlial. Teaissomeiimesinterplänledwith a nuce croporwith green manu.e. Deep cultvation which would daDage Se suifi@ r@b should no1 be done. Shadewas conmon, bul is now ontoveßial. fte pluchng intenal dependson the le.gth oftine noded forprodüction ofnew shoob (flushins) and, dependinson alti tüde,variesfrcm70loS days. fre biggest chdlenge for lea grcweß nowadaysis !o producerea wilhout p€siidde residu6. ftere ß a grcwing demandfor rosiduefrce lea, or at Ieastlow pdticide resl duetea,in the highlyindustdalßed ounldesand thisteafelchsagoodpdce. Romthe viewpUintofplanl prctecdon(phylomedicine) it should not be lo difficul to grcw reä frthoul the aid of psticides in some regions, il it was not fo. the phyronedical incom- patibledomand ofthe Darket for qualily and th€ demandoflhe producerfor high yield with iow labour input. Reduced labour irtensity hs been achieved, $adn8 in lbe sev onlies,by rcplacing manualweoding wnh herbicids, therebyinl.oducing lhe risk of herbicideresidus ir thepluckd tea.High yield has dso beenesbblishedby elimina! ing treeshade,which inüeasedthe weedproblem, the n€edforsynthelic fedilizeß and increded lhe incidenc€ofsme pesß ard dßeass. However the needfor shadeof tea is mnkoversial (EDEN,1976). fte econonic los of tea dDelo dbeass is generally

L ta Crade rii.tu; G) O. Küuq of üa fnily ftcäe.c t4 pc$we ot dßMss and hiqher comDaredto lossesdue ro anroal pesß Qesrsl fte lhe plantalrona4d aßo o;ß on lea dependson the d'seaseand pdl contol stalegv ot reagrcw'ngrcgons än rhe acro_ecoloeietenutonmenl. $hich isdücrenl in specific one wav ol and whi;h van€s;r drtrerertd Litudiial lev€ls *ilh in Lher€8ions frrlelbß lrcm specificdisesesor reJucinsoesricioeapptiqrion isrosmpe excc$iveFes'urc dßeds which ma) oess biercwineta t m'ironnenß l€$ tavourabletopes6and Tea is a roncur nor te ar.avs rcss;tle. Ornet alleinaliv6 rle discused below Pl"nlal

",- "ün"iini"'""u**mdrinstora\ervlonstimenrhesmesirer>s0vc6ß)'$ frcb a phlbmedical in" -"i'iu" i**u" n"' an eco-nomicuie*poinr' bur not at the same site requhq rJ.""ä iiJ""tlt *"lal of the tea bush f;r a lons tim€ envionbenr' which dur ro rheman- a rcJd equihbdum tdeereeofinregration'*ilh rhe o,ucri*t'tnorpossible in hiShryefficienrphnLalionq "n"..enr pasr'Howwer' cuhlvadng ka in Shadein reathrough shad€l'ee' was 6mdon in rhe since rs hrgnerano full sunliehl or wG ,educedshadow is note 6tmon now vreld ir.."* tardr(se In tuia thebrsßr brahtlbobdsiüLnvdas)' (Heiqelnr t sp ) on rhe t l"*"r. ".l.it",1;t läom. "iii..rr. m . , he anackof lhe reamosquilo bug ha\e a lavouüorc orherhand, Iea;a faUingfmm shaderees(afling asa nuldenLpumP) diveßitv andpoPuranon i-"u"i tun"ii" rbesoil, whi'h is imFdantforlhe or root dises* and ;;''ä;;:;il;;"."""oq""i" and Äuna. spreadingano incidence speci€s diveßirv ,* i"'""*o lv a disrurbed-sil mi;roflora wirh a low "L".;J ml disease agonß and a low ppulation densilv of antagonisß to the fungal

a rumbei ofdisss6 and The hck of 4uilibrium with üe envircnmenLshows up h ft€ loiS ständtngüme or Desrs.lhe declinediseases bei ng an impodanl dheas 8rcup sPßading lrcm one DusnIo ihe lea bushesß favoudng slow dev.loPrng rcol diseases du€ to rhse drsedes ,"ornq tv rcor conucr. n rime. big dead parchesor cl'dings ka beside5blisrer I"in. rne mosiimpnant fungn atsedes ot ""'."' ni.ntorteavei."r""m^ are roor tneses Clable2)

2 Oe€nleq teä dßeas6 ne SincetheleavesäteftehaflstPrcductinlea,leafdisesesphvanimPoeilrole in ßq folowed bv the .""ii.*iL", at** &ne th; blster blight Crable1) found woddd;e p'eseot rcot diseas (Tabl€ 2 and S@don 2 1)'

u""o'" tou""t' t"tniv The intomarion in Tabls I and 2 hs beenEompüed tot wänei & Hotilmss (roar' sji''"*"ü,'ii;jtr' t;"; rro7o): semansun {re8r): rnveru anorctrvra andsupplrnenledbyrheauthotsexPedentr inJava inviernam

I woildTetprductionws2g6l mnddcbE in 1993 ftbl€ li kafand srem diseGesoltsa

Cldsl rient & geogryphlg

htusiliuü rdaß M.e. Fißr, pah ycllow taduccnr (Basidiomyerh., Usromycda spoß, thei ctcular blßre6or hil unddsidc. frci whilc vclv.ly aid

Coabi@ tuhnEa C. ilt@n kar6and r{iEs rum browi. (E) Deäd leava ile hrnginSon rhii thaads fton rh. b6nch6. U.d.r hunidcondlionsinrhcropiß Aphyllophoral6, Contbccic).

rerctic leatl6ions. In rhe ccite of oldü spoß blrck f toning b&i6 (acefrtrli). M6rly dhcbwe,k or

CqAaturus pa.asnicß Kiß Rd film covring lcav.slid

coilictoil illnoricolot B.rk. & Piik casr oi lwigaid branchcs. Thcpodion abovc rhc bmiches (D) di6off,trd caüs dieb?ck. ünder &hyllophonlq Coiljciacac). humid condirions in rhc roDi6

Brporybn yrpe"s lPts, ex Ft.) St d6rkeiw@d wilhblackßh Aconycorina, Pyrenonycd6)

Ma.rdha eemta lPdcn) (E) '

araiches dis of f , FruiliiA bdics (Acomycoriia, Spha(hla) (pcilh.cia) pdect ton bä rk or (D) d.ad bEnch6 giviig a thomy

(E):Enelish, (D):Gemai, (Bl):Bah6atidonesia, (s):Spanßn R€gärdingleafdisases, lhe bl.ck blighror threadblight (coilbim invism)'rhep\nk di*as. (corticiun salnoaicolol) and alge on l@vs causins the'led ru$" (C?plaleüzs pdrarli.us), can be a severeprcblem in hunid climates.The blislor blighl is dßcusscd in delail in section2.2.

Aculedefolialion by theblack blighl is contolLedbypruningtho dfeclcd bushes,ald burning the shootson th€ spot. Plucking lea oflhe affecledlields onlv in dry wcaller avoidsdiseasetansmission.New grcwlh isprolccledwilh fDngicidcspavs(coppetor o€anicfunticides, seescction 2.2) C ilvÄu, isalso controlledby anlagonblson Ieat su;faces(phllloplane),such as thebacterium aacillrr!r/lß(BaRrraKURelal, 1993)' which m;y prcvide a biological contol agent for black rol. The 8rcy blighl can be contmlledloa greatexlentwith resßlanlvadelies,suchas IRB88 fiomYakubitavariely (),CP{ and ry-26 in SE-Asia, and 31/11 and 303/199 in Anca (Kenva) Red rüsi is contolled wilh fepealedcopperspays and resistantclons (nl7' ryI'ry24' n25, ry6, ry21(BamraKUR et. al- 1992).

Ndn. ail causot o|.nts o! r@t dßd4resr Sevenl fungal species. See Table-2

Econonic hpotun.e:-tuinsworlh (1950) calculalesthc lossinvolved with mot dß e6es, conchding that wilh a 1% loss ofbusbes,the los of the potenlialcrop expccled in the tenthveä!woüld be 107d.In ffica, rcot dßesesale the linitingfaclor ofthc tea Drcduclion in many counhies. In Kenya, loses DP lo 50% of lea bushesoccured rONs^NDoet al.. 1991.

The generäl symploms ol rcol diseasesis a dieback of 1wi8s and branchd of the bushcs. and; wilt olthe sodlings. ln lea the fi6t symplomofrcot dbeasesis dl1in8, which ß not alwayscleadyvisible, andshowsup fh$ at noon-fren com6 suddenveltowjn8or brcnzins ofleaves. followed by dieback(tip otbranchesbegin ro dic), which can also show uD as a suddendeath of the whole bush. A chanciedstic olroot dkeasesß thc suddenappearance ofsynploms. Mostoflhc tu.gal diebackdiseases (with exemplioi of rhc scedljig dieäseJ ndre 61 incubalionperiod oimore lhdn one year mearing lhr il bke' more rhanone )ear ftom inftclion ro symPlome\plesriun

Followinglhe fi$ synptom ofdieback(wiltins, bmizins. ycllowins. ordvins oftip ol branches),tbe reabushisblled in ärelatively shodtime frishamensdPecially in the dderseason,in which waler musbe süppliedal a highct late to theleavesby the rool and va$ular systcn. baves and lwigswilt fist and die thereaftcriflhe waler supPly nte isreduced,andwaterdemand ishigh, duelolowaihumidilv andhightempclature RdDced walersupplynay be eitherduelo aüdtcdüptake abiliy oftheronen rcols, ol to a reducedcapacity oflhe lascDlarsy$en, blockedby the diebacktligus.

t7 Table ? : Seriols r@l dhed6 ot ret

Ganonena pkunaknam Wih of fu plänr and dicb.cl. (wrkct) van Ovcnld srcirmi c.

my.erjun which larc. ruhs Ed, Hyncnonyerci, Aphytldlhonhs, whtch soil adheres Ror pile brcwn änd ha!4 lalcr palc bufi

Rool sudae whie stscklcd wlh (Baidiontcorüi, Anhyllophohtes, myerür $mnds. %esclur. inroa (D) Polypomcc,c). Aßo 6,ddr,,a sn@ih shcct h.rdeningido plar6 pkudaßnean (se. ^hövq, or roFs or rcd colour Acy show uP wrh scmpi4orwßhins

Ror ofm! and defr bße, bhck A bud.s (ack.d lroono) sac. ]ddiklourätion. Mril. (D) (A.onycorina. Pyrciofr ycds, mycera otr r@ßj hrrsEyro

Uirüra de6rr (Horrm.) Lindj No sutrac. mycdium. U.der bork of mrs vhilc laniikc pdches. (asmhycotii., Pyrnomycer6,

ircgulardoübb lines. Wid. fiod

La si o d k t d tu t he o bra k a e (P ^t.) Dieb.ck. R@r lid sem.bße rot Blackeicd vöcuh 6ys. m aid (D) 8dttadqlodia lteobt noe P^1.) black disolouft rion of Md. (Deureomycorina. coclonyccbs) hiac nümbrofhcr plmß

y Amt ta ile ila neilea 4il. tu. (syn. Suddci broyniie of lcav6. Roor spllriig whne myelhl mar (Baidionycoriq Hymenonycd.s, und*rhe be* ofdcn basc and Agdjcal6). Scvcre ii Aticä and

RiE@ülß liqnüß t{abcn) 0hizomopntor rcor. Reß H yh.nomyc.rs, Aphyl tophont€, rotrcn aid whilc. Livingwmd ebb 2 torli!üed): Sedous ool diseases oi lea

a

Prclhd ,,r,,s (Grnco cunn. ^dhercnceof acrus oreanh and gnv.l rclndlhe.ninc mt. whilc (B6idiomyoti n a, apnylophon lcs, or btuwn nycelium undei rhe Hynenoch.etaceae),akica, SE

Rhhaetarid tutati.ok F !6.) S@dtinpwilr ind dtback, wide bllch'{E) ho$ Enge. Soil iih,6iiing lungi ^sonomycet6)r tlcomoPh pr&nbly Ton ate il o na. rc u n. r it (B6idi omycoti na, Hy menonycdes)

Sedliis wil aiddieb,ck. (Deuieomymrin., HyphomyeG) Pantopical, wide ho$ nn8(

(Amnycorina, Hytomaleq

(E): Enslhh. (G): Ceman, (BI)r BahßaIndonesü, (s): Spa.kh,

Biologl

Mos ofthe rcot roting fungbelong 1oth€subdivßion bsidionycotina and the re$ to the asconyotina, exempting Lasiadiplodia theoblofrae and Fusariun oxvvotun lthe laner not lisled in Table 2), which bclons to the deDleromy6tina (fungi imperfecti), lachng characlerblicvßible fruiting bodies.The bestway to idenlifv thecausäl agenls oflhe rcol and/orwood rcl is by the fruiting bodi€sr.Unfodunarelv thde ofien appea' when the busbk a[eady dead,or aficrincubationofsanpl4with symplomsrn a motst chanber(plaslicbag). But,6 describedin Table2, the individual frngal rco1rotsPe- cies,can be recognisedofie. by thesymploms onthe rools and in lhe wood Clable2). Idenlificationbasedon eure culuresislated flomdiseasedthsue, isr€@dnended and n€ce$a.y wilh füngibelonginglo the subdivisiondeuteromycolina The lungal disease agenßoflool diebackhave a wide hosi rangeon rooß ofwooden Planß and arc ftcul tative soil patho8ens,meaning that they can suNive in soil wilhoul a hostPlanl.

In soil, olher soil inhabiLingmicrc-oßanisms keep the population of thc facullalite pathogenslow.ahigherdivelsjty and populationdensily olthesaprophvticsoil nicro- o€anßm will rcducethe populationofth€ facullalile pathogensa@ordingly' hereby

The otrly Eliable way öf i&ilifyine lungil stscies is wih Eonony by rrunin8 hdi6 lowerjnglhe chanceofthc iacultativepalhogensto arack healthyreabushes. However facullative root pathoSenshave vely favounble Brcwlh @nditions on loor and wood icsiduesin lhe soil, remainingfron fomer beesand bushesofthe sire.These rcsidues give nse to locally high ppulationsofthelaculativepathogcns, meaninga high inocu- lum dcisily. On suchsiles lhe fäcultative.oot pathogenscan casily artackhealthy rools

Workingon djagnosticandepideniology ofrool rcron newly plantedcofee. ctrus and mango in Cenral herica (Asa Rica. NicaraSDa,El Satvador)al altudes up b 8m m, rheaüthorfound thatdieback by blackrcot rcr (nrre&irh sp.)on coffee.and diplodia rcaIrnt(Lasiadiplodia theob,räd.) on cihusand mango,oiginated invariablyrhrough contacrwirb buqiedresidualwoodorrools(nosdywilh visible mycelia).In olderof lee planlalions,infecrion occuned th.ough the growrh ofmyceüa or rhizonoryhs frcm lools ofinfocled neighbouringcoffeebushes. Frequenl downhill spreadofrhe disease in up ros-year old coffec,may be duc to inoculun(mycelia, spores?)spread bywalc! (LEHMANN-DANZrNaER,19S,1997). Dieback on rubber(Hevea bmsitiehsß\,al^cked by the black rcotrot (Rose/lhtusp.)in Soulh klimanran (tndonesiä),wasalso due 10 root contactwirh wood debrh. AII rhesecases had, besideswood and roofesidues in lhe soil. other featuresin connon: Soib with low pH, low conlentofolganic matter, and prcvious clcaring ftom mole or les degaded foresß. A dGequitibrium wilh the envüonmentanilor, in the c^sc afHyporylon seryeils,woundedsr€ds, ale ako in lca responsiblctor arrackby stem canker causedby fungi stchsMocrcphoha theicola andH. seryens.bw otgänlcnatter lcadsto low diversiryand densily ofofsoil nicrc organisms,meaiing a desequilibilumof the soil cnvionDenl.

A good exampletor a desequilibriumofthe €nvionbentcaDsing dßeases,are the cork oak: The Mamorafor€$in Morocco iscomposedof6rkoah (Ore.cüssürel) as lhe dominant species.Wirhin the pa$ decadesrhis forest has bccn overgrzed seveietn damagingandsressif,g theoakand hinderingrhe renewät oithe fore$_fte lesun was overaging of the cork oak popülation.ftese o*swere sevelelyauacked by rhe char- ca^t dise se (Hypryloa nedileza,eü4 Ascomy@rina: Sphaedats), causins srem cankerand kiuing an appreciabtenumbc!. nedeadwoodwas rhencolo.Led by soiL borne sdprophytic and facultalive päthogenic wood de@yinE ilngl Hetercbasidion annostn, Amillariella nelled and lhe propaguls ofthese fungi a6unulated in thc soil. As ä rsull newly planted ä.acias ( noilissina) on pail of the fomer forest, were altackedso heavily by root rot, that after4 y€arsover5070 ofthe rees häd died (LUTMANN-DaNZ|NaER,1986).Sinilarhigh losss occurredin K€nyaon iea anackedby Armillada root !ot, lransbittedby buftiedwood ormol reddues(ONssDoetal.,1997).

From lhe bioiogy and epidedology ofroot diseasesso plevenriveconrol srnt€gies encrgc: Fist, lemoval ofilunps, othe. wood rsidues and largeroorsofwoody planß &om the soil prior to planling. nis apptiesaho lo shadow rees removed fron rhe m plantalion-Thesecondstmtegyßincreasing lhediveßny and popülaliondensity oflhe soil micmflora, by augmentinglhe orgänicmattÜoithe soil eithel wilh greennanurc, wi(h appropriateshadowhees, orby addingorganic manurc such dconpost. Woody plant residuesshouldbe derrcyedby bulningorburying thembeyond rcach olrools in

&nrolling lho rool and dicbackdiseases appeadog in the plantalionis done bv fißl removin8 the diseded bush and all neighboudtrgtea bushestogelher with thei rcots and d€skoyinglhem by builing ot bürying then oußide the plantation.Replanting is possibleonly after a lwo year fallow with non ho$ planls,such as gnss lf afler lwo yeaß rhele are $ill applcciablewood residuesremaining in thesoil, a one v€ar trea! menl of the repiantedtoa bDshesdth systemicfungicides is rconmended Suilabl€ syeemic tungicidesare theBroupofdemelhylation inhibiloB(DMD4, suchas biiertanol, flusilEole, propi@nazolc,penconazole, hexaconazole andotheß, and in theSloup of moeholines tidemoryhr. In Sri hnka good rcsullshave been obtained by dreoching sysienic fungbides in 3-4 monlh intenals for a pedod of one vear (ARULPRAG^S^M' 1987).Applyins fungicidesofthe samegrcup consecutivelvshoüld be avoideds ro notpromoteresislanceofthefungusagdnstthefungicideThetwoyearwaitingpedod can be shonenedto one monlh, ifsoil fumiganß are aPPlied.The disadvantageofthe availablc soil fumiganß. süch as chloropicd. (ieargs), lhe.ow bannedmethyl brc' nide, and fomatin (formäldehyde),is thä1lhey are atherexpensive (exenpling for_ mäldchyde),thalcoveringofthesite with a pla$icsheetis necessaryand thatthev have to be appliedwith the nec€ssaryPlecaulion as not b ham thePersonnelinvolved FoF mald€hyde is not as effective as methyl bromide. However il is lss cos& easier to gas apply and a Sood fumiganlwhen realed sudacesorproducts arewet ll actsin lhc phaseand cons as aliquid with 3670or40% formddehyde fte doseforsil funiga- tion is 1.5 lites of a 4070prcdüct for each10 n' Application h by diluling the formal dehydein walerand thensPraying itwith a can over thesoil. AfieNards s€alingdth a DlasticshoetforT? hoursis necessary(LEHMANN'DaNZjNGER, 1994) Following runiga- iion awailine timcof3 weebshould beobscfled, beforerepläntins ln anv caseappü- calion oforga.ic manüre(conpo*) ß recommendedbefore replantinS

2.2 BtbterbliqhtoJtea

Nane of the dis.6e: Rlister bliSht (E), cac& teh (BI), queda de ampolla (s), Blasenbm.d(G).

Cdrsdtdgerr: Exobdidun vexans

a ftc mde of .ction of .he DMMS inhibilion of nerol biGynrhesb I For an dcflicw ad u lppli.ation orGnled d*ctiprion of fungicidd se LHrMN_DszNc'r, 194 4 &räiled &siprior or ton8icida ß given by LYe 195 Geotruphic dNibulon Lndian sDbontinent, sourh-easr tuia and east Asia.

E.onmic inptunce:bsses due ro blister blight ext€ndup ro 43% on annualcrcp basis.Heavy afiackcan Hult in deathofthe whole plant. Even wjth fun8icide ontrol 11.37oyield lossesoccurin Srihnka, during thepeakattact at th€ altiludinal lange ot 1500m - <1800 m (FuGs, 1989).

Stnltonsr Symptomsappea. fi61 on young leavesand later on lhe older leaves,but only young ieavescan be infected. Fist, pale yellow hanslucef,lspots appear,then ctcular blßloßon the leafundeßid€ wilb a darkg€en wateßoakedzone around.Fi nally the blisterbe@mcswhite and velvely (sporerelede). Followins sFrulation, lhe blßter lums inlo a circular brcwn spt. Inlected yoüng stens are bent, disroilod or gndlod and may bre* offand die.

ßfblosf The causal asent Ercbasüiln vdans Massee belongs to lhe division Bsidiony@linä, class Hynenomyceles, and here in lhe order Exobdidiales of the subclas Holobasidiomycetidae.Thefißlsymptoms appearfollowing a 9,10 day incu- balion pedod.This peiod stadswith the anival ofthe sporeson the teaf(inocllation). Thefintsymplomsare furegula.paleyellow tmnJucenl (waleMäked) spoßwhich are cleady disdnguishableonthoundeßideofyoungleav6. Fotlowing 16 daysafrerinocu- lalion thespoß be6me cicular andthe epidemis at rhe@nrer be@mes indenred, foming a blßter on the ündedde of th€ leal Al 18-20 days after inoculärion,lhe blßtÜ be- emes fißt grey and rhen tums white and velvery. Herc rhe lower epidemis of lhe blisrerß rupturedandspore bearins uprisht filamenß (4-spo!edbasidia)appeär. Ripe sporesäre ejectedwilh force frcm the basidia(caDD, 1949) and the lesion sporulares lbr about 1 week. hle! on, the blisteß turn brcwn a.d bfeak uD.fte lesions aoDear tnenäscrcuhr spß wih a dark b'owf cenfie suilourded by a lüh brown (an/r;ne. The sporesare lhin walled, susceptibleto desiccation,and dtect sunlight.frerefore lhey @n suNive only a shorttime in dry an, and spreadof the diseaseß difficult in the dry seaon. Suriving of8 rsars in thedry seasonis prcbably wirh imnarule lesions on leaves prctecred frcm dhect sunshne.

Epidafüolry: The blistet blighr was fhst reported ton the ßan valley in 1868, at tbcbo.derb Myanmr,whereit6usedliledanage.fren itspreadin lS8toDarjeeling and fromtherein 1946tosolth Indiaand Sdkn!a. Ilalso aDDealedinl9l2inJaDan and 1930in Viernam.In l9a9 Lhebliste! bligh(jumped over l; Sumakaand liom rhele in 1950to neighboDdngJava(). Nowitisendedcrhroughour nosrlea-Blow- ingareasotAsia,wbereilhas reachedepidemicpropodions. I hasnolbeen repodedin {dca o! hedcä- How spreadinso@Dred in lndia and Aia still r€mainsan unre- solvedprcblem- On opinion ofthe autho! this nüs! havehappened by leaveswith io, maturelesions, probably wilh tanspon of tea seedtings.

Depending on clinatic ondifons, the full reproduction cycle (frcm inocularion and infection to rcleaseof spores)ofÄ r4aß vades fron 16 to 25 days. The disease n occurs mainly in lhe rainy seasn. 60l, moist, slill air favouF infections, as do higher elevalions.A@rdins ro FucHs(1989), nore than 4-5 hoüs ofsunshine/daykeeps ats bckbelow dang$level. In Sdknta severeattackofblisterbliEhto€u.smainlyabove ffin ofaltilude, üth the most heaviestatack at 1500m ' <1800 m. A similarshäryly iicreding incidenceof the yellow Sigatokä6,a bananaand planbin leäf dise6e, oc- cured in theAnd* mounlainrange?al >m-<1&0m,wilh apeak al 1100m(kHMANN DaNzrNaER,1987). In this dliludinal Engo @ndensingai leadsto frcquenl fo8, high hunidity, and drjzlinS €in. Theseconditions lead lo a dnmalic decreae ofsunshine and allogether favour fungal leaf discass and, at thc sme lhe, lower the dßease red$_ ancein cropsnot adaptedtotheenvircnment. nis beinglbe casewilh teaandbananay plantains.Tea culivaled in the abovennge ofaltilude in suth heriü is atr@led by loscs due to dßeases.soch as alSao,Srey blight and Pink dßease.However, ifblßter blighr h inroducdrherc, lo$es aregojnglobevery heavy.

SuaHA(1997) found lhar blister blighl was enhaacodby the ninimum and avenge lemperalures and the r€lalive hunidit, but was negalively influenced by lhe average mif,rall or houß ofsuhshine. SuNival of the füngusin the offse6on was on necrolic blkleß. fte dheasoappeared ther (end ofMay in Hhachal Pradesh,India) on volun- r€erlea seedlingsundernotherbushes, and here th. inoculum forinfection in lhe fol lowinswel seasonwas certainlybuildup. On opinion oflheaulhorofthe prcsenlpape!, g ma6suilives lhe dryseasonwilh dow develoPingordomantimmaturotesions, which can develop fü(her and sporulatewhen favourabl€envhonmentd $ndilions

glßterblightß moresedoüs in plantsr4overing fiom pruning,since lhey aredebili bted and have dainly youngleavs.frh susceptibletstiod Day extendupto2yeaß after pruning. Pruning in ihe dry sson avoids alhck of the exkemely susePtible lav6 in the fißt pe.iod oflc@very. OfcouN dry-weatherpruning debysrecovery andDav cause sun'srch of the stems (tue) and n*e rhed susePdble b slem cante6 (eused by Hypqlon and Macrcphona) and insd Pests fte roDedy to this drawback is pro' lidingshade duingrhe dry seson, which nay be reduced(by pruning) afteMards in the ainyseason, in otderlo reduceblisterbiightincidence.tualte.nälivebPruninglea in thewel sason a.dlrol€ct lhe bushfrcm blisterblighi wilh systemicfungicides Gee

Corhorr The most impotunt factor contdbuting to the ircidence and severity ofbüsler blight is, bsides tempemture, humidily. Therefore the main atack on tea is in the Ei nv season.Newer lea ctons. suchd GMB-1, CMB-2 and GMB_3 show soD€ resßEnce to tbedisdeincodpafrson to olderclonesGru20S). OonePSl ishighly r6ßbntin Indonesia(MAmupoNo,1991). ne rdhtance ransducd to a low.rcontrcl lovel ütb

{hs c.!s.l !s.nr of rhe yelrow sbtokt ni*$. b Mt@üdh fria.6ü (Ashyftrin4 'The suRcy wäs @ndlcrd ir v.nouct., Gtombia, Perud Bolivia fbm which s. lalcr No hid t.a fungicides,or evonwith no fungicide contol.Therefole nole altcition sbouldbe paid lo rsistaice again$ blßter blight vhen planting l€a al higher altilud€sand bleeding

Lighl pruningonly in dry weather(addressedabove) and reduclionorremoval ofshade asistcontiolwith tongbids.The nain $Ftegyof@nbol isp@v€ntionfmm infection. A semnd srategy is to stad the wel seasonwlh an inoculum as low as po$ible and suppres sporulation of the fungus. The tea teäves are bädiüonally prctected fiom in- fection oft rdans by applicationot coppeFoxichloridea( 159 a.i./ha,or ät higher @ncenkation after pruning. Since only the young leavesand tenderlwigs can be in- fectedby lhe fungus, only lhese have to be splayedwilh the fungicide.fre layer of copper on lhe leaves will hll th€ germinating spore of t vaans. Howeve!, thß Prclec- ljon h sonelines nolenough dudng lhe rainy season.Here, cupric oxidd give beter resulls.Nickel chlodde issupedorlo copperfüngicides, since i1 has acuntive aclion. To contrcl the blisle! blighl in India, a nixtur€ ofmpper fungicideand nickel chloride isspmyedat7-l0dayinleNals throughoutthe ninyseason. Howeler,coperfungicides stimDlalethe increöe of the popülalion of tea miles, especiallylhe scarlel 1eamile (Tenuipalpidae),which is themain Fsloftcägrown atäxiludsbelow 1{0m, andalso the puryle mite and pin! mile, belonginSto the family Eibphyidäe (Table3).

An dlehalive 1oopper fungicides are th€ w€ll €stablished proteclive organic fungicides which are Glixino (a. i. tidemorph){, and Sicarolo (a. i. pyracarbolid)q.ftese are appliedalconsiderablylowefdossat 14dayinlenalsanddo nolseem toenhancethe muXiplicalionof miles. A disadvantageofpiraparbolid is lhal it enhancd the popula' tion of the mosquiro bug (&Iryekb spp.) (Table 3). A cu.adve effect is repoted for tidemoryh, meaninglhal itcan stopfudherdevelopmentofnon sFrulatinglesionslo sFrulating losions (see "bioloSy"), another advetago is that it does not stimulate dtes. A disadvairage,ar lest wilh Calixins, is thar it can be npidly w6hed ofby heavy rainfdldudnglhemonsoon.fterefore rhis fungicideshould be appliedst 14 day inter vals during the beginning of the rainy season(2-3 alplicalions), 10 lower the spole inoculun, and the endoftherainy season(3'4 applietion9,1o keeptbe milepopula- lion down before the $aning dry sea$n (Vstra tuM, 1980). A curative eff€cl is achiei"ed by the newe. (and more expensive) srcup of orsanic funsicides wilh sysemic action in lhe plant, and belonginglo thegrcupoflhe benzimidäzolefungicides, espe- cially Benlate@(a.i. bcnomyl), and 1o the demolhylationinhibitols (DMI), especiälly Bayletone (a.i. tnadimefon),Tilto (a.i. prcpiconazole)and Anvilo(a-i. bexaonazole) which can be applicd up to 21 day iireflah. Th6e can aho be mixed with copper orychlonde. Bein8systeEic,lhese fDngicidescannotbewashed offby heavy!air, pro- viding lhal there b enoughlime ior peneualionbeiore rainfall afler appljcation.fte culativet cahent is impotanl to reducethc sporeinoculum by slppressingsporularion

ß a. i. = ictiv. iryftdi.nt of th! commcrcirl phdud , ryßotulid ß no lonaer manuf.crürcd or nlrkdcd aNding ro Tomlin Gd.), 199? u (by stoppinglesiondevelopmen0, when contrcl ß notpssible wilh the availableprc- tcctivo fungicides-ftß ß the casewhen the inoculumoriginalesfmn h€avilv infeiled diseasenesis ("hol spols)in lhe plantalion,lh6e shouldlhen be teatedscleclivelvwith curativeiungicides. Selectively tcatingonly the hol sFbis an alternativeto treatnent of the enlire lea plantalion,ildisease incidenceis nol too hiSh (for in$ancc aLlowcr allilldcs). This siFlegy would hale lessinpact on beieficial cntooopathogenicfungi in conpaison to a broad applicationof coPperor olhct fungicidesin thc plantation' Cenelally,lhc copperfungicides lequüc aPPlicationat lalher hiSh dosesin comPai'son to organic non syslemic fungicidesand organicsv$emic iungicides APplvingcoPpcr iungicidcsfrequendy rcsuhs in accumulalionofcopperin lhc soil which, al highe! con_ mar .cnüations, bccomesPhytoloxic, especiallt in soils with a low cont€nlot organrc

Setring up a diseäseforccast modcl fot bli$cr bliBht should be p$iblc by relaling bio.linale to discasedevelopnent Bioclinale includesconlinuous measurcmenß (at the height olthe tea bushes)oflemperature, r€latjvc huniditl leafwetnes sunshtne and 'ai;fall. Disede developnentincludeslcsion densilv,sPoredensitv in rhe aii and follow-up of lesion development.Encoutaging resulls have bcen achievedbv Sugha (1997) (seeepidemiolosy). Havins scl up rhc toreca$ nodel, blßr€r bliSht severnv fo.eca$ shoDldbe possibleby Deasuringonly the rclevanlpanmeleß aor.turrbr: Conrolling blßrer b|ghral higheralriudes In chmareswrma rrong ain) and lhe seasonß not F$iblewilbout fungicidcs.However, lhe nlmbe'ofäPplications anount of the applied fungicide can be lowered, as shown above.A prcblem ß lhat pesß are encoür;ged,mainly mites,by lhe sPravcdtun8icides E hancebent of mites ian be rcducedo! abolishedbv thoseleclionsofnoninlerferine fungicides' and applica- uo" or ruPrcus fungicidesonl) in lhe middk ofLhe rdlv season.when mie\ arc nol active.The oullined integ.atedcontml $rategy could fÜdhef reduce or evcn abolish fungicide residuesin iea.

3 Oveniewoftea pests

An ovoniew of the main aninal pesb (pe$s) of tea is Siven in lablo 3 and lable 4 Natural enemiesin Asia are lisled in Table 4. fre inlornaLion i. Tables3 and 4 has beenrmmpiled fiomvdoussourcs, mdnly Hainswoilh,E (1952)ikishna &weesne! (1970); Eden (1976); Das (1974); Sama (1979)j Kaishoven& Van der hn (1981)i Dharmadi(1988)i andMuraleedharan(1992). änd supplemenledbvrhe aüthorsexpe- nence i. Jäva(lndonesia),Melnamänd Peru(South America).

Fron thc pe$s ii lhe overvieq phytophagousmiles are considePd one ot lhe nost liniing factorsin tcä poduclion- The sccondmost dänaging pesß arc theäelryeliJ bugs,which arealso of ecodomicimpotanc€ in Aldca The thbd mos impodanl group ol pe$s, lßled in lable 4, ä!e leaf feeding cateryillaß of lhe iePidopteraordel here ftble3: hpodanl pests oftea

&iodfic nsn€, oder dd fadl] Sydpbm, p!frotpl.il lndr g@gmpüic dbtdDüalon

Helrydri dorr?dati Rent., E afiicz: H Brcwn centcd black lesiors otophih Ch6q., W-Africa. (Hcldöptcßl folldmd by hölci ii rh. lcavcs

H d i op., k a nb n i 1 sl cnot e1 (Hctcroprc6: Mnida.). Sri hnka, lndia, caussrcn cankc!wilh black Indonesh- viern.m. Oeuß tom 200 ro ftc mcqriobue (probably tt. t ap e Lß ü. iv o I d \| ^teth.lse HeloFrirsf.) h äßo prc$n! in (H3rcrcpr3ra:Mnidie). sd knka. hdh,

B Eü p a kts p h a. n i ei s @ijsrcs Arack ofEä früsha ard leaves, .arky.rca on baf ünd.ßides, kavsdryup. Akck bclop l{0

cal.atus.at ütahß Gre.n, \knin l Eriophyidao. Si knki, lndia, lndon4i{

Pat phqola|tu4nß htu (sy^

Potrtorsonenß h|ß) lAain : orheNis dßbned, co*ybrcwn Tdranych ida., Ta 6onco idrc) aEabctwcen main v!ins oi lcaf

ot4on!üß eolleoe Nnrnü Yellowßh-brcwn, rusy or puQle di3colo!€tion of lc!v6. Fully pnclically wond'wid., tropic dcvelooed leav6 aß n6rly

Baigläd*h, rddia, Malaysi?, rndoiesia,

bni ftd ro violer bDwn. oien (kridopr.Bi cNidä.) India, si knkd qilh ycllowish inCs. hft hft Table 3 iconlinrcd): hpoilanl pesls ot tca

Scientific name, odor and tdmilY SymptoDtpart ofPlant

G A pbt.tn.s dihtatus BrE. & PaP, Pa re ]?enote, tles nitila I b lDcs) \tsapteÄ Colo.ißir rhcttrncrsion Brcediru.nd.olonYmnnknaicc

M ictoc üotu il 6 spp., \ts601ct1: rdhilidrc) rünsivotuuskmres hd'!,

Nes ii thcsmüid. ^nack orro. (kopeu: ltrmnid.d. Iidon*d, Milavsß,

Dicbick. shoor x!$üus foilidtu' Gnh.t9 Auackof ncns

xyhbdnß,ioris.tr,J (ßlanrord). Iidona'a

sdenallti ilme Nslühl eneniß Pdent or ter &

kdil pardilold tdcr@errrrr rd,nae (Hym.: Bß@nidre). lnrrcducedfrcm iavasücc6lully i. sri

EcraprBne astnptu st e il 0 il rd I a, Elanß hononae FYn : Ello?hllzc)t nNar"rd sp. (Hym.r Bdconidie)

C d I op I i I i a h e tu o n W ^l singn^n Aqilplaio idia lHyn.: Eubqnidze) A4hylrr /irüßra (HYn.: BethYlidao

Pr6iloid rachinid fl y on lsr and 2nd

Buun tupptertu (aran.) subcöntinenr,lndo.4h, Chin. lsyn. B ßto. suppt sario). lbq Iidiatr &omeridee). Froh Sri kika r. Irbl€4 (Contlnüed): Serious insd pesßofteaand.aturat enemies in Asia

N.tiiit diemles prereit on s.osraplic ihhrbütior

a ttn tlt(s t! | ta D. n tt \H ! n.:

B h.on kta.), c o 4 d ia rn nv t. z c n ilt k

Do.aa (Maü.rkdq)nüork

r.ntxt! ..ronit otrn : ßn.onirl,,

t/rkdnß sp. (Hyn : E0bpridtr)l

chqoddlb qPxdo(Naü.

rr.dior.de.n ok'.: Rduvirdr), ui'oddo srarn tuiatü! sr.lMza ManLd&). w*p (Hrn.: Dryiid*)

4rlliutrJ sp. (Hyn. ^PhLiide) (Hyn (H.niPrn sr'iorthyi.ra) Iriorlr sp. : Bn.on idr) sr4tß

xy, bonß toil x ilu' t lchatq

(iyn:Bilddiidr) ^dr,ü

chdk.i.qa\ c.t eti. ta.Nb no lD p

All lisledpsls,excepllbetcrsholhole borerand the lcd coffccboer,feedo. r€at€aves hp.=bpidoplen(morhs,builedhtiHlm.:Hymcnoprcla(wNitjDip.=Diplen(riet; Mxn.= Manrodca(pnyins nanridt (Blaropkiroftb)

Gromeftioae Limaodidae feed "nd mainly on marntenanceteaves. In Äne lhe mos- qtita boeHelopehk schouatunt is capablcof causingannual losses up to 557d(Rf- rAN,1992). Themain pestoftea inJava änd other legionsofsourh,ea$ tuia, fron4m- 1400 m allilDde.is A ,nrorti. The adult bug is only 5 mn long and at a first vieq rcsenblesa nosquilo'o,however it is a bug having 2 pafs ofwings and belongsto the

- ^ rflc mosquro has ody onc p,irofwiry and k ctGifrcd rhcrctorc in rhc odcrDiprra (fli6)

8 orde. Hetercptera.In the f.ame of inlegratedcontol a wide mige of measu!6 frave been applicd in Jäva 10 conrol the mosquilo bug (DMRMÄDI1990a, 1990b). These neasuiesincludeshodeningofthe pluckingcycle,.educing nilrcgen applicalion, prun- ing in lhc @rrcc1time, conhol ofbrcadlaved weeds,mechanical elinination ofbuSs wilh plucking, and use ofreleased nanlid predatoß (able 4). Applicalion ofinsecti cidcsbccoms necesarywhen the abovetechniquesare notsufficienllokeePlhe pcst betow the economicthresholdlerelofaadtltHelopeldsbugs/2 nr. This level reduces 78.757,ofthe leafprcduclioi wilhin 8 weeks.

Mosquilo bugshave been onrolled wilh theotga.o chlorineinseclicide ganna-HcH (y-tlclD (= ).Nowadays the pyrcthrcid insedicide qpemethnn andpemelhdn (Anbush6, Toeedoo). organo-phosphofousinssricides fenitothion (Sumnhion@. Fohhion@), and formothion (Anthio@) &c prefe'red. However, fomolhion sumulates rhe$ailet nite (DHARMADT,1988). A $udy by Deka er al. (1998) found lhar planl ex- neß ot pone m (Ponsdnia prßaq andwttdsaee (Lanbna c@-dra) have antifeedanl and rcpellenleffectson the teamosquitobugä tneirol.. Teashooßsprayedwilh a 57, chloloform exhacl ofP ,torar4 showod o.ly 43 spoß on tcs leav6 calsed by lea mosqDirobu8, in compai$n to the Dnlrealedcon!rcI wilh 653 sPls 72 houß aler teatment.ftisfindingshows thatan intograledconlrolofmosquitobugs nay befcasi ble by.eplacidg insecticideswilhplanl exhacß.The fuilherdescriptionand discüssion ot lhe mosquitobug might be dcsitablchere, but bu$ bc postPonedin favour ofan in deprhheahent oflhe mile prcblen in tea.

The naturalenemi€s of lhe lepidoptcan pess in leä areParasitoid$' belonging eilher 10 lhe order hymenopiera(wasps), or dipten (ffies)(table a). This opensthe possibility for contol of thelepidopteran peils seleclivelywilh insecticidesatrecling only , suchas the Eacillus thilthg&nrA (8.t.) bsod inssticids. B t insccticideshave thc advanlageofnol leaving residueson lea. ifapplied prcpedy.

F.on lhe phytophagousniles, the scailctnite ß consideredone oflhe nost damaging and no$ difficult to contrcl. n ß dealt with in a separates&tion. Mils are aclive dudns dry weather In soülh India 4roundsofsplaying acadcideswererhe nininub for biie contrcl. Severeinlesations reqube oven 6 applications(SaRMA, 1979). The acaricidesusedon teaworldüde areusually theorganophosphorcusinseclicide'äcari cide dimelhoate,and theorgänochloine acaricide-ins@licidedicofol (se abo Table 7). Both arebroad spstum acaridesinseclides,meani.S thal they hll othe! mles and aho insecß bsides lhe target nle. freretore most of the natual enemiesof miles (Iable 5) and tho other insecl pesrs(Tabl.4) oflhe l€a are hled by broad sPctrum jnsecticidetacadcides,which plomotesdamageofteaby theother insectpesb which arcnomally antrclled by naluralen€Dies (ftble a). Sama (1979)repoiled that Prcda-

L'P.rciloidnanarimal(in$a)rharftc&andliv.sforälonerim.inoron!rcrhe'livingminil(h6r iec9, coßunin8 ,ll or ndn of ib üsus d cven!üolly *illidg il.

29 tor popuiationstendcd lo declinealer only one spmy olrhe o€anochlodnc ins€cricide chlorobenzilarerr,and neady dhappcaredafier severalsprays.

Phytophagousmites have a nunbe! ofnalural eicnies listed in Table 5, which under "normal"conditions(without thelseofpesicidet coiüol thesenileson lea.The tungi

ftble 5: Naluralenemies ofphytophaeous (ires on rcr in India

f.dly

rtphtad| akß \ n1bI|:eLß)

'ftddory nil* lmm diflücir

Neurcptmr Coniopreryeid?c

Hntutelh 1, Penrcilhrn sP., Aspct girß sp., c hdospatiu,l

Dara mainl] from Srma (1979)

; ncinscricidcchroobcnzilarhsscnrcmovcdtnmrhcmarkcrpta@hrheusAtn1939.rjdrhe reENharionwÄstrspetrdcd in Cümrny. Now chtorubcnzitab h6 becn rcphd in rea by ilE or$iÖ pbosphorcusinsdicide rchldryhon (Diplercx@)

3A acting as enlomopalhogens (Table 5) src, wilh the exception of Atslklla, not specilic entomopatho8ens,but havebeen repeatedly isohted ftom deadphytoPhagous mil6 on lca. ftese and otherfungi cedainly play an imponant lole in reducingthemite popula- lion in humid weathei The numerousptodacjoüs naiunl enemid of niles Ihled in Table5and 8show thatlh6e, logethe!with thclisLedpalhosonicfungi,shoutdbcable b kcep the mite populationbelowthe econodc thresholdlevei ft seemsthrt this was rhe casebeiole indiscrininale use ofinsslicides in teabecaüsc. bcfore thß tine and accordingto a numberofauthoß, phylophaSousmilcs havenever been a sedouspiob- lem on tea. Olcouße. fungi are contolled by füngicidg. So when unspccificbtoad actionfungicid6, suchascopperbasedprcducß, are applied to contol theblßlerblighl disease,the fungi acling as natual enemiesarc also kill€d. ftis eitccl has beenwell docunenled in soulh India (S^RMA.1979), whe€ the useofresidual coPperspays has increased th€ incidenc€ ol the red spidct mit€ (Ol€orlclüs calleae) on tea, prcbably by killing tho natually occuiiing entomopalhogenousfungi (dcscnbedin Table5) fr. t tnlte Guptotünes dikrotus Bügnion & Popof (Table 3) is a po$ of tea in Sn_ knka al middle altjtudes- below600 m (2m0 feel)- It hasabrcad hos raneeatacking alsocofieo. rubbet and ocoa. fte soldioß areralhersmaLl of7 mmtenglh and thefißt stagelaNa haslbe sidesofthe thoraxextendd inlo'winglike'pads. fte lemileexca_ vateslongiudinal gallerts and fom a .etwork ofcommunicaün8 tunneh, giving the wood a honeycomb appearancein a longiludi.al sectionof lhe nestin lhe stem Roots aß Rrelv alacked (kßHNA &WE$NER, 19?0).ft o temite Poielecttutemtes ]nilita^ (Desneux)(N@temes niLitd'rt is a pes oftea id Sßbnka al higher allitudesocclF inSchieflyat 12001o1&0m- Itd*royslhe teabusb,hollowingootlbeslem,branches, rooß and evenrcotleb.Thewinged temitestagegainsenhy inlo theplantthroDgh deäd snagsand wood ror cavities,which shouldapply also to Olptotetnesdilatatus Nest' ing occu6 jn the heanw@d. The ne$ häs no definite systemoflunnels and chambeß and the cavitis appea!as filled wilh eanh. ne final winged shge tak6 7 yeaß to developandasingle@lonymäyinhabjtateabushforover15years(BE6oN,1941).

3.1 Scorkt tea nü. (BreripalpuphoeDicis)

S.ientiJic none: Bwipalpus phoehicis (Acatiild: Tettunlchoituo, Tenuipdlpidae)

äod phrrs: Citrus (Cü!s spp.), tansdssion of citrus leprosjs dbease; tea (t ed); cofee (Calfed) tansnßsion ol rinsspot disqse; daG paln (Phaenb ddctilikra); rcse mdlow (flib!3.ar brd-rt'e4,tt prsston tuuir (Pasiflord edul,t and 63 other ho$ planrsenera (hrcHARD & BaKER,1958).

E.onomi. hptun.e:The*ailet teamile h one oflhe main Pels otlea in suth_easl Aia duling thosix-monthlongdry scason-lconstituts aserioDspestprcb1om in mo$ teapfoducingcounl.ies(lndia, Si Lanka,Bangladesh, lndonesia, Kenya, Malawiand Mauritius),whele it often causeslossof 1370ol Lheyield in 1ea.n€ injury and degrce ofinfestalion decreaseswithincreasingallitude oflhe teaplantalion, andß nüch Iower above1500 mofalaitude. Ilseems tharlfie mileprublemsale in someway relarcdlo the exlensiveuse ofpesticides. 6pper fungicides,rhich are applied1o tea to contol the blisterblight, simulatethescadel mile in tea(OoMEN, 1982). Also insccticides.which arc appliedloconholtheteabug(H. anlonii),simulaterhe scailetmile, cspcciallythe inseclicideAnthio" (a. i. fomolhion). ftis h ceflainly due lo lhe elininalion oilhe mile\ natlral enenis. Horbicidcsdcclcdc thc populationofthc mite. mon probably by killin8 secondaryhos planrsoflhe scadetnle (DH^RMAD|,r988).

The scadelmite a[acks theolder leaves(teamaintenanc€ leaveo, theipelio]es and the non lignifid twigs thrcughoulthe yeai ft€ mitesprefor to stayon thenain vcins oI the leafündeßide and crevices,especiallyon ihe leatbaseand petiob. nesepadsbecome cover€dwilh a necroticshade.Wilh heavy alacks thcreisbronzingon theteafunder side,lhen the leavesläil on Folowing dama8eto theleaves,:hemitesmigrate upward to youngerleaves. fre akck is h€avieron old reabushes (>50 yeaß) and debillatcd planß. Therefore,sone seclionsot a tea planlationmight show a more severeatack

The yellow tea milePo&arsotrerruslallsailäcks tea flushesin thcrainy season.ne nusbes get blown and nay di€ of Thc economic losss are similar to lhosc of the

ftble 6: Influenceol rheromFntore on rhedumrion of rhelife clcreollhe scailetmile

k

::1 tdrrd ß"i;.:

Adapted lion oomen (1982) iflpoilrng TableT: Aa.icid6 appliedro rea locoiltol mircs(basdon Eilriclionsoirca

'rcyhexilin (PLictran')h6becnrcmoledloß thcnarketplrcein theUSAasaconsequeice ol HFRA amcndfrent'sReregrishlion Data Reqüircmenls |,mdximud residlclinilfortea in Gcnanv (PcRKow&Pliss.1999) ',mrxifrun residuclinitinCemanli nolextraspeciiiedfor€a(Purrc* & Pr'ss 1999) !rroxiclyclasequivalcntroEPA(=EnvnonmenhlPr.tdionAgcncrUSA)

BiologJ

paPavi The scadctnite k plyPhago$ and hasmanv host phlls suchas lhe cirus and (seesccrionhostplants").Theadulof lhescad€tmjtcdeasußonlv028x0-16mm arc ted in ;nd is thcrcio'c difficult 10scc wirh the naked eve Adulß egss and lalvae

lhey fced and mainlain lhcmselveson the lcät undeside Thc dtc has tive stagcs whi;h arc lisled in Tablc 6. Thc eS and cbrvsalß $ages are imnobile and remai' 6 adhfied lo the leaf. The .eprodudb; ot the scadet mitc is Parthogcnetic'r-Table indicaresrhat the duiation oithe lifccvclc oflhe scailet mite is sho(ened bv a higher com_ anbient tenperalure.Thh meansthal nuiiiplicätion is taslerat lowerallitudcs' much iower intestation abov€ i50{rm ol tared lo higier altitudes This explainsthc atluoe. Tlc poputatlon usually increasesal lhe cnd of the dfy sea$n The avcragc splder mDltiplication;le (ale ol incrcase)is 0 061, wbich is far less than for olher

' Pild,ogcncsis: Rcpruduclion withod scxuil Foces (fcnihztion) tilte 8: Predrbß which pEy upoi rhe sadet nite BreyAab,r/@aüÄ in rndo.esia

Sdendfic mnid

Acania: f hyloseiidae(predatory miles) Anbtvseius deleoni Muna crD Ktrs lorEoeilsis seius ta na tavehsis Blonmcß setus w lneat A- ne$dni\

4nbtysetus z \ A. cotdatus)

4 slenus te nil L4a lis ou vle

Hemiptc.a: Anthocoddac wol Ia sr iüne I I a k sn tdo C a a\ 0n

(based on dätaofOoMeN, 1982, HAmrs, 1982, )

The economiclhr€shold ievel ofrhe scadetnite is 25 eggsor adulrsper leaf, which causca 137, yicld loss(OoMEN, 1982). To conrol lhe scarlermile most oflhe teapian, r^riarsndvc ro hc rea'edup lo.hreehes per rlh,heacadLides ti\led In Lbh )eJrs ". Aconhol basedon inregratedpe(managemenr(IpM) ß basedfirs1on asse$nenrsof thehlc damageor of üe mie populalion(if visible) dudng pldcking(hapesl) and thcn on lhe kealnent wtrh acaricidd ofthe hot spoß ofahe ptantarion,in which the damage or tnseclpopülalion h high. The acadcjdeslßred in Täble ? are avdlable fo! @nüol of lhc scarlcl milc on lea. Suryftingly the pyrethroidinsecticide acadcide pemethrin'r and the tungicidesmancozeb and näneb ale aho toxic 10 the scädetinile. reducine rgnrticrfrly thrir

!Muimum rcsiduc lint in ba iso05Ds€ in Gerdany

34 perfungicides kill prcdaloß,they stimulate the miles homonal systcm'entomopalhogens aresupPrcsed. and rrophobio'ß influcnce on kaves

Oomen (1982)suNey€d predato!species and found 22mi1eand 2 inseclspecies. listed pted^btv mit' Atnhlvsenß in Table 8, to Fey qon rhe scadel ml€. From these, lhe deleotiß the moscomdon andwidesp.eadPredalorofscarlet mites, alhough il scens fn ro oreler Dink and ourple mrresro scädermiles l he populauon ol Ä deLn4i ß rancea uv rle appriqtion ot@pper tun8kidc'. Thc predaroD miresol rhe subrin:lv Stigmacidaesh;wsonepreferenceforlhesc.detmile'butalso Prevon criopfivid afld phttoseid mnes.frey areeasierto rearlhan phvloseidniles The bug W resftrd' and prcda ih; gall midBeretdd?losßoo',"ni(Table 8) havebeen identified asth€ inscct the tors-ortne unet mile. Nymphs and adulß of W ,esrdo arerather selective against rvenik( 'd sL,rlcrmirc and do norprey or pirk or purylemrles fte\ preyon eg8' " and adultsof rhe scadetnite. ThelartaotL. oaneniverson puryle and pink mjtcs' aiso on scadetmilcsand iß own specieswhenhungry. So farpredatoß have not becn nas rcaredand libcaled lo conkol thescailet milq bu1tnis secmsto be aproDr$ng prom bjological contol method.Conrol ofth€ scailetmilewilhout acaricidesß more ising;ith teagrcwd at higheraXitudes (>1000 m) compäred1o tea at low altitudcs-

4 Züsämnettasung

Die Forderungvon Teeohne Rücbländevon Pflanzenschutzmiteln$eht ausderSichl dcs Pflanzen;hutzeshsdeßpruch zDrForderung des Verbtäucheß und desHändels Veringe- nachhoher Qualität, und der Fo;erung desElzeugcß nachhohem Enras und rüng de! tubcißkosten (manuelleUnknutbeseiligung). lm Teeanbil wtrds hohe Er bäS in Wesenilichenereicht durch: Beseiligungdes Schatlens und Vedngcrung der kr;khciß- u.d schädlin$bedingtenVeilu$e Die BeseitigungderSchallcnbäumc vcF ändendas AgroÖkosysem mil dem Ergebniseins ethöhtenUnksutwuchses' desEin- salzdvon DÜngermittclnund oinerElhöhüngderAnfälliSkeil gegenüberbesümmtcn Kankheircn (Sannenbrandbedinster Slamm-kebs, olaucr BläilbEnd' lsw) und bc- jedoch slimmten Schädlinse. (phyloPhaseMilben). Schaton kann auch eitnssmin' demd sein.Bei Ausahl ungeeigneterSchatetbäume oder bei zu hoberBeshadung in der Regenzeil(ds Oplibun dd LichtgenDsesüogt bein Te ai$hen 50% u 807' desunüehindedenUchteinfalles) Schaten kann den inkicn aufhetendenBeläll d€s Blasenbhndes (rtor.ridtüm sdns) und einiscr Schädlin ge (ke'wanze Hetopehß) begünsti8en.Derwttschaftliche Schadendurch Kankheilen ist an TechÖherinVer gteicl zu ehaathgen, wobel der Bldenbrand u. die Wurzefäule die üchtigsen Kank_ ieilon sind. DerBefalhdruckvon Kankheiten und Schädlingenist äuch vo' de! Be' kämpfungs$ralegieund den HimalischenBedinSungen abhängig btztere ändernsich ilisihe;den tubautegionen und mit der HÖhen$ufed€s TeeanbausEiie VeÜinge- rungdesPflanzenschulznittelaufwandeskänn ercichtwerden dDrch:Veringerung des BcfaMruckes von Kankheilen und Schädlinge., durch Teeanbäuuntc! befalkmin- derndenUmwexbcdingungen (2. B HÖhensluic,sbatlen.egulierung),durchAusahl knnkheiß- und schädling$olennterT€esorren (Kone),durch dieAuswahtvon Pflan zenschulznitein ml geiigcn Nebenwbkungcn aufnatüdichc Fciidc. und durch An- wcndung von Pflanzenschulzmil€ln in Abhängigkeil von derwirßchafilichen Schad. schwelle. SpczifkcheSchadshwcllen wcrden alfgefühll, diemehlcn müsscn noch tür die einzelnen Schadoßanismen und AnbauScbiele ernittelrwerden. Die lange veNeiL daucr(bis 50 Jahrc) dcsTeeburchcs an deßelbe. Srcllc begün$igrlangsamenlwickeln- den wurzelkrankheilen. welchezu großen Lichtungen inTeebeiland lXhren und hohe Er.leverlustc verursachen. WuzelknnkhciLcn welden eingehend bcsprochen und de- rcn Integrie& Bekämpfung nittels Ausmezung, dem Einsarzsyilcmhcher Fungizidc und BodcilungLide und dcr Verbesserung dcr Bodennikrcfl ora, dhkulieil. Ein übeF blick der tslat- und Ständrankhcitenwnd gegebcn. Dio intogderte Kankhcits- und Scbädlingsbekämplungdcs Blasenbrandes und derScharlachrcten Mitbe (scailel mile, Rreipalpus phoenicis) werden in €inzclncn behandelt.

5 Achowldeebent

The autlorwould liketo thank theTea Research Slation cambunS, Java(tndonesia) for invilationsto thc Sradon- lamcspeciallyindebLcd to DiAlik Dharradifo!lh€ hospi laliy, r€pealed intense tield visüs ro tea in Gambung, and the in depth discussion of rntegraled pest manaBement on lca. Pailiculady I would likc ro thank Mß. Dharmadi lbr the d'scussions on root rol oftea.

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