Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas: State of Knowledge and Conservation Strategies

SECTION 18

Conservation Needs and Strategies

Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara1 and Alexei Birkun, Jr.2

1Istituto Centrale per la Ricerca Applicata al Mare, via di Casalotti 300, 00166 Roma, Italy - [email protected] 2Laboratory of Ecology and Experimental Pathology, S.I. Georgievsky Crimean State Medical University, Lenin Boulevard 5/7, Simferopol, Crimea 95006, Ukraine - [email protected]

To be cited as: Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Birkun A., Jr. 2002. Conservation needs and strategies. In: G. Notarbartolo di Sciara (Ed.), Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas: state of knowledge and conservation strategies. A report to the ACCOBAMS Secretariat, Monaco, February 2002. Section 18, 21 p.

A Report to the ACCOBAMS Interim Secretariat Monaco, February 2002 With the financial support of Coopération Internationale pour l’Environnement et le Développement, Principauté de Monaco GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the Bern Conven- tion); the Barcelona Convention (which includes, This section of the report is conceived to pro- among others, a Protocol concerning Specially vide baseline information needed by managers Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance and decision makers in the process of devising and Biological Diversity containing precise obli- and implementing policies and strategies to en- gations for the Contracting Parties); the Conven- sure cetacean conservation and, wherever neces- tion on the Protection of the Black Sea against sary, recovery in the Mediterranean and Black Pollution (Bucharest Convention); the Conven- Seas. tion on Biological Diversity (CBD); the World Policies should be developed to form a basis Heritage Convention; and the Convention on the for the management of human activities affecting, Regulation of Whaling. In particular, as far as or likely to affect, cetaceans in the Agreement the Black Sea is concerned, all governments of area. Such policies will: the riparian countries have adopted a “Strategic  provide the appropriate framework for the Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection development of remedial measures, guide- of the Black Sea” (Istanbul, 1996) which pro- lines and codes of conduct to regulate or motes concerted policy actions aimed to the re- manage human activities impacting on ceta- duction of pollution, the management of living ceans; resources, and the sustainable human develop-  give priority to conserving those species or ment in the subregion. The box below contains a populations identified as having the least fa- quotation from that document (Section “Biolo- vourable conservation status; gical diversity protection”, Paragraph 62) de- voted to special measures for Black Sea marine  stimulate the undertaking of research in areas mammals conservation. or for species for which there is a dearth of A number of different strategies aimed at the data; achievement and maintenance of the favourable  indicate the need for impact assessments to conservation status of cetaceans in the Agree- provide a basis for either allowing or prohib- ment area are discussed in the following sections, iting the continuation or the future develop- as outlined in the Conservation Plan (Annex 2 of ment of activities that may affect cetaceans the Agreement). These include: or their habitat in the Agreement area, includ- 1. managing human activities (including fisher- ing fisheries, vessel traffic, military opera- ies, vessel traffic, whale watching, and ac- tions, offshore exploration and exploitation, tivities that cause cetacean habitat degrada- nautical sports, tourism and whale watching; tion and loss) to mitigate negative impacts  establish the conditions under which such ac- on cetaceans; tivities may be conducted. 2. granting special protection to areas contain- In implementing these policies it will be par- ing critical cetacean habitats; ticularly important to take into account and act 3. undertaking targeted research and monitor- synergistically with other bodies playing a role in ing programmes; cetacean conservation. These include: (a) na- 4. providing for timely responses to emergency tional governments that are already actively en- situations; deavouring in cetacean conservation policies and 5. promotion of training, education and aware- measures, (b) non-governmental organisations ness programmes; that are active in the field of marine protection, 6. finally, with a special consideration for the and (c) international agreements and conventions. complex and different weight of the various Of these, the following are particularly relevant factors impacting on the different species to the issue of cetacean conservation: the parent present in the Agreement area (Table 17.1, convention to ACCOBAMS, the Convention on Section 17), a number of actions are pro- Migratory Species (CMS, the Bonn Convention); posed as having priority importance in the the Convention on International Trade in Endan- coming years. gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES);

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.2

Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea (Adopted by the Ministers of Environment on behalf of Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey and Ukraine, Istanbul, 31 October 1996)

Paragraph 62. With the aim of restoring populations of marine mammals, the following measures shall be taken:

a) A ban on the hunting of marine mammals will be enforced by all Black Sea states with immediate effect;

b) Regular population assessments of marine mammals shall be conducted and the first assessment will be completed in 1998. It is advised that these assessments be coordinated by the Istanbul Commission, through its Advisory Group on the Conservation of Biological Diversity;

c) The Centre for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in Butumi, Georgia, shall be provided with the necessary equipment in order to function as a regional rehabilitation centre for captive marine mammals;

d) National centres and sanctuaries for the rehabilitation of marine mammals shall be strengthened;

e) Consideration shall be given to modify fishing practices in order to avoid catching marine mam- mals, as by-catch, during normal operations. It is recommended that the Istanbul Commission, through its Advisory Groups on the Conservation of Biodiversity and its Interim Advisory Group on Fisheries, develop a strategy for the reduction of by-catches of marine mammals.

MANAGING HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO not least as far as cetacean conservation is con- MINIMISE AND MITIGATE NEGATIVE cerned. Other policy aspects that would signifi- IMPACTS ON CETACEANS cantly benefit marine (and therefore cetacean) conservation in the Agreement area include the adoption, wherever possible, of a community- Article 2 of the Conservation Plan (Annex 2) based system of resource use, and of an ecosys- of the Agreement states: “Parties shall, in co- tem-based management approach. Furthermore, operation with relevant international organiza- the current lack of reliable, detailed and regularly tions, collect and analyse data on direct and in- updated information on fishery activities in the direct interactions between humans and cetace- Agreement area (including, among many other ans in relation to inter alia fishing, industrial and things, cetacean bycatch levels) is a major hin- touristic activities, and land-based and maritime drance to effective management (Caddy 1998). pollution. When necessary, Parties shall take ap- This would involve, among other things, the propriate remedial measures and shall develop promotion of co-ordinated, multidisciplinary re- guidelines and/or codes of conduct to regulate or search and monitoring to provide baseline bio- manage such activities.” The following sections logical information and to shed light onto ecosys- address in detail such recommendation. tem functioning. Fishery activities, being particularly intense in A. Mitigation of the negative effects of the Agreement area (see Section 4.4), may nega- interactions with fisheries tively affect cetacean survival in three main ways: (a) by causing mortality or damage through At the present moment, a system of fisheries accidental entanglement in active or discarded policy which is common to the entire region does fishing gear, (b) by subtracting prey through not exist. Rather, there is one policy common to overfishing, and (c) by causing direct mortality or the four EU member states, and separate policies damage through intentional kills deriving from for the remaining nations. Adopting a common competitive interactions (the use of cetacean policy on a basin-wide, or region-wide scale meat as fishing bait or as food being probably ir- would be highly desirable under many aspects, relevant in the area). These three main factors Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.3 possess different modalities and dynamics and biology and behaviour of the cetacean species in- must be treated separately. volved (Reeves et al., in prep.). Time/area clo- Bycatch - One of the main problems in this sures are likely to be successful particularly when field is lack of reliable information. Data on ce- the bycatch problem is highly localised and pre- tacean bycatch is not collected on a regular basis dictable in time and space (Murray et al. 2000). in any fishery in the Agreement area, and too of- Encouraging alternative ways of fishing. This ten relevant knowledge is intentionally and care- may involve technological changes and gear im- fully concealed by fishermen. Even if they were provement to enhance selectivity, and training of available, however, bycatch levels data cannot be fishermen on the use of devices or procedures to evaluated in terms of impact on the populations reduce bycatch. Recently, the deployment of since population size data are almost totally ab- acoustic warning devices (“pingers”)1 to prevent sent in the region. Bycatch levels and fisheries cetacean entanglement in gillnets has been effec- effects have thus been based often on guess- tive in reducing bycatch rates in some fisheries based extrapolations, in some cases to the detri- and for certain cetacean species. However, it ment of the fishermen themselves. must be clear that although alarms may have an Pelagic driftnets for swordfish and albacore important conservation role, their use in a par- are responsible for the greatest numbers of by- ticular area and fishery should be conditional on: caught cetaceans in the Mediterranean, while bot- (a) demonstration of long-term effectiveness tom gillnets for turbot, sturgeon and dogfish are through controlled scientific experiments, (b) the most harmful in the Black Sea subregion. completion of field trials to address practical is- The ban on driftnets from European Union fleets sues related to implementation, and (c) estab- (effective 1 Jan. 2002) does not solve the prob- lishment of a long-term scientific monitoring lem on a regional basis, since many non-EU na- programme, preferably involving independent tions have meanwhile apparently been increasing on-board observers (Reeves et al. 2001). More- their driftnet effort. However, we could not find over, acoustic warning devices should not be re- reliable information on this subject. A high pri- garded as a panacea for solving all by-catch prob- ority in this field is thus to gather detailed infor- lems. Their use by fishermen can create new mation on effort and bycatch wherever fishing problems or exacerbate old ones. Perhaps most with driftnets and bottom gillnets still occurs, and importantly, it can lead people to believe that assess the levels of bycatch in function of the size continued fishing is “safe” in an area where an of the by-caught populations in the different ar- endangered cetacean population is at risk (Reeves eas. et al. 2001). Other fishing methods known to cause acci- Promotion of eco-compatible mariculture (fish dental capture of cetaceans in the area include farming) as an alternative source of competitive purse seines (mostly for tuna), trawling, long- fish products for fish markets in the Agreement lines, trammel and trap nets, including traditional area. In particular, this long-range strategy coastal tuna traps (“tonnare”). Again, the obvi- should be directed to the gradual substitution of ous priority here is to acquire detailed knowledge active fisheries with modern fish cultivation on cetacean bycatch in the different gears, and technologies presenting far lesser threats to ceta- compare each with bycatch in the driftnets and ceans, as well as reducing competition levels be- bottom gillnets and with total bycatch. tween dolphins and fisheries and preventing of Once bycatch levels are known for single prey depletion through overfishing. populations for which sizes are also known, it Identifying the environmental, biological and will be possible to assess for each population the technological reasons why bycatches occur is an- limits within which removal through bycatch is other important direction of action (Hall 1995). safe (e.g., potential biological removal, PBR; see Wade 1998). In those cases in which bycatch levels will ex- 1 It is quite important to understand that acoustic devices used to ceed such limits, reduction measures are needed. address the various problems of cetacean-fisheries interactions fall into two very distinct functional classes. “Pingers” are low-level These may include: devices that are used to warn cetaceans about the presence of a net Setting bycatch limits above which the fishery in the area, so that the animal increases its attention level and hope- is closed. fully avoids becoming entangled. Acoustic deterrents devices (ADD) and acoustic harassment devices (AHD) are high-level Adoption of time/area fishing closures. The instruments originally developed to actively displace pinnipeds success of such strategy depends on a detailed from aquaculture installations by producing a noxious sound; ADDs knowledge of dynamics of the fishery and of the and AHDs are increasingly considered as possible ways to keep dolphins away from coastal fishery operations in the Mediterranean. Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.4 Regulations should be introduced and imple- teractions to the fisheries, or the effects of such mented to prevent fishing gear from being dis- interactions on dolphin populations. Such quan- carded or left adrift at sea. titative data are entire lacking in the Black Sea Incidental mortality can also be reduced subregion. A complete inventory of the sites through rescue and release efforts. It is thus im- where interaction problems exist should be com- portant, in such cases, to require the immediate piled, and site-specific studies should be carried release of cetaceans caught incidentally in fishing out focussing on the characteristics of particular gear in conditions that assure their survival. Ef- fisheries and on the ecology and behaviour of forts to rescue cetaceans bycaught in fishing nets ‘local’ dolphin population(s). More information may be difficult and risky for both the entrapped is needed on the characteristics of the depredating cetaceans and their rescuers, but they are often dolphins, particularly on their identity, age and successful. Such attempts may not only address sex; this should be achieved through photo- the welfare of the individual animal entangled, identification studies and the monitoring of dol- but also represent a significant contribution to the phin distribution, abundance and mortality in the conservation of a threatened species, and provide interaction areas. benefits in terms of public awareness and educa- Acoustic devices (AHDs), designed to deter tion. However, rescue efforts of all kinds are not dolphins from approaching and depredating nets, equally justified and it is important to weigh the have been regarded as a possible solution to the potential conservation, animal welfare, and scien- problem, and may be useful in some cases. tific benefits against the possible negative out- However, they have the potential to damage the comes (Reeves et al., in prep.). hearing of dolphins and other animals and to Finally, education programmes benefiting cause other impacts, such as habitat exclusion. fishermen and well-designed public awareness Furthermore, the effects of acoustic exposure are campaigns are also an essential component of any highly species-specific and depend on each spe- mitigating strategy. cies’ frequency sensitivity, and on the received level of the sound. To address this issue and dis- Competition between dolphins and fisheries cuss possible solutions and implications of the - The problem of small-scale coastal fisheries be- use of AHDs in Mediterranean coastal fisheries, ing damaged by depredation from dolphins, a an international Workshop was convened by condition apparently on the increase in many ICRAM in Rome in May 2001 (Reeves et al. Mediterranean and Black Sea locations, certainly 2001). Available data suggest that ultrasonic, needs a close attention. In this case, unlike in the low-intensity devices are most likely to be effec- bycatch problem, it is the fishermen who are af- tive for deterring odontocetes while having the fected and damaged in the first place, however in least probability of causing harm to other species. the end cetaceans also lose as fishermen embark The Rome Workshop concluded that, given on various retaliatory actions that often result in (a) what is currently known about the physiology dolphin mortality or damage. The dynamics of and behaviour of Mediterranean coastal dolphins, such depredatory activities by dolphins are far (b) the potential for excluding dolphins from from being understood: within the Mediterranean habitat (and consequent implications for the there are areas in which dolphins and fishermen health of local dolphin populations) and (c) the coexist peacefully, while in other, often adjacent potential for negative effects on monk seals and areas interactions are quite problematic. other endangered marine fauna, high-intensity Government agencies and international bodies acoustic devices such as those currently marketed should begin developing and articulating man- as AHDs and used to deter pinnipeds from aqua- agement goals for mitigation of fishery-dolphin culture operations are inappropriate for use in al- conflicts so that it will be possible to make mean- leviating conflict between dolphins and fisheries ingful evaluations of the effectiveness of any (or aquaculture operations) in the Mediterranean. adopted measure. This conclusion applies irrespective of the poten- The first aspect to address in this case clearly tially high, or even prohibitive, costs of deploy- involves the elucidation of interaction mecha- ing these devices in the Mediterranean context. nisms through targeted research and monitoring Furthermore, use of AHDs in the Mediterranean programmes. Very little quantitative information may contravene current national and international exists on the nature and extent of interactions be- regulations. tween dolphins and small-scale commercial fish- The Workshop also noted that non-acoustic eries in the Mediterranean, the costs of such in- means of reducing conflicts between dolphins Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.5 and fisheries hold considerable promise and de- pologies, and possible evolution trends in the serve detailed evaluation. These include, among Agreement area are, to the best of our knowl- others, the experimentation of non-acoustic aver- edge, unavailable at the moment in an organised, sion techniques, the devising of fishing tech- usable format. Such information, coupled with niques that are less liable to attract dolphins, the information on cetacean distribution and habitat development of dolphin watching activities to use, would allow a first evaluation of a cause- complement revenues from fishing and convert effect relationship between marine traffic and ce- the presence of dolphins from damaging to value, taceans in terms of intensity of exposure. Fur- and the adoption of compensation schemes. thermore, research on the possible long-term ef- fects of traffic disturbance on cetacean popula- Prey depletion through overfishing - Given tions survival, through behavioural and physio- the generalised state of depletion of fishery re- logical change, loss of energy intake, and area sources in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, a displacement, should be undertaken to elucidate likely consequence in many areas is that ichthyo- this still quite poorly understood aspect. phagous and teuthophagous cetacean populations Where impacts from traffic are known or sus- are affected (see Sections 9 and 10) pected, recommendations (and possibly, in criti- Clearly, fisheries management in the Mediter- cal habitat, regulations) can be envisaged and ranean and Black Seas is a far-reaching issue that provided to shipping operators in terms of mini- raises major social, economic and environmental mum approach distances, speed limits when near concerns involving relevant portions of three cetaceans, and the following of pre-determined continents, and goes well beyond the limited routes. Areas containing known cetacean critical scope of a report concerned with the conservation habitats may be subjected to limited access. of a single taxon of marine endangered species. Recommendation and regulation should be The problem of inadequate fisheries management accompanied by appropriate awareness and edu- in the Mediterranean and Black Seas should be cation campaigns, to inform user groups of the addressed and solved on other tables, and all we potential impact of traffic on cetaceans and to can remark here is discouragement in noting what provide codes of conduct to minimise distur- little, if any, progress is being made in this field bance. at the present time. Collisions between vessels and cetaceans are One essential component of such management an extreme consequence of the impact of vessel involves the collection and dissemination of reli- traffic on cetaceans, and very often result in able data, and this should include an adequate ef- physical damage to both the cetacean and the fort to understand predator-prey interactions and vessel involved, and thus a source of cetacean ecosystem functioning. Such data, applied to mortality. Given the perceived increasing impor- ecosystem modelling, would certainly help to tance that this threat is acquiring in the Agree- elucidate the complex ecological interactions be- ment area, the theme of collisions should receive tween cetaceans, fisheries and other ecosystem special attention. The case of the North Atlantic components. right whale provides a relevant illustration on how the problem of collisions between vessels and individuals from the world’s most endan- B. Mitigation of disturbance gered whale species has been addressed else- where (Marine Mammal Commission 1999). Off Disturbance from vessel traffic and colli- the east coast of the U.S. the movements of indi- sions. Vessel traffic is most intense in the vidual whales are being monitored and commu- Agreement area, as a reflection of the large vol- nicated to ships in their vicinity; underwater lis- ume of its coastal and marine economic activities tening stations have been set up to identify areas and the high levels of its human coastal popula- of concentration; the species’ distribution has tions. It is obviously unlikely that significant been correlated with oceanographic features to traffic reduction will occur specifically to de- produce GIS-based distributional predictive crease danger to cetaceans and other marine life. models; and, finally, a variety of active acoustic However, mitigating measures can be envisaged devices to detect animals in front of the ships are to reduce such danger. These include: being developed and tested. Monitoring, research and risk assessment. All measures listed above, aimed at mitigating Accurate data on the seasonal and geographic the negative effects of vessel traffic on cetaceans, distribution of traffic, and its volumes, routes, ty- will also contribute to address the collision issue. Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.6 Of particular importance are of course actions in- sel and perceived underwater by the whales, volving the collection of detailed and complete which may be inadequate to convey the necessary information on collision events and on their mo- information on distance, bearing, and speed of dalities and dynamics, and accurate awareness approach of the vessel itself. Once such knowl- and involvement activities targeting ship captains edge is gained, conceivably the sound produced and crew. by the vessel could be modified or enhanced to In addition, the following actions can also be provide more meaningful spatial information to envisaged where collision problems are known to the whales, improve their detection capabilities be substantive: and allow their safe manoeuvring and avoidance. Solutions aimed at a general decrease of risk in special areas. Zones containing critical habitat Disturbance from whale watching activities of cetaceans susceptible to be impacted by collid- - Whale watching (here intended as encompass- ing vessels should be identified (also on the basis ing all types of cetacean watching, thereby in- of mathematical models designed to predict risk cluding dolphin watching) is an activity which is levels) and delimited, and speed and/or tracks gaining increasing popularity in many parts of the controlled within those limits, in the hypothesis world, Mediterranean included, and likely to de- (to be tested) that whales may become used to velop in the future also in the Black Sea. We be- localised presence of traffic and pay more atten- lieve that it is an activity which should be en- tion in the appropriate locations. couraged, given the substantial educational and Solutions aimed at increasing the potential by economic assets that can be derived from it, the vessels of detecting and avoiding the whales. which will ultimately benefit cetacean conserva- These include the creation of an information net- tion; however, whale watching must be carefully work among vessels to inform operators about managed to avoid distress and damage to the tar- the position of whale concentrations, based on geted cetacean populations. both sighting and passive acoustic data provided From the management standpoint, whale by research teams; the establishment of perma- watching can be divided into two broad catego- nent watches on the bridge during daylight, and ries: commercial whale watching, usually con- the development of tools to enhance visual detec- ducted aboard larger passenger vessels, and ama- tion during the night and rough weather; the de- teur whale watching, taking place mostly from velopment of active acoustic devices (e.g., sub- private pleasure craft. Commercial whale watch- surface sonar) enabling the detection of whales in ing is easier to manage and control than amateur vicinity of the track line, at a useful distance. whale watching. Managers and decision makers However, we must remark that active sonar de- should be particularly concerned about the cor- vices have been regarded as technical fixes to rect and rational management of whale watching solve collision problems on high-speed ferries in in areas where this activity is new or in its early many parts of the world. Many problems exist in stage of development, and where the cetacean this respect (e.g., the tendency of sound to bend populations involved are naïve, such as in most downwards in thermally stratified waters, thus of the suitable whale watching locations in the reducing detection range to unworkable condi- Agreement area. tions; the small acoustic reflectivity of a whale Whale watching management regimes are be- body; concern about further ensonification of the ing developed in many parts of the world; a use- whales’ environment). ful review is provided by Carlson (1996). Com- Solutions aimed at increasing the potential by mon management measures include minimum the whales of detecting and avoiding vessels. approach distances, maximum speed and the pro- This seems a most promising approach, since hibition of chasing whales, altering the whales’ whales are certainly the most interested parties in behaviour or separating a whale from its group, avoiding a collision, and appear to excel in the art limits to noise production in air and in water, and of naturally avoiding contact with vessels when- a limitation to the number of vessels around a ever they are aware of their presence. A better whale or group of whales at any time. In the fol- understanding of the vessel detection capabilities lowing box a series of basic principles related to by the whales and of the exact reasons for their the management of whale watching was proposed failure to do so effectively, ultimately leading to by the Scientific Committee of the International a collision, is a fundamental steppingstone in this Whaling Commission in 1996. We suggest that direction. The problem very likely resides in the these principles should be adopted as a starting characteristics of the sound produced by the ves- point for the preparation of both guidelines, Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.7 codes of conduct and regulations of whale watch- comment by the media, and peer pressure, while ing in the Agreement area. the same factors would serve to reward respectful A critical aspect of managing whale watching behaviour. Unlike commercial operators, ama- is the determination of the ‘carrying capacity’, or teur whale watchers are controllable to a much the amount of whale watching that is sustainable lesser degree. by the population involved over the long term. Third, binding laws and regulations should be Carrying capacity is tightly related to a number promulgated by national authorities wherever of factors, including the behavioural and ecologi- whale watching becomes an established practice. cal characteristics of the whale population, the Regulations should always be accompanied by operational characteristics of the whale watching monitoring of the activities, enforcement, and the industry, and to the environmental variables of a possibility for law enforcing agents to provide specific area. The following management steps sanctions to the offenders. In addition to tradi- are advised before whale watching activities be- tional top-down enforcement through respect of come firmly established, with the implementation the law, bottom-up mechanisms should be en- of major capital investment and commercial scale couraged to place on the consumers a large part promotions. of the burden of control. In this respect the adop- First, basic knowledge of the biology and tion of “ecolabels” and the establishment of op- ecology of the species involved (e.g., population erators’ associations clearly committed to optimal parameters, behaviour, seasonal changes, and standards may have substantial influence on the frequency of occurrence) , as well as the local overall conduct and sustainability of operations ecological conditions (e.g., local currents, in a given area. weather, and distance from shore), should be Fourth, an accurate inventory of activities made available before the start of operations. and operators should be kept from the outset of These preliminary data will be necessary for an commercial operations in any given area. This initial, rough evaluation of the potential impact of should include the establishment of databases on whale watching activities, and should be later fol- categories of whale watching operations, and data lowed by the acquisition of more detailed knowl- on effort, areas, times, numbers of passengers, edge on the differential susceptibility of cetace- income, animals encountered, etc. An accurate ans to disturbance depending on their age, sex monitoring of operations, coupled with analyses and individual variability. The ultimate goal of of economic and social performance, should be this research is to gain information on possible performed in conjunction with scientific monitor- impacts of whale watching at the population ing. It is in fact quite important that commercial level. whale watching will provide opportunities for Second, guidelines and voluntary codes of both research and education, as this will at the conduct based on common sense and existing same time contribute to minimise the impact and scientific knowledge should be made available to optimise results. To achieve this, the presence of both commercial operations and pleasure boaters trained research and education personnel on likely to engage in amateur whale watching. Op- board should be highly encouraged on small op- erators should be encouraged to adopt such erations, and made compulsory on larger enter- guidelines, and should explicitly inform their prises. customers about this by both making available The box below contains three general princi- printed versions of the code of conduct they have ples for whale watching developed in 1996 by the adopted on board their vessels and demonstrating Scientific Committee of the International Whal- with their behaviour that this code is being fol- ing Commission. The first principle is directed lowed. This would help to expose incorrect con- primarily at managers, the second and third duct in presence of whales to public judgment, mainly at operators.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.8 General Principles for whale watching determined by the Scientific Committee of the IWC

1) Manage the development of whale watching to minimise the risk of adverse impacts:

(a) implement as appropriate measures to regulate platform numbers and size, activity, fre- quency and length of exposure in encounters with individuals and groups of whales; man- agement measures may include closed seasons or areas where required to provide additional protection; ideally, undertake an early assessment of the numbers, distribution and other characteristics of the target population/s in an area; (b) monitor the effectiveness of management provisions and modify them as required to accommo- date new information; (c) where new whale watching operations are evolving, start cautiously, moderating activity until sufficient information is available on which to base any further development; (d) implement scientific research and population monitoring and collection of information on opera- tions, target cetaceans and possible impacts, including those on the acoustic environment, as an early and integral component of management; (e) develop training programs for operators and crew on the biology and behaviour of target species, whale watching operations, and the management provisions in effect; (f) encourage the provision of accurate and informative material to whale watchers, to:  develop an informed and supportive public;  encourage development of realistic expectations of encounters and avoid disappointment and pressure for increasingly risky behaviour.

2) Design, maintain and operate platforms to minimise the risk of adverse effects on cetaceans, including disturbance from noise:.

(a) vessels, engines and other equipment should be designed, maintained, and operated during whale watching, to reduce as far as practicable adverse impacts on the target species and their environment; (b) cetacean species may respond differently to low and high frequency sounds, relative sound intensity or rapid changes in sound; (c) vessel operators should be aware of the acoustic characteristics of the target species and of their vessel under operating conditions; particularly of the need to reduce as far as possible production of potentially disturbing sound; (d) vessel design and operation should minimise the risk of injury to cetaceans should contact occur; for example, shrouding of propellers can reduce both noise and risk of injury; (e) operators should be able to keep track of whales during an encounter. * 3) Allow the cetaceans to control the nature and duration of ‘interactions’:.

(a) operators should have a sound understanding of the behaviour of the cetaceans and be aware of be- havioural changes which may indicate disturbance; (b) in approaching or accompanying cetaceans, maximum platform speed should be determined rela- tive to that of the cetacean, and should not exceed it once on station; (c) use appropriate angles and distances of approach; species may react differently, and most existing guidelines preclude head-on approaches; (d) friendly whale behaviour should be welcomed, but not cultivated; do not instigate direct contact with a platform; (e) avoid sudden changes in speed, direction or noise; (f) do not alter platform speed or direction to counteract avoidance behaviour by cetaceans; (g) do not pursue, head off, or encircle cetaceans or cause groups to separate; (h) approaches to mother/calf pairs and solitary calves and juveniles should be undertaken with special care; there may be an increased risk of disturbance to these animals, or risk of injury if vessels are approached by calves; (i) cetaceans should be able to detect a platform at all times; while quiet operations are desirable, at- tempts to eliminate all noise may result in cetaceans being startled by a platform which has ap- proached undetected; rough seas may elevate background noise to levels at which vessels are less detectable.

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.9 Disturbance from research and documenta- II, Paragraph 2 of ACCOBAMS, the deliberate tion activities - Even modern, benign research, taking of cetaceans may take place only in emer- which refrains from lethal methods, can be inva- gency situations or, “after having obtained the sive at times, and may lead to serious disturbance advice of the Scientific Committee, for the pur- to the animals through harassment and direct pose of non-lethal in situ research aimed at main- damage. Potential harassing activities include, taining a favourable conservation status for ceta- among others, close approaches for photo- ceans”. The issuing of such permits should cer- identification, tagging & tracking, biopsy sam- tainly be subjected to an assessment based on pling, and experimenting with active acoustic science and ethics. techniques. Although a line must be drawn be- It should be noted, however, that an objective tween non-lethal, yet clearly invasive research, evaluation of the impact of such activities should such as that which involves the live capture of be considered within the general context of the animals or the remote implant of large telemetry overall impact of human activities on any given devices, and much less invasive techniques like cetacean population. Activities from other photo-identification, it is important to invoke the groups of users of the sea, politically stronger greatest caution whenever animals need to be ap- than researchers or photographers, may carry a proached and affected by human presence. much heavier impact on cetaceans; it is thus im- It is important to note that research pro- portant that regulatory attention be tuned accord- grammes involving the above listed methods are ing to the level of damage any activity may badly needed, in particular from the conservation cause, rather than according to considerations of standpoint. A large part of the scant knowledge political opportunity. on Mediterranean cetaceans was collected by such methods, thereby providing essential ele- Noise disturbance - According to the Barce- ments of strength to current conservation efforts. lona and Bucharest Conventions, marine pollu- However, even the collection of minuscule skin tion includes energy alongside with substances and blubber biopsies performed by professional introduced by humans into the marine environ- researchers can have unwanted, negative effects ment. The conventions thus provide a legal basis on the animals (e.g., Bearzi 2000). Therefore, all for the regulation of underwater noise emissions guarantees should be provided that: (a) research in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. projects involving even mildly invasive tech- Underwater noise is produced in the Agree- niques provide data clearly needed to address ment area by a variety of human activities which conservation issues, and (b) researchers undertak- are largely at the basis of the region’s economy. ing such projects are knowledgeable, competent It is thus clearly unrealistic to expect that noise professionals, fully aware of the disruptive poten- levels in the Mediterranean and Black Seas can tial of their activities, and committed to appropri- be easily brought back to natural conditions. ate dissemination of the results of their efforts However, a number of options exist, and should through widely available scientific and technical be addressed, to strive for the reduction to toler- media. able levels of underwater noise and deriving dis- Similarly, photographers and film-makers en- turbance to marine life. Strategies should be fol- gaging in documentary efforts on cetaceans and lowed in terms of: (a) monitoring and research, cetacean issues in the Agreement area can pro- (b) awareness, and (c) specific mitigation meas- vide products that are quite useful to the cause of ures. cetacean conservation through popularisation of Monitoring and research. Very little, if any- scientific issues and awareness campaigns. Also thing, is known concerning the characteristics of in this case, however, it is important to ensure underwater noise (e.g., spatial and temporal dis- that: (a) the documentary material adequately tribution, levels, frequencies, etc.) in the Agree- conveys the conservation message, and (b) pho- ment area. Monitoring of noise characteristics tographers and film crews are well-prepared, en- should be performed diffusely, and “hotspots of vironment-concerned professionals, able to guar- noisiness” should be mapped and checked against antee that their products are of high quality and the presence of cetacean critical habitats. Activi- have a reasonable expectation of wide diffusion. ties that introduce high-level sound (e.g., explo- In order to fulfil such requirements, it is im- sions, oil & gas prospecting and drilling, military portant that an authority for issuing research and sonar) in areas that are inhabited by cetaceans filming permits be provided for within the should be monitored, inventoried, and assessed Agreement’s purview. According to the Article for their impact. A particular attention should be Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.10 given to areas and seasons that are of special im- cetaceans populations, military, industrial and portance to cetaceans. Studies can then be con- prospecting activities can be seasonally timed to ducted to assess possible impacts of noise on minimise impact. communication, behaviour, and physiology of the concerned populations. Awareness. Getting decision makers and the C. Improvement of the quality of the public at large to realise that underwater noise is marine environment an important issue in marine conservation, and particularly as far as cetaceans are concerned, is In a heavily populated region such as the another essential step towards the proper address- Agreement area, where perspectives exist for fur- ing of the problem and the implementation of ef- ther substantial increases in human population fective mitigation measures. It is thus important size and exploitation, addressing the problem of that scientific findings in this field be appropri- the quality of the marine environment, for ceta- ately and correctly disseminated to reach the ceans as well as for humans or any other living wider audience. being, seems more a question of mitigating dam- Mitigation measures. Shipping noise is large- age than one of solving the problem. There is in- ly due to the movement through water and cavita- creasing, compelling evidence that pollutants se- tion of the ships’ propellers. Regular mainte- riously affect both the health and survival of a nance of blades can reduce noise and cavitation wide range of living organisms, including our- as well as fuel consumption and travel efficiency, selves. Too often still, particularly in the Agree- and should be highly encouraged. Effects of ac- ment area, short-term economic considerations tivities that involve the underwater use of explo- are made to prevail on basic human rights, envi- sives and of high-level impulsive sound (e.g., ronmental needs, and even economic conven- airgun, military sonar, coastal constructions, ience in the long-term. To address this problem drilling) can often be mitigated if special precau- and steer towards a condition of improvement, tions or technological innovations are used. For both management actions and research efforts example, disposal through explosion of World can be proposed. War II ordnance located on the sea bed in Italy has been experimentally performed within cur- Management actions. A large number of in- tains of air bubbles, thereby significantly reduc- ternational agreements and conventions exist ing pressure wave propagation in the surround- which aim at the reduction and halt of the disper- ings (Nascetti 1996). Other promising experi- sion in the environment of noxious substances. ments involving the use of air bubble curtains Among these, the Basel Convention on the Con- also took place in Hong Kong, to reduce near- trol of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous field noise levels in the vicinity of Indo-Pacific Wastes and their Disposal, and various Interna- hump-backed dolphins (Würsig et al. 2000). tional Maritime Organisation (IMO) Conventions Mitigation procedures, rules and policies were in the field of marine safety and prevention of developed by NATO concerning the use of loud marine pollution, are of primary importance. As sonar devices after a mass stranding of Cuvier’s far as the Mediterranean and Black Seas are con- beaked whales in Greece; such stranding, which cerned, of particular relevance are, respectively, was synchronous with nearby military exercises the Barcelona Convention and the Bucharest and experiments, suggested a very likely cause- Convention, with related Protocols. Protocols to effect relationship between the two events the Barcelona Convention which are particularly (D’Amico 1998). These high level sounds are relevant to the quality of the marine environment liable to temporarily displace animals from an include the so called “Dumping Protocol”, the area or even cause hearing damage to the ani- “Oil pollution Protocol”, the “Land-based mals, so an assessment of the importance of that sources Protocol”, and the “Transboundary waste area for cetaceans is needed before operations Protocol”. Similarly, the Bucharest Convention start. Even if the area doesn’t contain critical include the following Protocols: the “Protocol on habitats for cetaceans, progressively scaling up protection of the Black Sea marine environment the level of noise will warn cetaceans eventually against pollution from land based sources”, the present within range and allow them to distance “Protocol on cooperation in combating pollution themselves from the source before harmful levels of the Black Sea marine environment by oil and will reach them. Finally, with sufficient knowl- other harmful substances in emergency situa- edge of the ecology and habits of the involved tions”, and the “Protocol on the protection of the Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.11 Black Sea marine environment against pollution contain the entire range of even the most seden- by dumping”. All these legal instruments (some tary of cetacean populations, and the implementa- of which still need to enter into force), once ap- tion of problem-targeted management actions, propriately incorporated into the national legal more than area protection, obviously seems, in systems of the Agreement’s riparian States and the case of cetaceans, a more effective conserva- into practice, will pave the way for significant tion strategy. However, cases exist in which area improvement. Coastal habitats are obviously far protection can be an effective cetacean conserva- more at risk than pelagic habitats, although con- tion tool, particularly when a combination of tamination through bioaccumulation of POPs strategies, inclusive of problem-oriented actions, (persistent organic pollutants) in the food web is are implemented. ubiquitous and pervasive. Therefore, integrated As far as protection of cetaceans is concerned, coastal zone management will hopefully promote MPAs can either: (a) be established with the pri- a more rational use of coastal space and re- mary objective of conserving cetacean popula- sources, bringing about an improvement of the tions, or (b) they may have a more general set of environmental conditions. objectives, including, among others, the conser- vation of cetacean populations, or finally, (c) they Research. We now know a lot more than just may contain cetacean habitat within their a few years ago about the nature, composition boundaries, and could thus serve the function of and scale of marine pollution, and thus on what cetacean conservation if specific management ob- cetaceans are exposed to. However we still know jectives are set. Many coastal MPAs in the very little about what the real effects of such pol- Mediterranean and Black Seas subregions fall lution are on the survival of cetacean populations, into this last category. For instance, over 60 pro- on what is the relationship between exposure, in- tected areas and sites are already established dividual health, and population survival, and on along the coastline of the Black and Azov Seas how synergies may develop between environ- (Fig. 18.1), and an additional 40 areas are pro- mental stressors that will cause rapid negative re- posed for future protection (Fig. 18.2). The list actions and effects. Quite a bit of research effort of Mediterranean coastal MPAs is also very im- still needs to be undertaken through biomarker pressive. It is thus necessary to ensure that suffi- studies and new investigation technologies to cient awareness exists among MPA managers shed light on mechanisms connecting toxicologi- and practitioners in the Agreement area concern- cal, physiological and pathological issues in ceta- ing the presence of cetacean critical habitat cean populations. Finally, critical habitats for ce- within their premises, so that cetacean conserva- tacean populations, particularly as far as coastal tion measures are implemented, with the appro- species are concerned, need to be identified, to priate science-based support. Furthermore, it is enable to devote special attention to these popula- important to create and maintain an overall in- tions’ basic needs in terms of food quality and ventory of the existent coastal MPAs, to help as- quantity, environmental health, and levels of dis- sess and enhance their real and potential effec- turbance. tiveness as far as cetacean conservation is con- cerned. Such regional network of MPAs, co- operating on a concerted basis in accordance with a common cetacean monitoring and conservation protocol, should be a second, important step to be ESTABLISHMENT OF MARINE undertaken. PROTECTED AREAS Specially protected areas to protect cetaceans, where specific threats can be best controlled, can be created in the Agreement area once critical Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increas- habitats of the various cetacean populations have ingly recognised as a primary tool for the conser- been identified, and the effects of threats known. vation of marine habitats and biodiversity This could be best achieved through zoning (Agardy 1997). Whether MPAs can also effec- mechanisms, providing that the ecology and be- tively protect large, wide-ranging species, such as haviour of the population to be protected is cetaceans, has been the subject of debate (Reeves known in sufficient detail. Such specially pro- 2001, Evans and Urquiola Pascual 2001). tected areas can be established within the frame- Clearly, it is rare that an MPA can be established work of the Protocol for Specially Protected Ar- to encompass a marine surface wide enough to eas and Biological Diversity (also known as the Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.12 “SPA” Protocol) of the Barcelona Convention, or and promotion of the development of new tech- of other appropriate instruments. As a less dras- niques to enhance their conservation. Research tic measure, time/area fishing closures could be should include the monitoring of the status and envisaged where bycatch is the greatest concern, trends of species covered by the Agreement, es- and where the problem is highly localised and pecially those in poorly known areas, or species predictable in time and space. In this case, how- for which little data are available, in order to fa- ever, control and enforcement becomes more cilitate the elaboration of conservation measures. problematic. Although we must note that lack of sufficient At present the only MPA in the Agreement information cannot serve as an excuse to delay Area which was specifically created to protect action, it is clear that lack of solid scientific cetaceans is the “International Sanctuary for knowledge on cetacean ecology, biology and Mediterranean Marine Mammals”, also known as threats in the Agreement area is one of the great- “Ligurian Sea sanctuary” (Notarbartolo di Sciara est crippling factors in the way of effective con- 2001), created by France, Italy and Monaco in servation efforts (see the “Species/Impact” Table 1999 and recently established as a SPAMI within in Section 17, Table 17.1, and related discussion). the framework of the Barcelona Convention (Fig. The overarching goal of research is therefore 18.3). The Ligurian Sea sanctuary is special be- to provide the science-based information needed cause it is the first worldwide example of an in- to inform appropriate and timely conservation ternational MPA specifically designed to protect and management measures. For best results, re- cetaceans, and also because, unlike any other pro- search strategies must be co-ordinated at the re- tected area in it seeks to address the problem of gional level with clear priorities provided, and protecting offshore waters. This problem pre- national research should be comprehended as sents unusual MPA design and management chal- much as possible within such co-ordination de- lenges, given that in pelagic ecosystems the de- sign. Finally, the multidisciplinary and ecosys- sirable habitat conditions and the concentrations tem-based aspects of research must be privileged. of key prey resources for cetaceans are known to Research efforts should aim in three different shift in space and time (Hyrenbach et al. 2000). directions: (a) to know the “capital” that we wish We must caution that MPAs should not be to protect, (b) to know the factors that are eroding considered a panacea, as their effectiveness must such capital, and (c) to develop conservation pro- rest on concurrent measures to be fully realised. cedures and techniques. In many cases activities known to be harmful to cetaceans are permitted within MPAs: for exam- Knowledge of cetacean populations - Ini- ple, pelagic driftnets in the Ligurian Sea sanctu- tially, easy and cheap studies of the distribution ary and the use of AHDs in the Egadi Islands and relative abundance of the different species in MPA (western Sicily). MPAs may thus run the the region should be undertaken in “virgin” areas. risk of giving a false impression of having Unfortunately, even this basic knowledge is lack- granted protection to cetaceans, while the animals ing from most of the Agreement area. remain at risk in the absence of vigorous educa- After that initial step, solid population data tion, monitoring, and enforcement. It is thus of must be secured: paramount importance that MPAs are established  Describe the eventual subdivision of each with a firm conservation commitment, and ensur- species present in the area into discrete popu- ing the involvement of different user groups (e.g., lations; map the geographic distribution of nature tourism operators and fishermen) who each population; assess degrees of gene flow may ultimately benefit from the MPA itself. across populations.  Assess population sizes and trends.  Determine demographic parameters.  Describe population ecology and habits.  Critical habitats for each population must be SUPPORT TO CONSERVATION detected and mapped, and location of habitat, THROUGH RESEARCH ACTIVITIES size, and characteristics provided.

Knowledge of threats to cetaceans - Mortal- In the Conservation Plan of the Agreement the ity factors (e.g., direct killings, bycatch in fisher- need is clearly acknowledged for the organisation ies, collisions, intoxications, epizootics) must be of co-ordinated, concerted research on cetaceans known, and mortality events monitored, to esti- Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.13 mate the contribution of each factor to total mor- Science-based training, education and aware- tality of the population. ness activities must be promoted. Habitat degradation factors, mostly deriving Research methods - A very large body of lit- from the contamination of the marine environ- erature and excellent texts (for a recent example ment with anthropogenic substances (e.g., POPs, see Mann et al. 2000) exist that review research hydrocarbons, nutrients, solid debris, etc.), as methods useful to cetacean conservation efforts. well as from land-based infectious agents, must What follows is only a brief, schematised and be assessed. These are particularly difficult to non-exhaustive summary. evaluate because of the importance of synergistic Sighting surveys. These can range from basic action among factors, and because what really cruises designed to describe relative abundance matters is the long-term population effects of (sighting frequencies) and distribution, to long- such action, rather than the exposure levels. term, effort-intensive longitudinal studies of sin- Depletion of food resources through overfish- gle populations or sub-populations based on ing and illegal fishing must be assessed, and photo-identification techniques, and finally to compared to the feeding requirements of the dedicated, line-transect surveys to generate den- population. Updated, reliable fishery data on sity data and to derive absolute population esti- catch and effort should be readily available to mates. evaluate what is being removed, at what rate, Radio and acoustic tagging and tracking of a with what means, when and where. Data should sample of individuals within a population, using be fed into ecosystem models to predict trends archival and/or transponder tags, to extract in- and replacement rates. formation on identity, position (and therefore on Noise and overall disturbance levels (includ- horizontal movements, migration patterns, home ing vessel traffic, offshore mineral resource ex- range and extent of movements within such ploration and exploitation, military exercises, range), depth, speed and movement patterns, whale watching and invasive research) within the oceanographic data, visual and acoustic environ- population range must be known. Updated in- ment, and physiology of the tagged individuals. formation on the space and time distribution of Short-term, passive tracking of individual cetace- maritime traffic (commercial, military, pleasure, ans in the vicinity of a research platform has also research and prospecting, etc.), and of whale been performed using laser range-finders linked watching operations, must be collected. The final to a Global Positioning System (GPS). objective is the evaluation of the long-term ef- Acoustics. Monitoring presence, absence and fects of these factors on the population. seasonal variation thereof of vocalising cetace- Mechanisms at the base of conflicting interac- ans, within a portion or entirety of their popula- tions between coastal cetaceans and small scale, tion range, can be performed through passive artisanal fisheries must be fully understood. acoustics by means of listening devices located Climate and ecosystem change signals should on moving ships, buoys or bottom-mounted. The be detected and described, and the possible ef- same systems can be used to monitor sound and fects of such change on the population should be noise levels in the marine environment. monitored. Remote collection of skin and blubber biop- sies from free ranging individuals can be used to Development of countermeasures and sup- evaluate contaminant loads, detoxifying capabili- port - Impact assessments must be performed ties (through biomarker studies), genetic proper- whenever new activities likely to impact on ceta- ties, and trophic level (through stable isotope ceans are planned, to provide a basis for deci- analysis). A promising research avenue consists sions and a source of indications for manage- in the culturing of cells secured through biopsies, ment. to apply biomarker techniques to tissues grown in Technological innovation (e.g., to enhance the lab. fishing gear selectivity and cetacean avoidance, Stranding networks are needed to monitor to enhance vessel collision avoidance, to decrease levels and composition of strandings and bycatch vessel noise and whale watching vessel impact, along the Agreement’s coastal area. A system- etc.) must be stimulated. atic programme of necropsies should be imple- Science-based proposals must be brought mented to increase knowledge on current pa- forth for the establishment of special MPAs, and thologies, predict and control epizootics, assess MPA management must be science-based as mortality causes, and store and disseminate tissue well. Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.14 and organ samples for pathological, contaminant ing in the Agreement area, having experience the and genetic studies. capability of maintaining marine mammals.

RESPONSE TO CAPACITY BUILDING AND EDUCATION EMERGENCY SITUATIONS

This Section refers to two different aspects of During the past few decades major cetacean knowledge, which are both essential to the en- mortality events have occurred with an apparent hancement of the conservation process: capacity increasing frequency in various parts of the building (i.e., the creation of specialist abilities) world, which have attracted the attention of the and education and awareness programmes target- scientific community. Mass mortalities over a ing the wider public. wide geographic range, such as the Mediterra- nean striped dolphin and the Black Sea short- Capacity building. The essence of capacity beaked common dolphin epizootics, have also building consists in the enhancement of profes- occurred within the Agreement area. Given the sional capabilities by combining targeted educa- poor environmental state of the region, similar tional programmes with infrastructural improve- catastrophic events, as well as emergency situa- ment (Reeves et al., in press). This is an aspect tions involving major pollution incidents affect- presenting huge heterogeneity in the region, with ing cetacean critical habitat, are quite likely to large gaps in the levels of training and facilities occur. It is thus of fundamental importance that among different portions of the Agreement area. an emergency task force be established under the Since it is essential that expertise for cetacean Agreement purview, formed by international ex- conservation efforts be provided by local scien- perts, to assist in the development and implemen- tists in their own regions, capacity building re- tation of emergency measures for cetaceans cov- mains one of the highest priorities of ACCO- ered by the Agreement when exceptionally unfa- BAMS. It is highly recommended that: vourable or endangering conditions occur.  Simple lectures by foreign experts may only In particular, as stated in the Conservation serve as an initial step for a broad exposure to Plan (Art. 5 and 6), the Task Force should facili- problem-solving approaches, use of available tate: (a) the preparation of emergency plans to be technology, data collecting and analysis tech- implemented in case of threats to cetaceans in the niques, and to discuss possible applications of Agreement area, such as major pollution events, such procedures in “virgin” areas. The main important strandings or epizootics; (b) the evalu- value provided by effort of this type is that it ation of capacities necessary for rescue opera- may provide the stimulus to embark on more tions for wounded or sick cetaceans; (c) the com- focussed activities. pilation of a synthesis of veterinary recommenda-  Longer-term training through scholarship pro- tions for the rescue, rehabilitation and release of grammes to study and acquire experience cetaceans; (d) the development and implementa- abroad can be quite effective, providing that tion of training programmes on responses to the recipients of these programmes will have emergency situations, transport and first aid tech- the possibility, once they return at their home niques, and release of rehabilitated animals; and country, to apply their knowledge in well- (e) the preparation of guidelines and of a code of designed, officially recognised and suffi- conduct governing the function of centres or ciently funded research or conservation activi- laboratories involved in this work, also consider- ties. Unfortunately, this is rarely the case; too ing the risks to natural populations when deci- often trainees return home only to face unem- sions are made to return cetaceans to the wild. ployment or the obligate choice of a different Whenever necessary and if requested by the profession, while on the other hand substantial ACCOBAMS Secretariat, the Task Force should funding, provided with the best of intentions convene and send a team of experts on site to by international donor organisations, dissi- asses the situation and provide advice and assis- pates “through the cracks” without providing tance to national groups. To help this process, an the expected results due to lack of the neces- inventory should be made of the facilities exist- sary local competences. It is thus of funda- Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.15 mental importance that (a) training pro- network that facilitates cross-library research and grammes abroad, (b) funding of major con- exchange of materials. servation programmes by international donors A series of ad hoc documentation tools should and (c) a long-term commitment by local de- be prepared, and made widely available to the cision makers and administrations be made to scientific community throughout the Agreement work together in a co-ordinated effort, clearly area. These should include, among others: targeted to the implantation of stable, long- (a) lists of national authorities, research and res- lived research and management structures and cue centres, scientists and non-governmental or- abilities. ganisations concerned with cetacean conserva- tion; (b) a directory of existing protected or man- Training efforts should be incorporated into aged areas for the conservation of cetaceans; and the production of real-life results of actual re- (c) a directory of national and international legis- search projects or management plans. Collabora- lation concerning cetaceans. tive research programmes conducted in the

Agreement area present an ideal terrain in which Education. Education and awareness cam- to promote and experiment with training and paigns are critical elements of effective manage- technology transfer. Thus, bilateral and multilat- ment, and need to be prepared and implemented eral projects, involving teams having different at the highest professional level. The greater levels of expertise from different portions of the public needs to be constantly informed about the Agreement area, should have higher priority. status of cetaceans in their region of residence, Workshops to address conservation issues pecu- the possible effects of human activities on their liar to subsets of the Agreement area will rein- well-being, and ways to improve their chances of force and upgrade local capacities, strengthen survival. Awareness on the very existence of ce- working relationships, help with the identifica- taceans, on their possible and real threats, and on tion and agreement on priorities, coordinate re- actions that can be taken to ensure their survival search activities, standardise methodology, and is still very low in the Agreement area, and very enhance the analytical skills of participants inhomogeneous in its distribution. Education and (Reeves et al., in press). The participation to awareness can be achieved both by ensuring that such workshops by government representatives the media operators are trained and updated on would provide a much needed link with the local cetacean conservation matters, and that educa- management authorities. tional material and programmes are constantly A major problem faced by scientists in areas developed and appropriately disseminated. Such where a tradition of cetacean research is in the activities are particularly suited to a number of process of being developed is access to all the Non-Governmental Organisations concerned with needed literature and scientific documentation. cetacean conservation, and best results can be In such areas it often happens that scientific li- achieved through a co-operative effort between braries are unavailable, or insufficiently equipped institutions and NGOs. with specialised, updated literature, or their ac- cess may be problematic. By taking advantage from the recent, remarkable progress being made in remote access to bibliographic material stored electronically, efforts should be made to create in each Agreement riparian country at least one spe- CONCLUSIONS cialised information and documentation centre AND RECOMMENDATIONS where text and reprints can be accessed. Fur- thermore, support should be given to existing li- braries containing significant bibliographic col- While all the conservation strategies previ- lections on cetacean science, in order to ensure ously listed and described in this Section are wor- continued updating and expansion, facilitate ac- thy of being undertaken, and all cetacean species cess to information to the local scientific com- living in the Agreement area deserve to be pro- munity, and provide a framework for capacity tected as well, priorities must be defined in order building that will encourage documented ceta- to provide timely responses to address problems cean research in the Agreement area. Library da- that are known or considered to be most urgent. tabases should be managed in the context of a Priority species. Based on the available knowledge, populations belonging to the follow-

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.16 ing species (listed in alphabetical order) are optera physalus) in addition to the Ligurian- known or presumed to be at greater risk of de- Corsican-Provençal Basin, and assess the clining and disappearing from the Agreement functional relationships of such sites to the area: LCP Basin with respect to the species’ habi- Delphinus delphis, short-beaked common tat needs. dolphin in the Mediterranean Sea;  Development of photo-identification data- Phocoena phocoena, harbour porpoise; bases and programmes encompassing the en- Physeter macrocephalus, sperm whale; tire ACCOBAMS area. Tursiops truncatus, common bottlenose dol-  Establishment and implementation of a long- phin. term training programme on cetacean re- It is therefore highly recommended that urgent search, monitoring and conservation/mana- measures be undertaken to address the conserva- gement techniques and procedures. tion status of such populations.  Development of an educational tool for the organisation of research projects and basic Priority actions. During the CIESM Meeting technical studies. in Monte Carlo, on 27 September 2001, a work-  Creation of a sub-regional directory of na- shop was organised to discuss priorities for ceta- tional authorities, research and rescue cen- cean conservation in the Mediterranean and tres, scientists and governmental and non- Black Seas. An initial list of priorities, agreed governmental organisations concerned with upon in that occasion, is presented in Appendix the Agreement’s objectives. 2. The following list represents a further elabora-  Support to the implementation of national tion of the Monte Carlo proposal, and its adapta- stranding networks, and their co-ordination tion to a narrow (2002-2006) time frame (please into a wider regional network. note: items in this list are not presented in order  Development of a network of specialised bib- of importance). liographic collections and databases.  Development of criteria and provision of ad  Establishment of a system of tissue banks. hoc support for the harmonisation of com-  Establishment of a Task Force for special mercial whale watching regulations with sci- mortality events. ence-based knowledge on the protection needs of the involved cetacean populations. A brief description of each item, including an  Investigation of competitive interactions be- indication of the types of activity, of the time- tween coastal dolphins and artisanal fisheries. frame and of the expense involved, will be pro-  Creation of a cetacean bycatch database (first vided to the First Meeting of the ACCOBAMS phase). Parties in a separate document. Detailed project  Development and implementation of pilot proposals will be successively required, once conservation and management actions in their implementation will be decided and funding well-defined key areas containing critical assured. habitat for populations belonging to priority species.  Workshop on methods for the evaluation of List of references habitat degradation and its effect on cetacean populations. Agardy T. 1997. Marine protected areas and ocean conser- vation. Academic Press and R.G. Landes Company,  Conservation plan for cetaceans in the Black Austin. Sea. Bearzi G. 2000. First report of a common dolphin (Del-  Conservation plan for short-beaked common phinus delphis) death following penetration of a biopsy dart. The Journal of Cetacean Research and Manage- dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in the Mediter- ment 2(3):217-222. ranean Sea. Carlson C. 2001. A review of whale watching guidelines  Conservation plan for common bottlenose and regulations around the world. Doc. SC/53/WW4 dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the Mediter- presented at the 53rd Meeting of the Scientific Commit- ranean Sea. tee of the International Whaling Commission, London, July 2001.  Basin-wide Mediterranean sperm whale D’Amico A. 1998. Report of the Bioacoustic Panel con- (Physeter macrocephalus) survey. vened at SACLANTCEN. 15-17 June 1998.  Identification of Mediterranean sites of con- SACLANTCEN M-133, NATO unclassified. Evans P.G.H., Urquiola Pascual E. 2001. Protected areas servation importance for fin whales (Balaen- for cetaceans. Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.17 13th Annual Meeting of the European Cetacean Society, ceans. Proceedings of a Workshop held at the 13th An- Valencia, Spain, 9 April 1999. ECS Newsletter N° 38 – nual Meeting of the European Cetacean Society, Valen- Special Issue. cia, Spain, 9 April 1999. ECS Newsletter N° 38 – Spe- Hall M.A. 1995. Strategies to reduce the incidental capture cial Issue. of marine mammals and other species in fisheries. Pp. Reeves R.R. 2001. The value of sanctuaries, parks, and re- 537-544 in A.S. Blix, L. Walløe and Ø. Ulltang (Eds.) serves (protected areas) as tools for conserving marine whales, seals, fish and man. Elsevier Science. mammals. Report to the Marine Mammal Commission. Hyrenbach D.K., Forney K.A., Dayton P.K. 2000. Marine Reeves R.R., Read A.J., Notarbartolo di Sciara G. 2001. protected areas and ocean basin management. Aquatic Report on the workshop on interactions between dol- Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 10:437-458. phins and fisheries in the Mediterranean: evaluation of Mann J., Connor R.C., Tyack P.L., Whitehead H. 2000. mitigation alternatives. Doc. SC/53/SM3 presented to Cetacean societies: field studies of dolphins and whales. the 53rd Meeting of the Scientific Committee of the In- University of Chicago Press. ternational Whaling Commission, London, July 2001. Marine Mammal Commission, 1999. Marine Mammal Reeves R.R., Smith B.D., Crespo E., Notarbartolo di Sciara Commission annual report: 1998. Marine Mammal G. In press. dolphins, whales, and porpoises: status, Commission, Bethesda, MD 20814. 239 pp. threats, and conservation action plan for cetaceans, 2001 Murray K.T., Read A.J., Solow A.R. 2000. The use of update. IUCN. time/area closures to reduce bycatches of harbour por- Simmonds M.P., Hutchinson J.D. (Eds.). 1996. The con- poises: Lessons from the Gulf of Maine sink gillnet fish- servation of whales and dolphins. 476 p. John Wiley & ery. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management Sons 2:135-141. Wade P. 1998. Calculating limits to the allowable human- Nascetti D. 1996. La Marina per l’ambiente. Notiziario caused mortality of cetaceans and pinnipeds. Marine della Marina 1996:21-24. Mammal Science 14(1):1-37. Notarbartolo di Sciara G. 2001. The Ligurian Sea Interna- Würsig B., Greene C.R. Jr., Jefferson. T.A. 2000. Develop- tional Sanctuary for Mediterranean cetaceans: rationale, ment of an air bubble curtain to reduce underwater noise history and current status. Pp. 28-30 in: P.G.H. Evans of percussive piling. Marine Environmental Research and E. Urquiola Pascual (Eds.), Protected areas for ceta- 49:79-93.

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Fig. 18.1 – Coastal protected areas already established in the Black Sea subregion:

1 Ropotamo River nature reserve 33 Kuchuk-Lambat local reservation 2 Lake Atanasovsko nature reserve 34 Landscape and aquatic reservation between 3 Kamchia biosphere reserve Solnechnogorskoye and Malorechenskoye 4 Cape Kaliakra nature reserve 35 Kanaka reservation 5 Lake Shabla protection area 36 Karaul-Oba landscape and aquatic reservation 6 Lake Durankulak protection area 37 Novy Svet botanic reservation 7 Danube Delta biosphere reserve 38 Inshore aquatic reservation between Novy Svet and 8 Dunaiskie Plavni biosphere reserve Sudak 9 Tiligulskiy landscape park 39 Cape Alchak local reservation 10 Kinburn Spit landscape park 40 Karadag nature reserve 11 Chernomorskiy biosphere reserve 41 Cape Chauda landscape and aquatic reservation 12 Dzharylgach reservation 42 Opuk nature reserve 13 Karkinitskiy ornithological reservation 43 Cape Khroni inshore aquatic reservation 14 Lebyazhyi Ostrova branch of the Krymskiy nature 44 Karalarskiy local reservation Reserve 45 Kazantip nature reserve 15 Bakal Spit local reservation 46 Arabat landscape and aquatic reservation 16 Dzhangul landscape and aquatic reservation 47 Azovo-Sivashskiy national nature park 17 Atlesh landscape and aquatic reservation 48 Stepanovskaya Spit hydrologic reservation 18 Lake Donuzlav local reservation 49 Obitochnaya Spit reservation 19 Nikolayevka Coast protection site 50 Berdyanskaya Spit reservation 20 Cape Lukull inshore aquatic reservation 51 Meotida landscape park 21 Kazachya Bay reservation 52 Don Delta protection area 22 Cape Fiolent landscape and aquatic reservation 53 Cape Utrish reservation 23 Cape Aia reservation 54 Lake Abrau reservation 24 Cape Sarych inshore aquatic reservation 55 Sochi national nature park 25 Yalta mountain and forest nature reserve 56 Pitsunda–Mussera biosphere reserve 26 Ifigenia Rock protection site 57 Kolkheti nature reserve 27 Diva and Koshka inshore aquatic reservation 58 Çamburnu protection area 28 Cape Ai-Todor landscape and aquatic reservation 59 Simenlik (Yeşilirmak Delta) reserve 29 Cape Martyan nature reserve 60 Haci Osman Ormani protection area 30 Adalary Isles protection site 61 Kizilirmak Delta nature reserve 31 Ayudag landscape and aquatic reservation 62 Sarikum protection area 32 Cape Plaka landscape and aquatic reservation 63 Mert Lake reserve (Iğneada Saka Longozu)

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.19

Fig. 18.2 – Proposed Black Sea coastal and marine protected areas which are not established yet:

1 Marine protection area from Ahtopol to the Rezovo 21 Karkinitskiy Bay marine reserve river’s mouth 22 Lebyazhyi Ostrova biosphere reserve 2 Marine protection area from Primorsko to 23 Tarkhankut nature reserve Ropotamo river 24 Donuzlav protection area 3 Cocketrice Bank marine protection area 25 Lake Kyzyl-Yar protection area 4 Marine protection area from Byala to Shkorpilovtsi 26 Sevastopol national nature park 5 Varna Bay and Varna Lake protection area 27 Cape Meganom protection area 6 Marine protection area from cape Kaliakra to 28 Tikhaya (Lisya) Bay reservation Kamen Bryag 29 Uzunlarskoye Lake protection area 7 Marine protection area from Vama Veche to 2 Mai 30 Tuzla Island protection area 8 Marine protection area from Costinesti to Olimp 31 Karalarskiy nature reserve 9 Cape Tuzla nature reserve 32 Sivashskiy national nature park 10 Lake Tekirghiol nature reserve 33 Priazovskiy national nature park 11 Mamaia Bay marine protection area 34 Obitochnaya Estuary protection area 12 Lake Siutghiol nature reserve 35 Kiziltashskiy Lagoon protection area 13 Cape Midia nature reserve 36 Abrau Peninsula national park 14 Zmeiny Island nature reserve 37 Gudauta Bank protection area 15 Lake Sasyk protection area 38 Kolkheti national park 16 Tuzly Liman protection area 39 Supsa marine protection area 17 Dniester Estuary national nature park 40 Batumi Bank marine protection area 18 Cape Bolshoy Fontan reservate 41 Adjara national park 19 Zernov’s Phillophora Field marine protection area 42 Doğanyurt–Cide marine reserve 20 Dzharylgach national nature park 43 Prebosphoric marine reserve

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.20

Fig. 18.3 – The “Ligurian Sea sanctuary”

Cetaceans of the Mediterranean and Black Seas – 18.21