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Home , Amilcare Ponchielli, A Multitude of Angels, I gioielli della Madonna, La Gioconda (opera), Leo Scheffczyk, Love Moves

INTERNATIONAL MARIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON, OHIO In affiliation with the PONTIFICAL THEOLOGICAL FACULTY MARIANUM ROME

By: Richard Eugene Lenar

The Figure of Mary in Italian Theological Foundations and Technical Analysis

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Licentiate of Sacred Theology with specialization in Marian Studies

Director: Father Thomas Thompson

Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute University of Dayton 300 College Park Dayton, OH 45469-1390 2018

Vidimus et approbamus: Thomas A. Thompson, S.M., Ph.D. – Director

Johann G. Roten, S.M., S.T.D. – Revisore 1

Daytonesis (USA), ex aedibus International Marian Research Institute, et Romae, ex aedibus

Pontificiae Facultatis Theologicae Marianum, die 4 Ianuarii 2019.

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Background and Methodological Considerations ...... 5 Introduction: The Presence of Mary in ...... 5 The Importance of Popular Marian Devotion ...... 5 The Experience of Listening to Music ...... 8 The Connection between Music and Theology - Music as a Language...... 10 The Connection between Music and Theology through Divine Revelation ...... 13 Summary of Chapter 1 ...... 14 Chapter 2: The Title “Aiuto dei Cristiani” as an Expression of Italian Popular Devotion ...... 15 The Historical Development of the Marian Presence in Italian Opera ...... 15 Don Bosco as an Exemplar of Italian Marian Devotion ...... 19 Don Bosco’s Place in the Historical Development of the Title Aiuto dei Cristiani...... 21 Conclusion of Chapter 2 - Essential Characteristics of Don Bosco’s Formulation of the Title Aiuto dei Cristiani with Excerpts from his Writings...... 24 Chapter 3: The Marian Operatic Presence during the 19th Century ...... 29 Terminology Associated with Marian Operatic References ...... 29 Analysis of with Marian References ...... 30 Verdi: I Lombardi alla prima crociata ...... 30 Ricci: La Festa di Piedigrotta ...... 34 Verdi: La Forza del Destino ...... 36 Boito: ...... 38 Ponchielli: ...... 41 Verdi: ...... 44 Summary of Chapter 3 ...... 47 Chapter 4: The Marian Operatic Presence during the Period ...... 48 Mascagni: ...... 48 Leoncavallo: ...... 49 Puccini: La Bohème ...... 51 Puccini: Tosca ...... 52 Wolf-Ferrari: I Gioielli della ...... 54 : Suor Angelica ...... 61 Summary of Chapter 4 ...... 65 Chapter 5: Reflections and Conclusions ...... 66

3 The Place of Music in Theological Method ...... 66 Correlation of Operatic Content with Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani ...... 66 The Depiction of Marian Devotion: Praxis ...... 67 Theological Accuracy ...... 69 Exemplary Value ...... 70 Summary ...... 72 Bibliography ...... 73

4 Chapter 1: Background and Methodological Considerations

Introduction: The Presence of Mary in Italian Opera

Although the Blessed Virgin Mary is not ordinarily associated with operas, these works contain numerous and varied references to her. Italian operas written during the last half of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th provide the richest and most extensive examples of this Marian operatic presence. The presentation of Marian content by librettists in operatic narratives is deeply influenced by the practices of piety which were prevalent in the devotional praxis of the common Italian people. The primary dramatic reason that operas have Marian content is characters turn to her for help. The Marian presence in opera results from cultural and artistic considerations. The deeply Catholic aspects of 19th century Italian culture influenced daily life and conversation. Mary was frequently invoked as la Madonna (“the Lady”). Operas would naturally include Catholic images and language which refer to the la Madonna in diverse ways. The combination of music, text and visual arts can produce Marian content under each aspect: the music may be a setting of a Marian prayer or antiphon, the may refer to Mary, or the scenery may contain Marian imagery or iconography. In a few cases, Mary is even a member of the opera’s cast. To examine this Marian operatic content, the present study will consider the music, text and stagecraft of Italian operas from a perspective that is cognizant of both the theological and the devotional. For this purpose, a series of operatic examples have been taken from famous operas as well as from lesser-known works. The timeframe encompasses the years 1840 to 1920, because in this period Italian operatic works exhibit the most extensive Marian content. The year 1890 will serve as an important milepost, since a shift to the so-called Verismo style occurred at that time. The Marian presence in opera has not been a common topic for scholarly research. The only extended study is Maria in der Musik by Gero Vehlow.1 This text is impressive for a comprehensive scope, which embraces all types of art music since the medieval period. Vehlow’s work is primarily musicological and does not treat theological issues at length. The present study will differ from Vehlow’s by considering the specifically theological significance of operatic episodes in which Marian devotion is portrayed or a character invokes Mary’s intercession and assistance. This study is organized in the following manner. Chapter 1 examines popular Marian devotion as well as the experience of listening to music and then develops theoretical considerations regarding the connection between music and theological method. Chapter 2 first provides a summary of the historical context of 19th century Italian opera. St. Don Bosco’s understanding of the Marian title “Aiuto dei Cristiani/Help of Christians” is then developed as a representative, but not exclusive, example of popular Italian Marian devotion. Chapter 3 will examine a series of Italian operas up to the year 1890. Chapter 4 will commence with the onset of the Verismo style and then examine operas until about 1920. Chapter 5 will provide a concluding synthesis by identifying and summarizing important theological and devotional themes.

The Importance of Popular Marian Devotion

1 Gero Vehlow, Maria in der Musik (Köln: Verlag Christoph Dohr, 2007).

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An important element of the Marian operatic presence is the depiction of popular devotion. In the present study, popular Marian devotion will be understood exclusively in terms of certain practices of piety associated with Mary. These practices include common Marian prayers, such as the Ave Maria, , and the ; the use of Marian images and statues; Marian processions; Marian figures of speech in daily conversation; and, most importantly, invocation of Mary’s intercession and assistance. The use of the term “Marian devotion” does not imply any specific commitment on the part of an individual, either in terms of Marian consecration, Marian imitation, or entrance into a particular state of life. Neither does “devotion” imply any deep or particularly accurate level of theological knowledge. “Devotion” instead reflects how ordinary people live out their faith to the extent they understand and are committed to that faith, A recent address by Archbishop José Gomez of Los Angeles expresses this understanding of popular devotion. In popular piety, people of faith live out beliefs which are an essential part of who they are. Popular devotion informs their view of the world and shapes how they respond to it. Such devotion, whether it is deep, shallow, theologically enlightened, or borderline superstitious, is an authentic expression of personal faith and piety:

The faith of the people is expressed in countless humble ways . . . There are so many ways that our people make their faith a natural part of their ordinary daily lives. This is popular piety and we need to appreciate it as liturgists, as pastors, as theologians. In popular piety, we see how the Gospel becomes incarnate in different cultures . . . the truths of the Gospel become part of the feeling of the people, their customs, and traditions . . . shaping the ways they see the world and understand their place in it. Popular piety is the faith of the family of God . . . There is something that is deeply touching, a tender in these devotions. We see how people feel that Jesus, Mary and Joseph are close to them, they understand the joys and the struggles and sufferings that we go through in our families and in our daily lives.2

The Mary who is found in the kind of popular devotion described by the archbishop is in a certain sense not the Mary of official church doctrine. That ecclesiastical Mary is described by the four Marian dogmas and magisterial texts such as Chapter 8 of Lumen gentium. In this doctrinal context, Mary is the most exalted of all God's creatures, full of grace, and the immaculate Mother of God. She has a unique role in the objective redemption through her close connection with Christ and continues to exercise that role through her ongoing spiritual maternity. Despite Mary’s exalted status, however, Church teaching is careful to affirm that Mary remains a human being and is still subject to various limitations of human nature. Besides the ecclesiastical Mary, there exists another Mary, the Mary of popular devotion. This is the Mary to which the archbishop refers. Stefano de Fiores has characterized this second Mary as the Mary of folklore. The term adopted by de Fiores is not intended to be derogatory. Instead, the reference to folklore expresses the different way Mary is viewed within popular devotion by the ordinary people. Although there is some correspondence between the

2 José H. Gomez Keynote Address to The Annual Conference of the Society of Catholic Liturgy (Los Angeles, September 16, 2016). Accessed at http://archbishopgomez.org/article/584.

6 ecclesiastical Mary and the Mary of folklore, the latter displays a restricted focus on certain of Mary's personal characteristics and at the same time possesses a well-intentioned tendency towards exaggeration. 3 De Fiores identifies three primary characteristics of the Mary of popular devotion and folklore. First, Mary is venerated in her glory and her merciful power. "Mary is a living person, endowed with power and goodness, with whom one can enter into dialogue and to whom one can speak in prayer."4 The common people address Mary in prayer, because they perceive her to be a "numinous reality" through whom one can participate in the joy and the power of God."5 For the people, Mary exists in a sacred place of light and life. De Fiores considers this popular conception of Mary as the most important characteristic of popular devotion to her.6 Another aspect of popular Marian devotion is proximity and familiarity. The intimacy which can exist between Mary and ordinary people is not a contradiction of her exalted status. One finds instead a reflection of the desire of ordinary people to avail themselves of Mary's power, intercession, and maternal care. In their recourse to Marian intercession, the people appreciate that Mary as a completely human figure. The resulting relationship of familiarity is demonstrated when persons invoke Mary during important joyful life events such as birth, baptism, or marriage. Similarly, persons readily avail themselves of Mary's assistance during times of difficulty or sickness. In this case, the people often turn to the curative or intercessory powers associated with some miraculous image, such as a statue, icon, or medal.7 The final characteristic of popular devotion is that Mary is a compassionate maternal figure. She is the mother of everyone, yet she is especially attentive to the lost, the marginalized, and the suffering. In contrast to secular society, within her there is no injustice at all. Her maternal care is readily accessible and offered without limitation to everyone. 8 As will be documented in chapters 3 and 4, this immediate accessibility of Mary's intercession and assistance is an important and recurring element in the operatic portrayal of Marion devotion. In the case of Italy, De Fiores asserts that the popular understanding of Mary's maternal care dominates devotional practice so extensively that the people “live the Paschal mystery within a Marian climate.”9 At this point, the phenomenon of enculturation arises. Marian devotion has become an essential element of the prevailing culture, because the Italian people have internalized the theological reality that true Christian faith cannot be separated from devotion to Mary10 Such Marian enculturation risks emphasizing certain aspects of Mary at the expense of others. As De Fiores notes, this danger has always been present throughout church history.11 For 19th century Italy, the orientation of Marian devotion to a powerful and caring la Madonna had developed to such an extent that Christological connections could become obscured. In Italian opera, la Madonna may be invoked as all-powerful, all-knowing or able to forgive sins, when she in fact can do none of these things. As Paul VI notes in Marialis cultus, such exaggerations do not detract from the authenticity of popular Marian devotion; they instead reflect the conditions of a

3 S. De Fiores, Marie dans la religion populaire (Cahiers Marials - Desclée de Brouwer, 1982), 17-18. 4 S. De Fiores, 18. 5 De Fiores, 19. 6 De Fiores,18-20. 7 De Fiores,20-23 8 De Fiores, 23-24. 9 De Fiores, 23. 10 De Fiores, “Maria in Italia” in Maria: nuovissimo dizionario (: EDB, 2006), 1031-1032. 11 De Fiores, 1032.

7 specific historical situation.12 For 19th century Italy, despite the forces of modernization and secularization which were active, Mary and Italian culture were so closely identified that they were almost inseparable. Because of enculturation, Marian devotion was an essential element of Italian national identity.13 This enculturation is expressed in several ways. De Fiores describes the practices of Marian prayer, pilgrimages to Marian shrines, and ex-voto offerings to Mary.14 For Emilio M. Bedont, however, the highest expression of Marian enculturation in Italy is the large number and wide geographic distribution of Marian shrines throughout the Italian peninsula. These shrines form a constellation which is a record of the history of the Italian people. Marian apparitions, deliverance from pestilence, sickness and danger, answered prayers, and other supernatural happenings are typically the source of the creation of these Marian shrines. 15 Unlike several other countries, Italy has no single national shrine which dominates the national consciousness. Instead, in their totality, the many shrines themselves become the public expression of the faith of the Italian people. This cultural role of Marian shrines in Italy developed because they are associated with the sufferings of the Italian people. The connection of the shrines with the historical memory and living faith of the Italian people is an important reason Marian devotion is so deeply enculturated in Italian society.16 Another important realization of Marian enculturation, which is related to the shrines and to De Fiores’ notion of intimacy and familiarity, is an understanding of the Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani or Ausiliatrice (“Help of Christians” or “Helper”). This title has a long history among Christians and is associated with the invocation of Mary’s help and intercession during times of crisis or danger. Although devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani in Italy dates back at least to the time of Dante, invocation of her help and assistance had become a prominent feature of popular devotion there during the 19th century. In chapter 2, the writings of St. John Don Bosco will serve as a representative presentation of the state of the Aiuto dei Christiani devotion in that period. The central point which the present study will seek to demonstrate is that the way Italian operatic characters invoke Mary’s help relates closely with the presentation in St. John Don Bosco’s writings of devotion to her as Aiuto dei Cristiani.17 Enculturation explains why popular devotion is depicted in this manner in Italian opera. That depiction exhibits the primary characteristics of the Mary of folklore and at the same time displays certain exaggerations. These points will be developed extensively during the analysis of specific operas in chapters 3 and 4.

The Experience of Listening to Music

A person who attends an operatic performance encounters various artistic media. There is the visual experience of the staging - the sets, the costumes, special effects and other props. In

12 Paul VI, Marialis cultus, 36, cited at De Fiores 1032-1033. 13 De Fiores,1031. 14 De Fiores, Marie dans la religion populaire, 24-26. 15 Emilio M. Bedont, “Il ruolo del sanctuario mariano in Italia: in Theotokos I (1993/1), 233. 16 Bedont, 233-235. 17 For historical accuracy, this study will refer to the title “Help of Christians” and the associated invocation of Mary’s help and intercession by using the Italian forms Aiuto dei Cristian or Ausiliatrice. In some cases, according to context, Mary’s help may be referenced with other titles used by Don Bosco, such as Regina di cielo. Operatic characters usually refer to Mary as la Madonna or la Vergine; for present purposes, the use of these names for Mary will be understood with a connotation of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani or Ausiliatrice.

8 the context of Marian devotion, one may observe the use of Marian statues, icons or other sacramentals. An opera scene may be set in or near a church. A character may recite a Marian prayer or invoke the assistance of la Madonna. Many other things happen in opera which are not related to devotion. This visual experience is not static, since the staging can change from scene to scene and operatic characters constantly move about. The staging helps to tell the opera's story and increases the emotional impact of the action on stage. In its visual dimension, opera is like the performance of a play in a theater. Unlike a traditional play, opera utilizes singers, who take on the roles of the characters and sing most, if not all, of their lines in the opera's libretto. An provides accompaniment and, in many operas, plays continuously throughout the performance. The music performed by the singers and the orchestra is an essential part of opera. The music tells the story just as much as the libretto and the staging. The central place given to the storytelling power of music is what distinguishes opera as an art form. The cinema also utilizes the storytelling power of music, yet there are essential differences between the cinema and opera. Background music in a movie does not normally play continuously for the entire performance. Movie actors do not sing all their lines. The greatest difference between operatic music and cinematic music, however, is found in the music itself. Operatic music possesses a level of originality, sophistication, and richness in its melodies, harmonies, construction, and which far exceed what is typically present in the musical score for a movie. Although it is true that some movies contain music which approaches the level of operatic music, cinematic music is usually constructed in a manner which is governed by commercial considerations and repeats certain well-worn formulae.18 Operatic music, in contrast, has been created by some of the greatest in the history of Western music. The skill and originality of these composers give operatic music a depth which is lacking in most cinematic scores. This depth and its sophistication is a major reason that opera can be so appealing. Because operas use music to tell stories, listening to music is an important element in attending an operatic performance. The experience of listening to music is very much an individual affair. Every listener responds to music in a unique way because of differing personal preferences, emotional sensitivity and cultural conditioning. Although the question of whether music has any meaning (especially emotional associations) is debated by philosophers, listeners often experience some degree of emotion when listening to music, such as happiness, sadness, serenity, anger, despair, and many others. The emotional reaction can even be kinesthetic. How does this emotional aspect of music arise? While there is no definitive answer to this question, Benedict XVI in a recent talk provided some clues. During his remarks upon acceptance of an honorary degree from the University of Krakow, he suggested three sources from which music originates. The initial source is :

One of the first sources is the experience of love. When men are seized by love, a new dimension of being opens up to them, a new grandeur and breadth of reality, and it also

18 Many of the formulae are taken from operatic music, such as the technique developed by .

9 drives one to express oneself in a new way. ... music stem[s] from this being struck, by this opening of oneself to a new dimension of life.19

Another source is sadness:

The second origin of music is the experience of sadness, being touched by death, by sorrow and by the abyss of existence. Opened also in this case, in an opposite direction, are new dimensions of reality that can no longer find answers in discourses alone.

The final source is the divine:

Finally, the third place of origin of music is the encounter with the divine, which from the beginning is part of what defines the human. All the more so here in which the totally other and the totally great is present, which arouses in man new ways of expressing himself. Perhaps, it is possible to affirm that in reality also in the other two domains - love and death - the divine mystery touches us and, in this sense, it is the being touched by God that, overall constitutes the origin of music... It can be said that the quality of the music depends on the purity and the grandeur of the encounter with the divine, the experience of love and of pain.

Benedict XVI identifies two emotional sources, happiness and sadness, through which music can make human beings aware of a new dimension of existence. Happiness and sadness are also the emotions typically associated with opera. The stereotypical opera is a love story with a tragic ending. Although that stereotype does not apply to all operas, love and sadness are essential elements in opera; much operatic music has been written to express these two emotions in connection with a story. It is in Benedict XVI's third source, however, that the real power of music is found. Music can open human beings to a perception of the divine. The degree to which music can accomplish orientation of the human to the divine is dependent upon the effectiveness with which the music communicates happiness and sadness. The experience of listening to music, therefore, can become an encounter with the divine. All that is necessary is the right kind music. Because of its quality and inspiration, most operatic music far surpasses this requirement. The ability of operatic music to invoke the divine explains why opera can be so effective in the depiction of religious subjects such as Marian devotion. In 19th century Italy, the figure of Mary, la Madonna, was closely associated with the divine because of her holiness, power, and mercy. The analysis of specific operas in chapters 3 and 4 will describe several operatic episodes in which music invokes a divine presence in association with la Madonna.

The Connection between Music and Theology - Music as a Language

19 The texts of this and the following two quotations from Benedict XVI’s talk are taken from the English translation given in the article by Gary D. Penkala “Benedict the XVI on Music” accessed on-line at http://www.canticanova.com/articles/misc/art7dj1.htm. Benedict XVI made these remarks on July 4, 2015 when he received two honorary doctorates from the John Paul II Pontifical University of Krakow and from the Academy of Music of Krakow, . The Italian original was published by Zenit.

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A theological analysis of popular Marian devotion in Italian opera requires consideration of the meaning of both text and music. Significant issues then arise regarding the meaning of music and its place in theological method. The meaning of an operatic text (the libretto) is usually plain enough. The meaning of music, however, is more subjective. The notion that music has any meaning at all is a disputed topic. For this reason, theologians have generally avoided the use of music in their work.20 Nevertheless, it is possible to identify certain connections between music and theological method. A first step can be found in the phenomenon of language. Theological discourse uses human language in its spoken or written forms to communicate meaning. Although human language can at times be ambiguous, theologians can minimize this difficulty through the precise use of specialized vocabulary. In this manner, theological discourse communicates a specific meaning which can be understood objectively. The question then arises: is music also a language? The issue is whether music communicates content with an objective meaning which transcends the purely subjective response of a particular musical listener. While there is no current consensus regarding this question, evidence exists to support the assertion that music does have an objective meaning. An important study on this topic, “The Language of Music”, was prepared by the British musicologist Deryck Cooke.21 In his introductory chapter, Cooke offers the following in defense of the idea that music has objective meaning:

Did anyone ever set the Resurrexit of the Mass to slow, soft, minor music? Or the Crucifixus to quick, loud, major strains? Try singing the word “Crucifixus” to the music of Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus, or the word “Hallelujah!” to the music of the Crucifixus in Bach’s B minor Mass!22

Cooke provides a detailed technical analysis of a wide range of musical ideas. In the process, he documents how specific musical intervals are associated with specific feelings or emotions. For example, the musical interval of a major sixth is associated with joyful activity. Cooke develops similar analysis for frequently recurring thematic or motivic patterns. Cooke’s conclusion is that music is indeed a language:

We may say then that, whatever the art known as music may eventually be found to express, it is primarily and basically a language of the emotions, through which we directly experience the fundamental urges that move mankind, without the need of falsifying ideas and images - words and pictures.23

This assertion can be correlated with Benedict XVI’s suggestion that music has it source in emotions. Cooke, as a musicologist, speaks of fundamental human urges. Benedict XVI is

20 Maeve Louise Heaney, “Music and Theological Method: A Lonerganian Approach” Theological Studies Vol. 77(3), 679-680. 21 Deryck Cooke, The Language of Music (Oxford: , 1959, reprinted 1991). Cooke (1919- 1976) was a musicologist and a musical commentator for the British Broadcasting Corporation. He is best known to musicians and listeners today for his preparation of a frequently played “Performing Version” of 's unfinished Tenth . 22 Cooke, 14. 23 Cooke, 272.

11 more specific and refers to a movement towards the divine, since perception of the divine is an essential element of what it means to be human. In both cases, emotions are the energizing force which moves the human spirit. While Cooke’s study concludes that music is a language which communicates emotions, one is still faced with the challenge of connecting the language of music with theological method. One author who attempts to make that connection is Maeve Louise Heaney. Her work utilizes musical semiotics, modern neuroscience and the theological method of Bernard Lonergan. In defending her use of Lonergan to establish a connection between music and theological method, Heaney offers the following explanation. Although Lonergan wrote little related to music, she notes that:

What he did write, situated within a coherent epistemological methodology, is clear and allows us to ask the necessary questions around music’s role in theological method as well as theology’s understanding of music, in terms of its effect on human experience and also on the different ways human thought intersects with and makes sense of reality (described by Lonergan as “patterns of consciousness”).24

To apply Lonergan’s theological method, Heaney first treats the question of music’s meaning in terms of semiotics and neurology. 25 She then proceeds to situate music among the levels of intentionality within the epistemology of Lonergan’s theological method. Her contention is that music facilitates the movement from Lonergan’s first level of intentionality (experience) toward the third and fourth levels (judgment and decision). She believes it is possible to situate music in this way for the following reasons:26

All art, according to Lonergan, is mainly situated in the experiential level of consciousness with the role of freeing and expanding human awareness. But the effective and kinesthetic nature of musical symbolism aids in the movement from understanding and judgment to action … music has a role to play in facilitating aspects of conversion … precisely because it helps us access, first and foremost, our own symbolic system.27

By situating music within Lonergan’s epistemology, Heaney is suggesting, similar to Benedict XVI, that music can lead human beings to a perception of the divine (or, in Lonergan’s language, “being-in love”).28 Like Cooke, Heaney provides a basis for asserting that music has an objective meaning. She even takes a step beyond Cooke and situates music within an epistemological structure.

24 Heaney, 681-682. 25 Heaney, 691-693. 26 Lonergan presents his four levels of consciousness in Bernard Lonergan, Method in Theology (New York: The Seabury Press, 1972), 9, 14-5, 120-121. The levels of consciousness are described in relation to intentionality and the consequences for knowledge of the divine at 340-343. 27 Heaney, 695-696. 28 The notion of “being–in-love” as self-transcendence and fulfillment of conscious intentionality is described at Lonergan, 105.

12 The work of Cooke and Heaney is not offered as a convincing and definitive demonstration that music is a true language. Their ideas, however, appear more reasonable when they are examined in the light of Benedict XVI’s comments. It is therefore possible to conclude that music has sufficient meaning that it can be utilized as an aspect of theological method.

The Connection between Music and Theology through Divine Revelation

Besides musicological and epistemological considerations, music can be connected to theological method because of its relationship with divine revelation. To make this connection, an effective starting point is the way divine revelation is transmitted to human beings. Dei Verbum of the indicates that divine revelation runs in a single stream which is composed of two parts: Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition.29 Both of these parts illustrate the connection between revelation and music, The Scriptures frequently mention music in ways which connect it to the divine presence and important events in the plan of salvation. The psalms refer to the use of music during worship (e.g. Psalm 150). They were sung in the Temple in Jerusalem, the place where, according to Jewish belief in the later stages of the Old Testament, Yahweh Himself made His earthly dwelling in the Holy of Holies. Chapters 4 and 5 of the Book of Revelation describe God’s throne room in heaven; where a multitude of angels unceasingly sings “Holy, Holy, Holy.” In the Gospel of Luke, angels sang at the time of the Christ’s birth. This biblical episode establishes a Marian connection between music and revelation, since Mary was the vessel through which the Incarnation, an important stage in the process of divine revelation, took place. A final example is the common scriptural narrative device of an important biblical figure singing a hymn or canticle at decisive moments in their lives or in the economy of salvation. From among many examples, those with the most direct Marian associations are the Canticle of in 1 Samuel 2 and the of Mary herself in Luke 1. All these scriptural episodes make use of poetry. When Scripture uses poetry, a natural connection with music arises. Because poetry employs techniques of prosody and strophic structure, it naturally lends itself to expression through music. In this manner, a connection between divine revelation and music takes place. Samuel Terrien makes this point in his discussion of the poetic form of the Magnificat:

A poem is modulated speech. It is music with words, not words with music. This is one of the reasons that its interpretation requires far more than verbal analysis ... Scholarly exegesis lacks the mode of direct communication which singing, with or without orchestral accompaniment, provides as it entices the attuned ear.30

Besides Sacred Scripture, music is connected to Sacred Tradition. Music has always been an important part of the liturgy. This practice is encouraged in the General Instruction of the

29 Dei Verbum 7; 9-10. 30 Samuel Terrien, The Magnificat: Musicians as Biblical Interpreters (Paulist Press: Mahwah, New Jersey, 1995), 25-26. Throughout this work, Terrien presents many examples of how the setting of the Magnificat to music by important composers throughout musical history enhances the listener’s appreciation of the meaning of the text.

13 Roman Missal and has been the subject of papal and other magisterial documents.31 For instance, Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium states:

The musical tradition of the universal Church is a treasure of inestimable value, greater even than that of any other art. The main reason for this pre-eminence is that, as sacred song united to the words, it forms a necessary or integral part of the solemn liturgy. Holy Scripture, indeed, has bestowed praise upon sacred song, and the same may be said of the fathers of the Church and of the Roman pontiffs who in recent times, led by St. Pius X, have explained more precisely the ministerial function supplied by sacred music in the service of the Lord. Therefore sacred music is to be considered the more holy in proportion as it is more closely connected with the liturgical action, whether it adds delight to prayer, fosters unity of minds, or confers greater solemnity upon the sacred rites.32

The Council teaches that music is an integral part of the liturgy. In addition, music is connected to the liturgy within Scripture, especially in the Psalms, which are associated with liturgical celebrations of the Jewish people and are used extensively by the both during the Mass and in the Liturgy of the Hours. If the liturgy is an important vehicle of Sacred Tradition, and if music can enhance the liturgy’s capacity to and communicate the content of Sacred Tradition, then there is a connection between music and divine revelation. Music is therefore related to both parts of the single stream of divine revelation. Because theology takes as its starting point the data of that stream, a connection exists between music and theology. This conclusion does not imply that music is a source of revelation. Music instead is an instrument which amplifies the communicative power of revelation and can assist theology in exploring the content of Scripture and Tradition.

Summary of Chapter 1

This chapter has presented a theological foundation for an investigation into the Marian presence in opera. Recognition of the nature of popular devotion is essential to understanding how Marian devotion is present in Italian opera. Benedict XVI described how music has a source in emotions and leads humans to a perception of the divine. Because music is such an important part of opera, one must confront the issue of music’s meaning. The work of Cooke and Heaney was referenced to support the assertion that music does have some meaning and can be a legitimate part of theological method. Music can also be a part of theological method because of the relationship between music and divine revelation.

31 The connection between music and the liturgy is affirmed in the 2010 General Instruction of the Roman Missal, which mentions music in several places. For example, paragraph 22 associates music with the dignity of the Eucharistic celebration, while paragraphs 39 to 41 explain the importance of singing by the Christian faithful. An important magisterial document is the 1903 Moto Proprio of Pius X Tra Le Sollecitudini, which discusses the use of music in the liturgy and provides specific guidelines. 32 Sacrosanctum Concilium, 112.

14 Chapter 2: The Title “Aiuto dei Cristiani” as an Expression of Italian Popular Devotion

The next stage in this study will be to place 19th century Italian devotion to Mary in its historical context. This step is essential for an understanding of the Marian presence in Italian opera. The discussion will consist of two parts. In the first part, a historical sketch of the development of Italian opera will describe how Marian devotion became such a frequent feature of Italian opera. The second part will describe the main characteristics of the Marian title “Aiuto dei Cristiani” as they are present in 19th century Italian popular devotion. For this purpose, the writings of Don Bosco will serve as a guide, because his work was influential and is representative of the state of Marian popular devotion in 19th century Italy. The primary characteristics of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani will become the basis for the analysis of the Marian presence in specific operas throughout chapters 3 and 4. It must be stressed that Don Bosco was not the only writer on popular devotion who was active during his lifetime. Nor did Don Bosco create or define popular Marian Italian devotion during the 19th century. His work will be used in the present study simply as a useful and convenient presentation of the state of Italian Marian devotional praxis. The utility of his work derives from its balanced nature, which avoids exaggeration. Similarly, the title Aiuto dei Cristiani did not originate with Don Bosco. Devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani is part of a long religious tradition. The presence of Mary in Italian opera is only one stage, although a highly developed one, of that tradition.

The Historical Development of the Marian Presence in Italian Opera

The origins of opera can be traced to the 17th century when musical accompaniment and singing was added to stage plays.33 Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, these plays tended to be dramas taken from Greek mythology or based on historical events. The subject matter was centered on mythological or royal characters, who had limited interaction with ordinary human beings. In general, these operas did not depict common people going about the typical activities of daily life.34 References to Christian devotional practices or to the Virgin Mary are rare.35 In the final decades of the 18th century, about the time of the career of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), the nature of opera began to change. Operatic stories began to include situations involving ordinary people and the affairs of everyday life. For instance, Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro, an Italian opera still frequently performed today, has as a subject the marriage of a hairdresser, a topic which is far removed from Greek mythology or royal history. This shift continued to develop during the subsequent so-called Romantic period, which in the case of music lasted for the rest of the 19th century and into the early decades of the 20th.

33 Details in the following historical summary are based on the material in Henry W. Simon, ed., The Victor Book of the Opera (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968), 14-24, and Roger Parker et. al. “Opera.” in The New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians Volume 18, 415-469, edited by and John Tyrell. London, Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001. As a standard reference, the 29 volume Groves dictionary will be used throughout this study to document biographical and historical details; this work will be referred to as Groves. 34 Although some operas from this period are comedies, such works deal with farcical situations which are incompatible with authentic Marian content. 35 A representative example of such a work which is still performed today is Gluck’s Orfeo ed . The story is based on Greek mythology and contains no references to the Blessed Virgin Mary.

15 was a reaction to the Enlightenment emphasis on human reason and scientific method. Johann Rotan has described five characteristics of Romanticism, three of which are particularly relevant to music and opera: mythical and mystical view of the human world with an idealized religion of the ; a rediscovery of the power of the miraculous, the imagination and dreams; and an enthusiasm for beauty, especially in nature.36 In the sphere of music, the influence of Romanticism led composers to give their music new expressive dimensions which portrayed ordinary, yet powerful, human emotions with great directness and intensity. Musical works often included subjects such as nature painting, supernatural forces and religion. Romanticism thereby created a musical environment in which references to Mary became more natural and appropriate. The musical depiction of Mary was closely associated with the depictions found in other art forms, especially literature, poetry and painting. These art forms presented her in specific roles, such as Queen of Heaven, the Sorrowful Mother, or Refuge of Sinners.37 Roten also notes four ways that Romanticism influenced Marian devotion. “. . . Romanticism contributes to a greater religious sensibility by the rediscovery of the esthetic dimension, the revaluation of the affective dimension, the consecration of the personal and subjective dimension in religion, and by the amplification of its social dimension.”38 As these characteristics developed during the Romantic period, Marian devotion took on certain characteristics of pietism.39 As a result, Mary becomes present in devotion as a feminine figure in three important ways: as a strong woman, as a woman of mystery, and as an eternal woman.40 Of these three figures, Mary as a strong woman has the most resonance for how she is portrayed in Italian opera. The strong woman is formed by religion, remains dominant in all the circumstances of life, and is superior to any form of misfortune, sickness, or faults of human character.41 Operatic characters, if only unconsciously, recognize these qualities in Mary when they turn to her for support and assistance. In Italian opera, la Madonna is a woman who can be relied on in any circumstance, no matter how perilous or hopeless. When Italian opera first came under the influence of Romanticism during the opening decades of the 19th century, the result was a form of opera referred to as (“beautiful singing”). The term reflects a highly developed lyrical style of singing. The subject matter of bel canto operas typically encompasses complicated love affairs and supernatural events. 42 For instance, it was not uncommon for an opera to include a “” in which a principal character, due to the stress of some difficulty in a love affair, would go mad or see ghosts.43 Despite this combination of ordinary characters and supernatural events, the influence of Romanticism did not immediately produce a greater Marian presence in Italian opera. One further development was necessary before Italian opera could display a flowering of truly Marian content

36 Johan G. Roten, “Culture et Theologie Mariales dans la Periode Romantique et le Pietsme” in La Figuira di Maria tra Fide, Ragione e Sentimento: Aspetti Teologico - Culturali della Modernità, 60-61 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 2013). The other two characteristics concern the value of popular art and the interchange of ideas. 37 Verloh, 77-78. Also J. Samson, “Romanticism” in Groves, Volume 21, 596-803. 38 “… le romantisme contribute à une plus grande sensibilité religieuse par la redécouverte de la dimension esthétique, la revalorization de la dimension affective, la consecration de la dimension personnelle et subjective en religion, et par l’amplification de sa dimension sociale.” Roten, 67. 39 Roten, 67-83, describes the pietistic aspects of Romanticism. 40 Roten, 84-89. 41 Roten, 85. 42 Owen Jander and Ellen T. Harris, “Bel Canto” in Groves, Volume 3, 161-162. 43 A famous example of such a bel canto opera which still holds a place in the repertoire is Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor.

16 in a full-fledged Romantic vein. That development came not from a musical source, but from the realm of politics and revolution.44 With the end of the Napoleonic period in 1815, the various Italian states were left in a fragmented state. Each one possessed its own degree of autonomy or subjection to the rule of foreign powers. In the subsequent decades, a movement for known as Risorgimento developed and became a dominant force in Italian political life. From its beginnings in 1815, Risorgimento lasted until 1871, when the full unity of Italy was achieved. It is not the purpose of the present study to recount the history of the political upheavals and military conflicts which characterized the Risorgimento period. For present purposes, it is only necessary to note that Risorgimento reinforced a specifically Italian sense of national identity. A concomitant nationalistic longing for unification found expression in Italian art, literature and, in a special way, in opera. Because of its central place within Italian culture, opera became an important vehicle for the expression of nationalistic feelings. Like the cinema in present-day Western culture, operas represented a form of entertainment which was popular with the public. Opera houses were found throughout Italy. Performances were frequent and attended by all economic classes.45 Under the influence of Risorgimento, the Italian public expected operas to give expression to specifically Italian topics. The appropriate subject matter could range from historical events to the activities of ordinary Italian people. Because of the high degree of enculturation of Catholicism, it was natural that Italian operas would now contain references to Catholic subjects, such as churches, the hierarchy, religious life, prayer and, above all, devotion to la Madonna. Since devotional practices were strongly centered on Mary, an artistic environment now existed in which recourse to her as Aiuto dei Cristiani was present:

1. When operatic characters (especially female characters) are in trouble, they often pray. 2. When operatic characters pray, they most frequently pray to la Madonna (or la Vergine.) 3. When they invoke la Madonna, they are usually asking for her help.

This tendency to call on Mary’s help is a manifestation of the prevalence of an enculturated devotion to her as Aiuto dei Cristiani and Ausiliatrice. Although operatic characters normally refer to Mary as la Madonna or la Vergine, those references occur in a context which is associated with devotion to her as an Ausiliatrice. Popular devotion did not separate Mary as la Madonna from Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani. In Italian opera, as in all art forms, Romanticism was concerned above all with the expression of feelings. This expressive orientation sometimes resulted in emotional conflict or even exaggeration. 46 The tendency towards exaggeration is observable in the level of affectation or emotional outbursts which are common in Italian opera. Similarly, the emotional state of characters can vary widely and rapidly. For example, a character may move from extreme joy to

44 Details of Italian history during the Risorgimento period are based on John A. Davis “Italy 1796-1870: The Age of the Risorgimento” in Holmes, George, editor. The Oxford History of Italy, 177-209 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). 45 Jonathan Keates, “Nineteenth Century Italian Culture” in George Holmes, ed.. The Oxford History of Italy. 214-219 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) specifically mentions the importance of opera. 46 Roten, 56-59. describes the tendency of Romanticism towards emotional conflict and exaggeration.

17 deep sadness in the course of a single scene. These extremes of emotion sometimes influence the depiction of Marian devotion. The enculturated status of Marian devotion which is depicted in Italian opera brings to light a paradoxical aspect of Risorgimento. The political movement for unification was a consequence of secular forces such as liberalism, nationalism, democratization, and modernization. Yet as these secular forces strove to create a new, unified Italy, the essential characteristics of the Italian people had to be retained. Italian national identity could not be authentically expressed in the various art forms without the inclusion of Marian devotion. 47 In this sense, Risorgimento, with all its secularizing intention and tendencies, made the depiction of Marian devotion necessary in opera. The operatic portrayal of Marian devotion became even more prevalent during the Verismo period, which began in about 1890. The Verismo movement in music and literature was an artistic critique of Risorgimento and its promise of a better and more just society. Along with a change to a more directly emotional and visceral style of musical composition, Verismo operas offered a vivid and realistic portrayal of everyday life. Greater was achieved by means of settings and characters drawn from the lower classes of society. This combination of setting, drama and music could produce operas of great emotional power.48 With the increased emphasis on everyday activities, Marian references naturally occur more frequently than previously. In addition, the use of characters who are often poor and needy establishes a further organic connection with Mary, who is the final representative of the Old Testament trajectory of the anawim, the poor of Yahweh who depend entirely on Him to survive.49 Besides the portrayal of devotion to la Madonna, the new expression of Italian identity gave opera a political dimension. Opera was now more than mere entertainment. Those operas which expressed a nationalistic desire for unification were not well received by more reactionary forces within the Italian political structure. Composers and librettists also had to respect religious sensibilities. For instance, the Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy considered certain forms of Catholic practice, such as the liturgy, to be inappropriate for portrayal within an opera. As will be seen in chapter 3, questions of religious sensitivity could affect even the Marian content of operatic works.50 The Mariological significance of Italian operas written in the Romantic style, both during and after Risorgimento, is enhanced when one considers that a large portion of the present day operatic repertoire consists of operas written during that time. Some of the works which will be considered below in chapters 3 and 4 are among those currently most frequently performed by opera houses all over the world. Consequently, the political, religious and cultural conditions in 19th century Italy still influence how Marian devotion is portrayed on the operatic stage even into the 21st century.

47 Antonio Escudero, “Maria, Madre del Signore, Immacolata Ausiliatrice nell’Esperienza Spirituale e Pastorale di San Giovanni Don Bosco (1815-1889) in Theotokos XXVI/1), (2018), 83-84. 48 M. Sansone, “Verismo” in Groves, Volume 26, 477-478 discusses the essential elements of the new style. 49 Mary’s place among the anawim is discussed in James T. Forestell, “Old Testament Background of the Magnificat” in Marian Studies 12 (1961), 237. 50 This political dimension is important in the works of the greatest Italian opera , . As a supporter of Risorgimnento, Verdi sought to give expression to its themes and ideals in his operatic works. An early example is the opera Nabucco, which is set during the biblical captivity of the Hebrew people under King Nebuchadnezzar. One musical excerpt from this opera, the chorus of the Hebrew slaves (“Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate”), which expresses a desire for freedom from oppression, became a de facto national anthem for the Italian people during the Risorgimento period. A further curious point, with which the Italian public identified, is that Verdi’s last name is an anagram for “Victor Emmanuel Re di Italia,” an important political leader associated with Risorgimento. See Roger Parker. “Giuseppe Verdi.” in Groves, Volume 26, 434-470.

18

Don Bosco as an Exemplar of Italian Marian Devotion

The historical and political situation described in the previous section provides the context for consideration of the life, work and Marian devotion of Don Bosco. Born in 1815, the very year in which the Napoleonic period ended, Don Bosco came to maturity and developed his concept of Marian devotion in a time frame contemporaneous with Risorgimento. Because an important aspect of Don Bosco’s apostolate was the creation of catechetical texts for the general public, his writings were both a reflection of and an influence on the religious conceptions within the wider Italian culture during Risorgimento and afterwards. Don Bosco did not create or define Marian devotion in 19th century Italy. His work is instead representative of the state of Marian devotion at that time. He achieved this place in Italian culture because he was able to simplify and make more accessible the ideas of previous writers. For instance, Don Bosco shortened and reworded the prayer of Marian consecration written by St. Louis Marie de Montfort. Similarly, Don Bosco expressed consecration in terms of “affidamento” or “entrustment,” a concept which was easily understood by ordinary people. Because of this theological approach with an orientation toward popular understanding, Don Bosco’s work was received by the Italian public as something new and it became incarnated in Italian culture.51 His life exhibits a development in the orientation of his Marian devotion. In his youth and early adulthood, Mary was revealed to him as a Good Shepherdess of youth. As his religious formation progressed, he came under the influence of the Immaculate Conception and a concomitant concern for purity. In later life, Don Bosco transitioned to what he considered to be a fuller expression of Marian devotion in the title Aiuto dei Cristiani. He made a decisive commitment to that title in 1862 during the final decade of Risorgimento.52 A series of seminal events during Don Bosco’s life serve as signposts on his spiritual journey to the title Aiuto dei Cristiani. Marian connections were present in Don Bosco’s life at an early age. He begins his memoirs by noting that he was born on August 15, the feast of the Assumption.53 His mother entrusted him as an infant to the care of the Blessed Mother.54 Even as a child, he possessed a special sense of the power of praying the Ave Maria.55 From his infancy, therefore, he was aware of a personal relationship with Mary.56 The death of his mother, when he

51 Stefano Flores, and Luigi Gambero, eds, Testi Mariani del Secondo Millemio.6. Autori Moderni dell’ Occidente (Secc. XVIII-XIX. Roma: Cità Nova, 2005, 684. 52 Testi Mariani 684-685. Anita Deleidi, “La Devozione Mariani alle Origini dell’Istituto alla Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice.” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer () Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 406 (Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991). 53 John Don Bosco, Memoirs of the Oratory of St. Francis de Sales trans. Daniel Lyons Bolton (Don Don Bosco Publications Thornleigh House, 2012), Chapter 1. P. Alois M Kothgasser, “Die Marienverehrung in Leben und Sendung Don Don Boscos (1815-1888).” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici- Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 304. While noting that Don Bosco's actual date of birth was August 16, Kothgasser nevertheless affirms the importance of the historical circumstances of Don Bosco’s birth for the formation of his Marian devotion. 54 Theodore Koehler, La Storia della Mariologia dal 1650 all’inizio del ‘900. (Vercelli: Centro Mariano Chaminade, 1974), documents Don Bosco’s account of this act of entrustment. 55 Kothgasser, 310-311 recounts the importance of the Ave Maria for Don Bosco throughout the saint’s life. 56 Deleidi, 404.

19 was just two years old, created an emptiness which probably accentuated his awareness of Mary’s maternal presence. A truly decisive event occurred later during Don Bosco’s childhood and revealed Mary to him as the Good Shepherdess. Dreams were an important formative influence for Don Bosco throughout his life. The first example took place when he was nine years old. In his dream, he saw a group of children behaving roughly and using foul language. When Don Bosco tried to intervene to stop this behavior, a radiant adult male figure appeared and told him that he was to take charge of these children and to teach them to turn from sin and to embrace virtue. When Don Bosco objected that he did not have the knowledge to carry out such a task, the male figure promised to provide Don Bosco a teacher who would guide him in his work. The man indicated that this teacher was the man’s mother. At this moment, a very dignified woman appeared. At the same time, the children turned into a pack of wild animals. The woman told Don Bosco to look at these animals, because they were to be his field of work. While she said this, the wild animals were transformed into gentle lambs. After Don Bosco asked the woman for further explanation, she put a hand on his shoulder and assured him that in time he would understand.57 Don Bosco later recounted that this dream had a foundational influence on his life. He received a vocation from Christ and Mary to work for the education and spiritual development of young boys58. Although at this stage Don Bosco now viewed Mary as a Good Shepherdess, the dream helped to form two characteristics of his conception of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani. First, Mary was given to him by Christ to help him accomplish his apostolic mission. Second, Don Bosco recognized that Mary’s help was more than specific acts of intercession. Her assistance was instead a constant maternal presence. For Don Bosco, vocation and Marian devotion were now inseparably joined.59 By his own account, Don Bosco believed that this dream was fulfilled after he became a priest and founded the Salesian order. Throughout his sacerdotal ministry, Don Bosco worked, despite many difficulties, for the education and development of virtue among young boys. He established houses where the boys could live and study under his guidance.60 What is more relevant for the current study, however, is that, in a further development of his ministry, Don Bosco became a popular writer who wrote works for the general public on Catholic topics.61 Don Bosco turned to such writing, because he wanted to catechize his readers and to combat what he considered to be the growing and malevolent influence of heretical forces in the modern world. He was particularly worried about rationalism and secularism, which were inimical to Catholic teachings and the Church’s hierarchy.62 Examples of his Marian writings include Il mese di maggio, consacrato a Maria, ad uso del popolo (The Month of May, Consecrated

57 Don Bosco, Memoirs, Chapter 2. Also Koehler, 153-153. 58 The nature of Don Bosco’s vocation and the assurance of Mary’s assistance in his apostolic work was reiterated to him in another dream he experienced at the age of 16. Koehler, 153. 59 Kothgasser, P, 306-307. 60 In his Memoirs, Don Bosco recounts numerous examples of the difficulties he overcame. 61 Georg P. Söll, “Die Begruendung der Maria Hilf Verehrung und ihre Besondere Foederung durch den Heiligen Don Don Boscos (1815-1888).” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 376 (Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991) describes the importance of Don Bosco’s writings for the spread of the title Aiuto dei Cristian. 62 Kothgasser, 321-322.

20 to Mary, for the Use of the People) and Meraviglie della Madre di Dio invocata sotto il titolo Maria, Ausiliatrice (Marvels of the Mother of God invoked under the title Mary, Helper).63 To accomplish his catechetical purpose, Don Bosco did not provide his readers with a systematic Mariological or theological exposition. Marian references are scattered throughout his work.64 Don Bosco was above all concerned with the salvation of souls. His writings connect Marian devotion with practical considerations such as purity, the development of virtue, protection against sin, assistance in time of need, preparation for death and the defeat of heresy. The pursuit of these practical objectives became the basis of a sistema preventiva (preventive system) which Don Bosco used in his educational work. The sistema preventiva, which was analgous in design to the preventive nature of the Immaculate Conception (Mary was prevented from falling into sin), was put into daily practice through the maintenance of a pure heart and the treatment of other people with kindness and gentleness.65 By stressing practical subjects, Don Bosco presented Mary as an Ausiliatrice in a manner consistent with the popular conception of Marian devotion. His work is also a reflection of magisterial teaching from the first half of the 19th century.66 Although, Don Bosco was not the founder of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani, the thoroughly practical, balanced, and theologically sound orientation of his writings makes them exemplary for the state of Marian devotion in 19th century Italy.67

Don Bosco’s Place in the Historical Development of the Title Aiuto dei Cristiani

Devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani originated many centuries before the lifetime of Don Bosco. Georg Söll notes that, although the precise origin of the title cannot be definitively established, throughout the history of the Church there has been a growing awareness on the part of the faithful that Mary is a powerful and efficacious helper. A biblical basis for the title can be found in the parallel which early Christians drew between Mary as the new Eve and the giving of woman to man by God to be a helper (Gen 2:18). The third century prayer is an important example of how early Christians turned to Mary for help. In later centuries, thousands of places of contained votive offerings by means of which pilgrims recorded countless specific instances of help received from Mary.68

63 A full list of Don Bosco’s writings is found at Test Mariani, 686. Escudero, 63-81 provides a detailed discussion. 64 Kothgasser, 326. 65 Don Bosco provides a concise presentation of his view of Mary’s role as a helper and protector against danger, sin and heresy in his work Il mese di maggio. See Stefano Flores, and Luigi Gambero, eds, Testi Mariani del Secondo Millemio. 6. Autori Moderni dell’ Occidente (Secc. XVIII-XIX. Roma: Cità Nova, 2005, 686-697. The saint provides a similar account in Meraviglie della Madre di Dio invocata sotto il titolo Maria, Ausiliatrice, excerpts of which are provided in Koehler, 154-156 and Testi Mariani, 697-699. 66 The title Auxilium Christianorum (Latin version of Help of Christians) was an important doctrinal and devotional element in the pontificates of Pius VII and Pius IX during the first half of the 19th century. P. Domenico Bertetto, “Il Culto Mariano in San Giovanni Don Bosco (1815-1888).” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer. (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 347. (Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991). This magisterial orientation is a likely reason that Don Bosco later work was influential among the Catholic faithful. 67 The emphasis on practical application in Don Bosco’s writings in present in Il mese di maggio, which discusses the efficacy of devotional practices such prayers and offerings to Mary to obtain her protection. Don Bosco especially recommends the offering of one’s heart to Mary and provides a prayer for this purpose. Testi Mariani, 694-697. 68 Söll, 368.

21 Another important historical point regarding the title Aiuto dei Cristiani is that it is associated not only with deliverance from physical dangers, but also with protection from spiritual dangers such as heresy and error. According to Söll, an early example of such intercession can be found at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Council affirmed, against the Nestorian heresy, that it is appropriate to refer to Mary as Theotokos or Mother of God. This affirmation underscores an important soteriological point: Jesus Christ is truly God and man, and therefore qualified to be the Savior of humanity, because Mary is truly the Mother of God. The affirmation of Ephesus illustrates how correct belief about Mary is essential to correct belief about Christ. The Council preserved this Christological/Mariological relationship with the aid of Mary’s direct intercession.69 In later centuries of Christian history, a series of events gave special prominence to the title Aiuto dei Cristiani. The remarkable victory of the outnumbered Christian at the Battle of Lepanto on October 17, 1571 was attributed by Pius V to Mary’s intercession and help. Innocent XI acknowledged that the victory of the Christian army against the Turks at Vienna on September 12, 1683 was the result of Marian assistance. In 1814, Pius VII believed that his release from imprisonment under the French Emperor Napoleon was a special act of Mary’s help.70 Historical events such as these facilitated the spread of devotion to Mary under the title Aiuto dei Cristiani throughout Europe. A special impetus was provided by the widely copied image of Mary as helper which was painted in Austria in 1537 by Lukas Cranach. At the same time, various brotherhoods and societies committed to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani experienced remarkable growth during the 17th and early 18th centuries, especially in Italy.71 By the time of Don Bosco’s birth, therefore, devotion to Mary for assistance was well- known. Through his personal spiritual journey, Don Bosco himself entered this historical trajectory. Gradually, he developed a greater appreciation for the title Aiuto dei Cristiani because of both the requirements of his apostolic vocation and his personal reflection on his own experiences. In his apostolate of educating young boys, Don Bosco was concerned above all with the development of virtue. For Don Bosco, Mary was a powerful helper in the development of virtue, since she could provide spiritual protection against sin and error. Don Bosco’s emphasis on purity reflects the prominence of the Immaculate Conception in Catholic thought during the time in which his Marian devotion was growing to maturity.72 The definition of the Immaculate Conception by Pius IX in 1854 would definitively affirm for Don Bosco the importance of purity.73 As a result, in the middle stages of the development of his Marian devotion, Don Bosco placed particular importance on the Immaculate Conception as the greatest example of purity.74 Nevertheless, as Don Bosco himself would later recount, two events exerted a significant effect on him which would convince him that the title Aiuto dei Cristiani should have a greater prominence. The first event was a dream in 1862. Don Bosco was standing on the shore of a large body of water and saw two naval fleets engaged in battle. One of the fleets belonged to the Pope and the Church, while the other fleet belonged to her historical and political enemies, such as modernism and secularism. The papal fleet was in danger of being overwhelmed, until it took

69 Söll, 370. Don Bosco, in Il mese di maggio, also uses the example of the Council of Ephesus as an example of Mary’s protection against danger and heresy. See Testi Mariani, 691-692. 70 Söll, 370, Kothgasser, 318. 71 Söll, 371-372.

72 Söll, 370-371. Testi mariani 684-685. 73 Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus, December 8, 1854. 74 Bertetto, 344-345. Kothgasser, 313-316.

22 refuge next to two large pillars in the water. These pillars, which represented the Eucharist and Mary, provided the protection which the papal fleet needed to withstand the onslaught of the worldly forces.75 This dream was significant for Don Bosco because it described the position of the Church during the latter stages of the political unification process during Risorgimento. Whatever the temporal benefits of that unification might be, the Church in Italy now found herself surrounded by inimical forces of secularism and modernism. Mary as Ausiliatrice was essential for the Church’s survival in this hostile environment. The second event which impressed Don Bosco was the discovery of an image of the Madonna and Child in a ruined church near the city of Spoleto in Italy. In 1861, the five-year-old boy Righetto Cionchi reported seeing a beautiful lady among the ruins of the church outside the city. The lady told the boy that she wanted to be honored there, and for this purpose, she requested that the church be restored. The image was found as that restoration took place. The location became a place of pilgrimage and was soon associated with miraculous events. A young man was healed from tuberculosis after invoking the woman whom Cionchi had seen. The local archbishop ordered the construction of a shrine and later gave approval to the apparition.76 The 1862 dream and the events at Spoleto made a deep impression on Don Bosco and reinforced his growing conviction that Mary’s help extends beyond aid to individual Christians. The dream convinced Don Bosco that the Eucharist and Mary’s assistance were essential for the Church’s survival. The attacks made in the secular press against the Church because of the events at Spoleto confirmed this conclusion.77 For Don Bosco, the struggle of the Church with temporal evils became a real manifestation of the need for Mary’s assistance during the cultural difficulties which the Church experienced during his lifetime.78 As a direct result of the dream of the two pillars and the apparition at Spoleto, Don Bosco made the devotional move away from the Immaculate Conception to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani.79 In reorienting his Marian devotion, Don Bosco did not construe the change in terms of one devotion replacing another. On the contrary, Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani is a fulfillment of devotion to the Immaculate Conception. Besides presenting the Christian with a model of holiness and freedom from sin, Mary takes on an active role and becomes a guide and companion for Christians during their faith journeys towards holiness. This extension is organic, because Mary’s holiness and purity make her the ideal helper for all human beings. She could assist them to overcome not just the physical difficulties of everyday life, but also spiritual dangers as well. In practical terms, Mary could help Christians achieve the spiritual goal of purity, which is admirably and definitively expressed in her Immaculate Conception.

75 Söll, 374-375. 76 P. Pietro Stella, “Don Don Bosco e il Titolo Mariano Auxilium Christianorum tra Politica e Religiosità Popolare.” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 381-387. (Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991) discusses the significant impact of the Spoleto events on popular culture and even politics; these factors would have had a major influence on Don Bosco. See also Kothgasser, 318-320. 77 Testi mariani, 685. 78 Don Bosco makes this point in Il mese di maggio. See Testi Mariani, 690 and Söll, 375. 79 Bertetto, 348-353 and Kothgasser 317-318 explains in detail the circumstances of Don Bosco’s turn from veneration of the Immaculata to the title Aiuto dei Cristiani. Kothgasser, 320-322 cites Don Bosco’s decision in 1862 to build a Church in honor of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani as an important indication of Don Bosco’s new devotional orientation. Deleidi, 409-419 likewise describes the institution of the women’s religious order Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice as an indication of a decisive step in Don Bosco’s devotional life.

23 The year 1862 became a pivotal year for Don Bosco. As he transitioned to the title Aiuto dei Cristiani, Don Bosco enriched it in at least two important ways. First, the title was now associated with the pursuit of purity and virtue. Second, Mary’s help was placed in the broader context of the Church’s struggle against evil. His commitment to the new title would find practical expression in his establishment of two institutions: a church (now a basilica) in honor of Mary, Aiuto dei Cristiani, in Turin, and the foundation of the religious order Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice.80

Conclusion of Chapter 2 - Essential Characteristics of Don Bosco’s Formulation of the Title Aiuto dei Cristiani with Excerpts from his Writings

The prior discussion has traced how Mary’s presence as Aiuto dei Cristiani developed in Italian opera. The historical background and theological considerations which led Don Bosco to embrace that title as the fullest expression of Marian devotion were also presented. Because Don Bosco’s work is such a good example of the characteristics of Italian popular Marian devotion, a concluding summary is provided here of Don Bosco’s formulation:

Constant presence –Mary maintains a constant presence of which Christians should always be aware. Through her presence, Mary exerts a maternal influence, because, like any good mother, she is always ready to help her children when they are in need. In Il Mese di Maggio, Don Bosco’s describes how Christians have always been aware of this Marian presence:

It is true that devotion to the great Queen of heaven has been in all times the comfort of the human race. From the time of the apostles until ours, there is no century, no year, no month, no week, no day, no hour, and we can say that there is no moment, which is not marked by any favor obtained from this compassionate Mother by those devoted to her. It is true that there is neither a kingdom, nor a city, nor a country nor a house in which, if not an altar, there is at least one image or statue in honor of Mary, as a sign of graces or favors received.81

Pursuit of purity - Mary’s help is intimately connected with the pursuit of purity, a virtue which Don Bosco considered to be essential to gain eternal life. Because of her Immaculate Conception, Mary is the greatest example of purity. As Aiuto dei Cristiani, Mary could therefore assist Christians in their pursuit of purity. Purity was both a highly venerated characteristic in Mary and an active virtue in the Christian.

80 Testi mariani, 685. 81“E vero che la divozione verso questa gran Regina del cielo fu in tutti I tempi il conforto del genere umano. Dal tempo degli apostolic a fina noi non c’è secolo, non anno, non mese, non settimana, non giorno, non ora, e possiamo dire che non c’è momento, il quale non sia segnato da qaulche favore da questa Madre pietosa ottenuto ai suoi divoti. È vero eziando che non si trova né regno, né città, né paese o casa in cui, se non un altare, non vi sia almeno un’immagine o statua in onore di Maria, in segno di grazie o favori ricevuti.” Don Bosco, Il messe di maggio, in Testi Mariani, 687. All translations from Don Bosco’s writings in this section are by the present author.

24 For Don Bosco, Mary’s purity was the reason that Christians can have confidence in her:

Come, with me, O Christian, and consider the innumerable reasons which must animate within us confidence in Mary and which she shows to those truly devoted to her. I will begin by referring to the three principal ones, and they are the following: Mary is holier than all creatures; Mary is the Mother of God; Mary is our mother. 1. Throughout the Old Testament Mary is called all beautiful and spotless; she is compared to the sun that shines resplendently; to the moon which is in the fullness of the sun’s light; to the most luminous stars; to a garden full of delicious flowers. . . to a purest lily. In the Gospel when the Angel Gabriel comes she is called full of grace. . . 2. Mary’s being is free from any stain of original and actual sin; it is adorned with all the virtues that we can imagine; it has been filled with grace more than any other creature, all these prerogatives make her chosen among all women to be raised to the dignity of the Mother of God. . . 3. But if the title Mother of God is glorious to Mary, it is glorious and useful for us, that being redeemed by Jesus Christ we become children of her and brothers of her divine Son . . Behold, O Christian, the person whom I propose for your veneration during this month. She is the holiest of all creatures, the mother of God, our mother, a powerful and compassionate mother who ardently desires to fill us with heavenly favors.82

Protection from danger and sin - Mary could provide protection from all temporal dangers and assistance in overcoming the difficulties of daily life. Likewise, Mary’s protection assists Christians to resist sin. Her protection is another example of a Marian devotion with a significant practical application. For Don Bosco, Mary was chosen as Aiuto dei Cristiani because of her sufferings on Calvary:

We find the most splendid proof that Mary is the help of Christians on Mount Calvary. While Jesus hung agonizingly on the cross, Mary

82 Vieni mecco, o Cristiano, e considera gli innumerovoli motivi, che ci devono animare alla confidenza in Maria e a mostrarci constamente suoi veri devote. Io comincerò per accenare i tre principali, e sono i seguenti: Maria è più santa di tutte le creature; Maria è madre di Dio; Maria è madre nostra. 1. In tutto il vecchio Testamento Maria è chiamata tutta bella e senza macchia: è paragonata al sole che risplende; alla luna che è nella pienezza di sua luce; alle stelle più luminose; ad un giardino pieno di fiori deliziosi . . . ad un gilio purissimo. Nel Vangelo poi viene dall’ Gabriele chiamata piena di grazui . . . 2. L‘essere Maria esente da ogni macchia di peccato originale ed attuale; essere adorna di tuute virtù che noi possiamo immaginare; essere stat di Dio ricolma di grazia più di ogni altra creatura, tutte queste prerorative le fecero trascegliere fra tutti le donne ad essere innalzata al la dignit di madre di Dio . . . 3. Ma se il titolo madre di Dio è glorioso a Maria, è glorioso eziandio ed utile per noi, che essendo redenti da Gesù Christo diventiamo figliuoli di Lei e frateeli del suo divin figliuolo…. Ecco, o cristiani, la persono che io propongo all vostra venerazione nel corso di questo mesr. Ella è la più santa fra tutte la creature, la madre fi Dio, la madre nostra, madre potente e pietosa che ardentemente desidera di colmarci di celesti favori. Don Bosco, Il messe di maggio, in Testi mariani, 688-689.

25 overcame her natural weakness and stood there with unprecedented strength. It seemed that nothing more remained for Jesus to do to show how much he loved us. His affection, however, still made him find a gift that was to seal the whole series of his benefits.83

That gift is Mary herself, and while explaining how Jesus’ giving of Mary to the apostle John makes her Mother of all Christians, Don Bosco writes:

Becoming our mother on Mount Calvary, Mary therefore not only had the title of “Help of Christians,” but she acquired the office, the authority, the duty. We have a sacred right to appeal to the help of Mary. This right is consecrated by the word of Jesus and is guaranteed by the maternal tenderness of Mary.84

For Don Bosco, Mary helps Christians with both their physical and spiritual needs:

We are in this world like as in stormy sea, as in an exile, in a valley of tears. Mary is the star of the sea, the comfort in our exile, the light that shows us the way of heaven, drying our tears of pain. And this tender mother does these things to obtain for us continuous spiritual and temporal help. Go, O reader, and with the faith of a good Christian …behold the signs of gratitude to Mary for the benefits received. Here you see an invalid, sent by the doctors, who regains health. . . one who was freed from fevers, there another one recovered from gangrene. . . one who was liberated through the intercession of Mary from the hands of murderers; there another one who was not crushed under a huge falling boulder . . . The favors mentioned concern only temporal needs, what shall we say to the spiritual graces that Mary has obtained and obtains for those devoted to her? We would have to write large volumes to enumerate them all. How many virgins owe perseverance in this state to the protection of you! How many comforts to the afflicted! How many passions fought! How many pitfalls of the devil overcome!85

83 La più splendid prova che Maria è aiuto dei Cristiani noi la troviamo sul monte Calvario. Mentre Gesù pendeva agonizzante sulla croce, Maria superando la natural debolezza lo assiteva con fortezza inaudita. Pareva che nulla più rimanesse a Gesù da fare a dimostrar quanto ci amava. Il suo affetto però fece ancora trovare um dono che doveva suggellare tutta la serie de’ suoi benefizi. Don Bosco, Maraviglie della madre di Dio. in Testi mariani, 697. 84 Maria pertanto diventando nostra madre sul monte Calvario non solo ebbe il titolo di aiuto dei Cristiani, ma ne acquistò l’uffizio. Il magistero, il dovere. Noi abbiamo un sacro diritto di ricorrere all; aiuto dei Maria. Questo diritto è consacrato dalla parola di Gesù ègarantita dalla tenerezza maternal di Maria. Don Bosco, Maraviglie della madre di Dio. in Testi mariani, 698. 85 Noi siamo in questo mondo come in un mar burrascoso, come in un esilio, in una valle di lagrime. Maria, è la stella del mare, il conforto nel nostro esilio, la luce che ci addita la via del cielo asciugandoci le lagrime del dolore. E ciò fa questa tenera madre coll’ ottenerci continui aiuti spiritual;li I temporali. Va’ o lettore, e con fede di buon cristiano entra in quelle sacra mura, , e rimira I segni di gratitudine verso Maria pei benefizi ricevuti. Qui tu vedi un infermo, spedito dai mefici, che riacquista la sanità. …. Uno che stato liberato dalle febbri, colà un altro risanato dalla cancrena . . . uno che è stato liberato per intercession di Maria dale mani degli assassini; colà un altro che non fu schiacciato sotto un enorme macigno cadente.

26

The practical aspects of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani consist in devotional practices which provide assurance of Mary’s protection:

Mary is the refuge of sinners, therefore we should make every effort through holy advice, with attentiveness, prayers, good books, and in other ways to lead souls to Jesus, to increase the children of Mary. . . Among the many respects we can offer to Mary is to prepare ourselves to celebrate her solemnities . . . with prayers such as a novena, secondly, to make devotions either in the public churches, or even in private houses. . . the in the morning, at noon, in the evening; the Rosary every day or at least on each festive day; to attend vespers, to participate in the exercises of piety, which are done on the Sabbath in honor of her Immaculate Heart.86

Opposition to heresy - For Don Bosco, Mary’s help extends beyond intercession on behalf of individual Christians to intercession on behalf of the entire Church. Unlike Montfort, Don Bosco did not construe the struggle of the Church against heresy and error in prophetic terms. Mary’s assistance in that struggle is instead another practical application by means of which the Church is better equipped to resist her enemies:

She is not only the help of Christians, but also the support of the Universal Church. All the titles we give to her remember a favor; all the solemnities that are celebrated in the Church originated from some great miracle, from some extraordinary grace, that Mary fulfilled for the good of the Universal Church. How many confused heretics, how many heresies eradicated! The Church expresses her gratitude by saying to Mary: You alone, O great Virgin, you were she, who destroyed all heresies.87

A final example illustrating how Don Bosco’s understanding of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani was representative of 19th century Marian devotion in Italy, is found in the book by Flavio Amoretti, “A Pio Madre di Dio, sfogo d’amore/To the Holy Mother of God, Outburst of Love,”

I favori accennati riguardando solamente i bisogni temporali, che cosa diremo por delle grazie spirituali che Maria ha ottenuto e ottiene a’suoi divoti? Bisognerebbe scrivere grossi volumi per enumerarle tutte. Quanti vergini devono la perseveranza in questo stato alla protezione di Lei! quanti conforti agli afflitti! Quante passioni combattute! quante insidie del demonio superate! Don Bosco, Il messe di maggio, in Testi mariani, 690. 86 Maria è rifugio dei peccatori, perciò dobbiamo anche noi adoperarci con santi consigli, con sollecitudini, preghiere, buoni libri, ed in alter maniere di condurre anime a Ges ù, accrescere I figli di Maria . . . Tra i molti ossequi poi che possiamo offrire a Maria c’è il prepararci a celebrare divotamente le sue solemnità con tridua novena, ottavari, secondoché soglionsi fare o nelle pubbliche chiese , od anche nelle case private . . . l’ Angelus a mattino, a mezzogiorno , all sera; il Rosario ogni giorno o almeno in ciascun giorno festive; assistere ai vespri, intervenire agli esercizi di pietà, che si fanno al sabato in ononre del suo Cuore immacolato. Don Bosco, Il messe di maggio, in Testi mariani, 694-5. 87 Nè solamemte è l’aiuto dei Cristiani, ma eziando il sostegno della Chiesa Universale. Tutti I titoli che noi diamo a lei ricordano un favore; tutte le solemità che si celebrano nella Chiesa ebbero origine da qualche grande mirocolo, da qualche grazia straordinaria, che Maria ottemte pel bene della Chiesa Universale. Quanti eretici confuse, quante eresie estirpate! La Chiesa esprime la sua gratitudine dicendo a Maria : Tu sola, o gran Vergine, fosti colei, che st6radicasti tutti le eresie. Don Bosco, Il messe di maggio, in Testi mariani, 690.

27 which was published in Rome in 1886.88 This work of over 300 pages is an extended meditation in honor of Mary. Amoretti praises her both for her place in the grand design of God’s plan of salvation and for her many personal virtues. Although Amoretti’s work exhibits certain exaggerations, it nevertheless does converge in some ways with Don Bosco’s understanding of Mary as Ausliatrice. In the concluding section of chapter 28, which has the title “Maria avvocata/Mary as Advocate,” Amoretti offers the following prayer:

O my mother, day and night I raised my cries before you. Let my prayers reach your presence, give your ears to my prayer, because my soul is filled with evils, and my life approaches the sepulcher. Surely my days are reduced to a certain extent, and my subsistence is like a nothing before God. Therefore, give your ears, O Mary, and hear me, afflicted and poor, let my soul be disentangled, because I am consecrated to you: save your child, the one who trusts completely in you. My sweetest Mother, when will it be that I will be worthy of you?89

Although Amoretti does not use some form of the Italian “aiuto/help” in his prayer, recourse to Mary’s assistance is essential. Amoretti turns to the Mother of God for help because he is afflicted and threatened by evil. His plea for salvation from Mary is, in terms of devotional language, an invocation of her intercession. The reference to repeated cries, day and night, as well as the use of cospetto/presence indicate that Amoretti is continually aware of Mary’s presence. The prayer is directed to Mary’s person; she is twice referred to as mother and Amoretti refers to himself as her child. A sense of Mary’s purity is implied both when Amoretti states that he is consecrated to Mary and in the concluding petition, when Amoretti expresses how unworthy he feels compared to her. This excerpt is one of many which could be cited from A Pio Madre di Dio, sfogo d’amore. Although the language is devotional, the essential characteristics of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani are evident: presence, intercession, and purity. Although it may be exaggerated, Amoretti’s work corresponds with Don Bosco’s understanding. To summarize, presence, purity and assistance/protection are essential elements in Don Bosco’s understanding of Mary as Ausiliatrice. This summary is not intended to be comprehensive. 90 It is a selection of those characteristics which illustrate how Don Bosco is exemplary and representative for Marian devotion in 19th century Italy. These characteristics correlate closely with the portrayal of Marian devotion in 19th century Italian opera which arose through the influence of Romanticism. This point will be demonstrated at length in the next two chapters.

88 Flavio Amoretti, A Pio Madre di Dio, sfogo d’amore (Roma: Tipografia Monaldi, 1886) 89 Amoretti, 314. The original Italian text is: O madre mia, il giorno e di notte alzai le mie grida dinanzi a te. Deli giunga al tua cospetto la mia orazione, porgi le tue orecchie alla mia preghiera , imperocchè che l'anima mia è ripiena di mali, e la mia vita s'avvicini al sepolcro. Certo che a certa misura sono ridotti i miei giorni , e la mia sussistenza è come un nulla innanzi a Dio. Porgi dunque le tue orecchie, O Maria, ed esaudiscimi, afflitto e povero è disci l'anima mia . perchè io sono a te consacrato: salva il tuo figlio. il quale in te pienamente confidasi. Mia dolcissima Madre, quando sara che io saro degno di te? Translation by the author. 90 A fuller presentation of the key elements of Don Bosco’s Marian devotion in the Salesian tradition can be found at Bertetto, 356-360. The summary presented here is a synthesis which provides a useful basis to analyze the presence of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani and Auiliatrice in Italian operas.

28 Chapter 3: The Marian Operatic Presence during the 19th Century

The preceding two chapters have examined the theological background for discussing the Marian presence in Italian opera. It is now possible to examine specific operas and analyze the Marian references which they contain. In doing so, it is important to reiterate that operas combine three distinct areas of artistic activity: music, text and visual imagery. Marian references can occur in each of these areas.

Terminology Associated with Marian Operatic References

To understand the diversity of Marian references in opera, it is helpful to describe those references according to their function within the overall dramatic structure and storyline. For this purpose, terminology associated with the techniques of storytelling will sometimes be used in the following analysis. Three of those terms - - exclamatory, expository, and exemplary - - require some explanation regarding their function in a Marian context. Exclamatory – Operatic characters sometimes make exclamatory statements, which are either directed to Mary or are about her in some way. Such statements are used for dramatic effect or for purposes of characterization. Pagliacci contains an example of both these exclamatory references. When Canio confronts his cheating wife, the dramatic effect is enhanced when he demands that she swear by la Madonna and tell him her lover’s name. Likewise, the vengeful character of the cripple Tonio is revealed as he invokes the wrath of la Vergine to threaten the woman Nedda, who has rejected his amorous advances by scarring his face with a knife.91 Exclamatory material in opera reflects a high degree of enculturation. For this reason, they can lose their devotional associations and become a common expression of everyday language. An example is the phrase Sancta Maria, the usage of which can become vulgar or even a form of cursing. Expository – A Marian reference can be used to set a scene or establish an atmosphere. Expository elements occur most frequently at the beginning of an act or scene. For example, in the first scene of Tosca, the escaped prisoner Angelotti looks for a key to a saferoom which is hidden by a statue of Mary in a church sanctuary. The effect is to create a feeling of safety and rest after a frantic flight from prison.92 The expository use of references to Mary is an important way in which operas depict the primary characteristics of Marian devotion. Marian expository elements are effective dramatically because of enculturation. They play on the expectations and associations of an Italian audience, which has been conditioned by enculturated Marian devotion. Exemplary - Sometimes a female character strongly displays an essential Marian characteristic. She may produce moral improvement in others. Likewise, she may exhibit the willingness to sacrifice for others to help them or to gain their salvation. For example, Leonora in La Forza del Destino is ultimately a cause of moral improvement in the character Alvaro, while the eponymous woman in La Gioconda sacrifices herself for the benefit of other characters93. In

91 Ruggero Leoncavallo, Pagliacci (: Sonzogno, 1895; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, 1951). 92 Giacomo Puccini, Tosca (Milan: G. Ricordi,1924). 93 Giuseppe Verdi,. La Forza del Destino (Milan:G. Ricordi, 1904. Reprinted: Mineola: Dover Publications, 1991). Amilcare. Ponchielli, La Gioconda (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1904; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, ca 1950).

29 I Gioielli della Madonna, the purity and virginity of the young woman Maliella are important elements in the development of the story.94 The following analysis will at times refer to examples of Marian exemplarity. The term exemplarity is used in such cases only to designate that a female character is acting in a way which reflects essential Marian character traits. In this sense, exemplarity is another consequence of Marian enculturation, because the portrayal of an operatic character is influenced by Marian aspects of the prevailing culture,

Analysis of Operas with Marian References

Detailed consideration will now be given to specific operas. They will be examined in approximately chronological order of composition.95 Only enough details of the plot and music will be presented in order to establish the context in which Marian references occur.96

Verdi: I Lombardi alla prima crociata

Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) was the greatest Italian opera composer of the 19th century. Most of his operatic works are still performed today and perhaps a dozen of them form an essential core within the standard repertoire.97 Because Verdi was such a major musical and cultural force, his work forms a suitable starting point for the examination of the Marian operatic presence. I Lombardi alla prima crociata, first completed in 1842-43, is an early example of the Marian dimension in Verdi’s operatic work.98 The work expresses support for Italian unification during the early stages of the Risorgimnento. The libretto portrays the conflict between the brothers Arvino and Pagano against the background of a Christian crusade to the Holy Land. The Marian presence occurs at important points within the developing rivalry of the brothers. The story, which is not intended to recount specific historical events, contains nevertheless a strong nationalistic and political message, since it depicts Italians united against a common enemy. In musical terms, the Marian presence arises in a work which is firmly rooted in the bel canto tradition. Verdi employs typical musical gestures of bel canto, including an unusually high number of large scale choruses and ensembles for the Lombards, to reinforce the nationalistic and even militaristic atmosphere of his opera. The effectiveness of these massive choruses in terms of

94 Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, I Gioielli della Madonna (New York: G. Schirmer, 1912_. The discussion of this work in chapter 4 below examines the exemplary aspects of the character of Maliella. 95 Historical and biographical information was verified by consulting articles on specific composers in Groves. 96 Details of the libretto and storyline of the operas considered in this article are taken from various sources. For operas in the public domain, a published version of a full or vocal score in electronic format was accessed from the Petrucci Music Library at its website imslp.org.. A list of these scores can be found in the Bibliography. The synopses found in Henry W. Simon,, ed., The Victor Book of the Opera (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968) and Matthew Boyden, The Rough Guide to Opera (London ; New York : Rough Guides, 2007) were also consulted. In a few cases, other sources were used; they are documented separately where relevant. English translations of librettos are by the author. Published translations may sacrifice the literal meaning of the text in favor of considerations of syllabification and accenting in order to produce a translation which can be sung to the music. A literal translation provides the best basis to assess the Marian content of the text. 97 Roger Parker, “Giuseppe Verdi” in Groves, Volume 26, 434-470. 98 Giuseppe Verdi, I Lombardi alla prima crociata. (Milan: G. Ricordi. Reprinted Miami: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1980- 87). The work later underwent various revisions.

30 sheer musical power is a fine example of how music can function as a language. In this case, the music communicates a nationalistic message in a manner which enhances the potentially inflammatory political nature of the opera. At the same time, the Marian episodes achieve a greater dramatic and musical impact, since they take place within simpler and more relaxed musical textures. Because of its political connotations, the opera encountered opposition from censors in an incident which indicates the charged nature of the social and religious climate in mid-19th century Italy. As mentioned above, throughout Europe during the 19th century (and even into the first years of the 20th), it was unacceptable for a stage work to depict liturgical action or episodes from the New Testament. In the case of I Lombardi, the Archbishop of Milan (the opera was first performed at Teatro alla Scala there in 1843) somehow became concerned that the work included a liturgical celebration. The local chief of police was directed to investigate the matter. When the ensuing investigation determined that the opera contained an example of a character praying the Ave Maria, the libretto had to be revised. The literal text of the Ave Maria was replaced with a paraphrase which was influenced by the Salve Regina.99 The concerns of the Archbishop of Milan indicate the importance which Marian devotion had within the culture of mid-19th century Italy. Although the praying of the Ave Maria is not in itself a liturgical act, the tense political atmosphere at the time of the opera’s creation led to misunderstanding of the true nature of the opera’s content. Fortunately, revisions to the libretto were enough to satisfy episcopal concerns. (Verdi refused to change the music). The concerns of the Archbishop of Milan remain puzzling, since no objection was made to a later scene in the opera in which a Muslim prince receives Christian baptism. That scene takes place with simple dialogue which does not use the text of a baptismal liturgy. Perhaps the archbishop was concerned more with text than stage action. In that case, the praying of the Ave Maria itself, and not the depiction of an operatic character at prayer, is what led to the archbishop’s concerns. His concerns suggest that he was an archbishop who took Marian prayer seriously. Marian devotion was such an important part of popular devotion that the archbishop probably wanted to ensure that popular devotion was being treated fairly. A brief recounting of the opera’s storyline can provide a context to consider its specifically Marian content. The opera’s story takes shape through the love triangle of the woman Viclinda and the brothers Pagano and Avrino. The opera begins with Pagano returning from exile. Previously, he had tried to kill Arvino because of their rivalry for the love of Viclinda. She, however, rejected Pagano and became the wife of Arvino. Pagano at first seems to be a reformed man, but Viclinda and Giselda, her daughter, sense something is wrong when he comes to the palace where they live. Fearing that something terrible is about to occur, they decide to pray. Giselda now sings an in which she invokes the Holy Virgin with the paraphrased version of the Ave Maria. The text, which is good example of invocation of Mary as Ausiliatrice by a terrified opera character, is worth quoting full, since the alterations made to the Ave Maria indicate how a librettist of the time attempted to avoid the concerns of ecclesiastical leaders and government censors:

Te, Vergin santa, invoco! Salve Maria - di grazia il petto, T'empie il Signore che in te si posa; Tuo divin frutto sia benedetto,

99 Verloh, 189-190.

31 O fra le donne l'avventurosa! Vergine santa - madre di Dio, Per noi tapini leva preghiera, Ond'Ei ci guardi con occhio pio Quando ne aggravi - l'ultima sera! 100

(You holy Virgin , I call upon you! – the breast of grace, The Lord who rests in you fills you; May your divine fruit be blessed, O the adventurous one among women! Holy Virgin, Mother of God, Raise a prayer for us wretched ones, So that He may look at us with pious eyes When things worsen on the last night!)

The changes made in the paraphrase are enough to differentiate Giselda’s prayer from the actual Ave Maria and consequently to avoid any impression of a liturgical action. The essence of the prayer, however, is not changed. In the opening invocation, “Ave” has been replaced with “Salve” from the beginning of the Salve Regina. The references to il petto (breast) and t’empie il Signore (the Lord fills you) are a circumlocution for “full of grace.” Instead of the biblical Elizabeth’s appellation of “blessed are you among women,” the blessed one is now Jesus. Mary is referred to in a curious way as the adventurous (avventurosa) one. The second half of the prayer still invokes her as “Holy Mary, Mother of God,” although those who seek her intercession are referred to as wretched ones (tapini) instead of as sinners. A reference to the gracious eyes of Mary, again taken from the Salve Regina, has been inserted before the final petition. The hour of death is referred to euphemistically as the time of greatest need (Quando ne aggravi - l'ultima sera.) The paraphrase preserves the essential Marian content of the Ave Maria. In its own way, the revised text expresses Mary’s fullness of grace, her unique place among all women, her role as the one who bears Christ and her place as an intercessor to whom those in need can turn. To the credit of the librettist, Temistocle Solera, his combination of two Marian prayers with discrete alterations was able both to satisfy the censors and to preserve the sound theology of the Ave Maria. The musical setting of Giselda’s prayer is an example of how music can express the simplicity and gentleness of devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice. The music is at a relaxed tempo and modest dynamic level. The vocal line is lyrical and accompanied by a homophonic, almost chorale- like chordal texture in the strings with woodwind embellishments. The musical effect is a sense of purity and beauty which is consistent with the essential nature of devotion to Mary as a helper. This scene is an effective example of how music can make a listener aware of a gentle Marian presence. The premonitions of Viclinda and Giselda turn out to be well-founded. Pagano has indeed come with the intent to kill Arvino in revenge. In a critical scene, however, Pagano mistakenly

100 I Lombardi, 85-89. For clarity and simplicity, quotations from an opera’s libretto will be cited using the title of the opera, rather tham the composer;s name.

32 kills his father. As a result, Pagano decides to flee and becomes a hermit. Arvino is later chosen to lead a crusade. Additional Marian content is found in the second act, which takes place in Antioch during the actual crusade. Arvino is among the crusaders besieging the city, and his daughter Giselda has been taken prisoner by the Muslims. She is now a member of the harem of the Muslim prince Oronte, whose mother is secretly a Christian. Oronte has fallen in love with Giselda and sings an aria about her. The text establishes a form of Marian exemplarity, which will become more important during the final stages of the opera (O madre mia! . . .Come poteva un angelo crear sì puro il Cielo/O my mother . . . how could heaven create so pure an angel.)101 This description of a pure creature created by heaven can be construed as an oblique reference to sinlessness and the Immaculate Conception. Oronte is attracted to Giselda because of her purity. That purity is depicted in Oronte’s aria, both in the text and in the fluid musical texture of the accompaniment. Because of enculturation, a reference to purity would have a Marian association for an Italian audience. Verdi has used music to support the text’s implication of a Marian presence. Since this aria is sung in the presence of Oronte’s mother, a veiled reference to the Immaculate Conception takes place within a maternal context. Later in the second act, a poignant scene occurs in which Giselda expresses her internal conflict between her loyalty to the Christian crusaders outside the city, and her to Oronte, the Muslim prince who is their enemy:

Oh madre, dal cielo soccorri al mio pianto, Soccorri al mio core, che pace ha perduto! Perche mi lasciasti?... d'affetto non santo M'aggravan le pene!... Deh porgimi aiuto! Se vano è il pregare che a me tu ritorni. Pregare mi valga d'ascendere a te.102

(Oh mother, from heaven succor my tears, Succor my heart, which has lost its peace! Why have you left me? The unholy affection Increases my pain! ... Ah, give me help! If it is vain to pray that you come back to me. I pray that I may be worthy to ascend to you.)

Giselda’s plea for assistance from Mary contains typical elements of devotion to la Madonna as Aiuto dei Cristiani. Mary is referred to as a mother in heaven, who comforts those in distress. There is a strong sense of Marian presence, which has been lost because of Giselda’s illicit love and consequent conflict and suffering. If Mary cannot comfort Giselda, then Giselda desires to die and ascend to heaven, where she can be with Mary. The music of this episode, which is at times restless, at times peaceful, underlines Giselda’s conflicted emotions. The combination of words and music create the impression that Giselda is speaking to Mary as if la Madonna is physically present. Giselda’s aria expresses the belief that true happiness is not possible without

101 I Lombardi, 150-151. 102 I Lombardi, 200-201

33 a real union with Mary. Giselda’s sentiment is similar to Don Bosco’s belief that Marian devotion is essential for salvation. The final Marian reference in I Lombardi takes place in the concluding act. The crusaders have captured Antioch and are now outside Jerusalem. Oronte has died from wounds received in battle with them. Shortly before his death, through the influence of his mother and the love of Giselda, he received Christian baptism. Now he appears to Giselda in a vision and tells her that through her he has been saved. (In cielo benedetto, Giselda, per te sono! I am blessed in heaven, Giselda, through you.) 103 The Marian exemplarity of Giselda’s character has reached its fulfillment. In an analogy to Mary’s spiritual maternity, through which she leads her children to Christ, Giselda has led Oronte to salvation in heaven. In the final stages of the opera, Giselda’s exemplarity is illustrated in two more dramatic events. First, as the crusaders are languishing because of thirst in the desert outside Jerusalem, it is Giselda who informs them that a spring of water had been found. Second, in the last scene of the opera, Giselda helps to reconcile Arvino, her father, with his vengeful brother Pagano. Both incidents are exemplary of Marian intercession. The opera can now end in a nationalistic triumph as the crusaders look forward to a glorious conquest of Jerusalem. In I Lombardi, the portrayal of Mary as Ausiliatrice and the use of Marian exemplarity serve to enhance the positive conclusion of the story. Giselda’s Marian devotion is used to characterize her pious nature and to accentuate the difficulties she faces as a Christian confined in a Muslim harem. That devotion produces a spiritual fruitfulness which, exemplary of Mary, has a positive influence on Oronte and assists the crusaders in their efforts to capture the Holy Land. There was no reason for the ecclesiastical leaders at the time of the opera’s premiere to be concerned about a work of art which presents Marian devotion in a sympathetic manner. The praying of the paraphrased Ave Maria takes place in a non-liturgical setting. Giselda provides a fine example of proper Marian devotion and evangelizes a non-Christian. The depiction of Giselda as an exemplar of Mary should instead have been familiar to ecclesiastic leaders. She is an example of a recurring feature in the Dolce Stil Novo of medieval Italian poetry. Giselda fulfills the literary device of a beloved woman who is represented as the “donna angelo.” As an “angel woman,” Giselda is a source of blessing to others. This influence of medieval poetry on the story and libretto of I Lombardi enriches the opera’s positive portrayal of Marian devotion.104

Ricci: La Festa di Piedigrotta

Written by Luigi Ricci (1805-1859) and premiered in in 1852, La Festa di Piedigrotta is almost completely forgotten today. 105 The work is nevertheless worthy of consideration because of its depiction of Marian devotion in Naples during the 1850’s. The opera is set during the feast of the Piedigrotta, which at the time of the opera’s composition was celebrated annually in Naples from the night of September 7 to September 8. The feast is associated with a grotto near a tunnel used by slaves during the time of the Roman emperor Nero. According to legend, a shrine was built at the grotto early in the Christian era. In 1453, the Blessed

103 I Lombardi. 274-285. The apparition of Oronte fulfills the typical bel canto dramatic device in which the female protagonist experiences a supernatural event. 104 The author is indebted to Andrea Chiodo, a retired member of the foreign languages faculty of the University of Dayton, for pointing out the use of the donna angelo literary device in I Lombardi. 105 Julian Budden, “Luigi Ricci” in Groves, Volume 21, 320-321.

34 Mother appeared at the site to three individuals and requested that a church be built there. This was done and the location of that church is the source of the name “Piedigrotta/at the foot of the shrine.” It is likely that the feast of September 8 originated in the late 14th or early 15th century. The first historical record of the feast dates from 1487. Still later, in 1737, King Charles III of Spain, in gratitude for a military victory at Velletri, added a military parade. Eventually, the feast became a major annual event in Naples and included processions, gay costumes and a great deal of revelry, celebration and singing. Music contests associated with the festival are the source of what is known today as Neapolitan song.106 The action of the opera takes place against the background of this Marian feast. As a , the story involves romantic misunderstandings and eventual reconciliation among various married couples and young persons. Although the light-hearted mood of the opera has a Marian ambience because of the setting, the only specifically Marian content is found in the third act, which takes place in one of the taverns in the quarter of Naples surrounding the grotto.107 An important reference to the grotto itself occurs in the opera’s final scene, when the entire cast, in gratitude for reconciliation from their amorous misadventures, drinks a toast to the Piedigrotta. This toast is in effect a toast to Mary, who is the woman of the Piedigrotta shrine. The music of the opera does not exhibit any specifically Marian characteristics or associations until this final scene. The work does include many examples of popular Neapolitan music, such as serenades and dance numbers. The opera’s conclusion is a rousing Tarantella, which is the only part of the opera which is still performed with any frequency.108 The use of popular musical forms in La Festa di Piedigrotta is an example of another dimension of the power of music as a language. Light music preoccupied with romantic love is consistent with the style and creates a suitable atmosphere for the celebration of the feast of September 8. The intercession of the woman of the Piedigrotta at the opera’s conclusion takes place in a festive setting which has been created by music and therefore has a light touch which sparkles within the context of reconciled romantic love. Although La Festa di Piedigrotta is not an important part of the operatic repertoire, the depiction of the feast of the September 8 does provide insight into the state of Marian devotion in Naples in the first half of the 19th century. A feast, established by the king of Spain in honor of

106 A few details of the history of the Piedigrotta shrine which influenced the opera’s composition are summarized in the introduction to the opera’s libretto in Luigi Ricci, La Festa di Piedigrotta (Napoli: Stabilmento Musicale T. Cottrau), 7-8. This text is the only readily available source for the opera’s libretto and story. A more detailed presentation of the history of the Piedigrotta church is found in Claudio Canzanella, La Madonna di Piedigrotta Il culto, il mito il storia (Napoli: Edizione Scientifiche Italiane, 1999), 29-57. Canzella later discusses the development of feast of September 8 and its eventual decline (Canzella, 87-104). Despite the influence of the Piedigrotta church and its associated history, no at the site has ever been officially approved by the Catholic hierarchy. 107 The Marrienlexicon indicates that Mary appears as a member of the cast. However, a careful review of the original libretto by the author did not identify any appearance of Mary. She is not listed as a member of the cast and she is not invoked until the toast in the tavern at end of the opera. The Marienlexikon does refer to the legendary character of the story. That reference work’s intention may be to indicate that Mary is present as a result of the celebration of the feast which commemorates the legendary character of her appearance at the grotto. See K. Küppers, “Oper” in Marienlexikon, Band 5, 695 (St. Ottilien EOS-Verl. 1993). It is worth noting that a review of the libretto is a difficult undertaking, since the text is based on a Neapolitan dialect. Unfortunately, there does not appear to be an English translation available. The analysis and conclusions presented here are consequently of a tentative character. 108 The author could not locate a currently available commercial recording of the opera, although an old recording is found online at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=an5_I8Eq4fg&t=1574s.

35 Mary’s help, had become a significant event in Neapolitan life. The characters of the opera recognize that the woman of the Piedigrotta shrine (Mary) has helped them to overcome the consequences of their romantic misadventures. These considerations indicate a high degree of enculturation, which was aware of Mary’s presence and appreciated her role as Aiuto dei Cristiani, although in the present case her help occurs within a specifically comic context.

Verdi: La Forza del Destino

Verdi became the leading composer of opera in Italy during the second half of the 19th century. A fine example of his mature work is La Forza del Destino (1862), a complex tale of forbidden love, accidental death, murder and revenge, which plays out through the course of the intersecting lives of its principal characters.109 Although is the central theme, important dramatic events take place in a specifically Marian context. In musical terms, Forza is a considerable advance over I Lombardi. Verdi has moved beyond the conventions of the bel canto style to produce a more unified musical structure with rich, colorful harmonies, extensive rhythmic diversity and complex textures. The music produces a dark atmosphere which is punctuated by episodes of hope and consolation. The dramatic power of the Marian episodes is enhanced by the opera’s musical ethos. The opera is set in Spain in the middle of the 18th century. The story develops from the unhappy love affair of Donna Leonora, the daughter of the Marquis of Caltrava, and the nobleman Don Alvaro. Leonora’s father does not approve of their romantic liaison because Alvaro lacks sufficient social standing. A brief Marian exclamation occurs during the opening act. Leonora and Alvaro, along with the maid Curra, are in a room of Leonora’s family residence in Seville. As the pair is planning to escape together, they hear the marquis with a few of his armed men coming up the stairs to their room and then pounding on the door. During this sequence, the maid Curra becomes terrified and exclaims “Vergin Santa!/Holy Virgin!”110 This is a typical example of a Marian exclamation used for dramatic effect and an indication of the degree of Marian familiarity during Verdi’s time. The maid’s exclamation may be construed as a form of cursing. Later in this scene, Don Alvaro accidently kills the marquis, a death Leonora’s brother Don Carlo seeks to avenge. Two further Marian references occur during the second scene of act two, after Leonora has decided, in typical operatic manner, to escape her unhappy love affair and her brother’s vengeance by entering religious life. (Leonora believes she is partially responsible for the accidental death of her father at the hands of her lover.) The scene begins as Leonora arrives in a rural location near the village Hornechuelos at the Church of Our Lady of the Angels. In the aria “Sono giunta!/I have arrived” she first thanks God for the safe conclusion of her flight and then prays to Mary for forgiveness.111 The music of the lovely aria expresses both Leonora’s anguish of soul as well as the peace which she seeks to find in religious life. After her prayer, Leonora is comforted when she hears a chorus of monks, who are praying in the church. A monk comes to meet Leonora. As he questions her, Leonora must convince him to allow her to begin a hermit’s life in one of the nearby caves. When the skeptical monk seems difficult

109 Giuseppe Verdi. La Forza del Destino (Milan:G. Ricordi, 1904. Reprinted: Mineola: Dover Publications, 1991). 110 La Forza del Destino, 89. 111 La Forza del Destino, 204 ff.

36 and uncooperative, Leonora turns to the la Vergine for help. Devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice occurs in its simplest form in Leonora’s repeated pleas of “Vegine, m’assisti/Virgin, help me.”112 Her request is answered when the monk does agree to accept Leonora. Before she becomes a hermit, however, Leonora must first enter the church and receive forgiveness for her sins. As the absolved Leonora leaves the church, the primary Marian reference in the scene occurs. Singing a majestic hymn, the monks invoke the Virgin of the Angels and ask her to protect Leonora (La Vergine degli Angeli, mi copra del suo manto/Virgin of the Angels, cover me in your mantel).113 The hymn develops through a series of interchanges between Leonora and the chorus of monks. After a brief musical climax, the scene comes to a quiet close in which the music expresses a radiant atmosphere with a strong sense of Marian presence. These Marian references in the second act of La Forza del Destino present devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani by using both expository and devotional elements. The expository aspect is present when the distressed Leonora turns to Mary for forgiveness. The asking of Mary for forgiveness works dramatically within the context of the opera’s storyline. Because of enculturation, an Italian audience would associate Marian devotion with penitential prayer (e.g., the second half of the familiar Ave Maria is concerned with forgiveness for sinners). Leonora’s asking for forgiveness sets the scene by establishing a Marian presence as Leonora prepares to enter religious life. The acceptance of Leonora by the monks is an example of Marian intercession in response to a prayer. The devotional element is prominent when the monks consecrate Leonora to religious life. Devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani is expressed here both in terms of protection and of pursuit of purity. When the hymn addresses Mary as “La Vergine degli Angeli/the Virgin of the Angels,” an aura of safety and purity surrounds Leonora. The text invokes Mary’s protection by using the image of her mantle, which will cover and protect Leonora. The magnificent music of the hymn is an example of how music as a language can express safety and protection. The scene becomes a powerful example of Benedict XVI’s assertion that music can lead a listener to a perception of the sacred. Verdi has created a beautiful Marian ambiance through which the purity of Leonora’s character radiates. Tragically, that aura of purity adds poignancy to the final scene in act four of La Forza del Destino. The dramatic action is again set in the rural scene by the Church of Our Lady of the Angels. This setting now serves the expository purpose of creating a Marian atmosphere which hovers over the climactic events. Don Alvaro, after some unhappy experiences in the Spanish Army, has decided to enter the monastery connected with the church, while Leonora still lives as a hermit in a nearby cave. Leonora’s brother Don Carlo, still seeking to avenge his father’s death, arrives in pursuit of Don Alvaro. A duel takes place, and Alvaro mortally wounds Carlo. When Leonora learns her brother is dying, she goes to him. When she meets him, his anger over his father’s death causes him to vengefully stab his innocent sister in the heart. As the opera ends, Alvaro and the dying Leonora pray together in the presence of a priest from the monastery. The theology is sound: the priest exhorts the pair to be humble before the God who leads them to eternal life. Despite the encouragement of the priest, Alvaro still struggles with feelings of guilt and bitterness, since he has killed Carlo and indirectly caused Leonora’s death.

112 La Forza del Destino, 221 113 La Forza del Destino, 281-288.

37 With her last breath, Leonora now becomes a Marian exemplar. In a phrase which echoes the Marian themes of prayer and repentance, Leonora tells Alvaro “Di Dio il perdon io ti prometto. Prega!/I promise you forgiveness from God. Pray!”114 The exemplarity is confirmed in the final words which the priest speaks to Alvaro as Leonora expires:

Santa del suo martirio, ella al Signor ascenda, e il suo morire ne apprenda la fede, la pietà!115

(Holy through her martyrdom, may she ascend to the Lord, May her death teach you the faith and devotion.)

Occurring in a setting before the Church of Our Lady of the Angels, the martyrdom of a female character, who then ascends to the Lord, establishes a parallel with the suffering of Mary on Calvary and her later Assumption into heaven. This connection becomes more pronounced when Leonora’s death has a beneficial effect on Alvaro in a manner which is analogous to Mary’s role as Ausiliatrice. Through Leonora, Álvaro learns the real meaning of faith and devotion. As he struggles to overcome his bitterness and anger, Leonora assists him in the pursuit of purity. In the transformation of Alvaro, Leonora exhibits an important aspect of Mary’s spiritual maternity. Leonora leads her conflicted brother forward on his pilgrimage of faith. She encourages him to undertake spiritual practices, such as prayer, which will benefit him. As a teacher, she imparts to Alvaro a better understanding of the faith and devotion. Leonora’s actions on behalf of Alvaro reflect a function which Vatican II confirmed Mary herself exercises as part of her spiritual maternity on behalf of all Christians.116

Boito: Mefistofele

Although (1842-1918) is best known as the librettist for some of Verdi’s later operas, he was also a composer and an important political writer in support of the Risorgimento.117 His musical reputation rests exclusively on a single work, the opera Mefistofele (1868).118 This work, which is structured in a Prologue, four acts and an Epilogue, is based on Goethe’s Faust. The essence of the story is that the old man Faust makes a pact with the devil: in exchange for Faust’s soul, he has an opportunity to be young again. The action of the opera traces the course of Faust’s adventures after he is once again a young man. The opera’s Prologue is a truly unique and original operatic conception. Boito structures it in five sections, which mirror the standard sections of the symphony with the addition of a second scherzo.119 This structure serves as an effective musical device to portray heaven and the activities

114 La Forza del Destino, 605. The influence of recent apparitions on popular devotion is present in these phrases. Prayer, repentance, and forgiveness were central themes of the Mary’s message at Lourdes some fourteen years before the composition of La Forza del Destino. 115 La Forza del Destino, 609. 116 Lumen Gentium 65 describes Mary’s role in leading Christians as they progress in the knowledge and practice of the faith. 117 William Ashbrook, “Arrigo Boito” in Groves, Volume 3, 810-815. 118 Arrigo Boito, Mefistofele (Boston: Oliver Ditson & Co., 1880). 119 A scherzo is a fast dance movement, usually in triple time. The term literally means “joke.” The origin of the scherzo is found in the of Beethoven, who used the scherzo to replace the slower and statelier minuet which had been customary previously. Boito includes two scherzi in his Prologue. Each is associated with angels:

38 which take place there. 120 The divine presence, in the company of the angelic host, is felt throughout the Prologue. The final section is the primary locus for the Prologue’s Marian content. To appreciate the meaning of that Marian content, a brief survey of the other sections is necessary. The opening section of the Prologue depicts the scene in heaven. In its initial stages, the music presents three important motives with heavenly denotations. A brass fanfare announces the presence of God. A chorale-like passage in the woodwinds is associated with the presence of the angels. A hymn in praise of the Lord (“Ave Signore/Prasie the Lord”) is sung by the entire angelic chorus.121 These three motives will recur at critical points during the subsequent course of the Prologue. After this majestic portrayal of the heavenly scene, the second section, a lumbering scherzo, announces the presence of the devil. During the third section, in more moderate tempo, the devil makes his accusations against Faust and receives God’s permission to try to tempt the old man. The fourth section is another scherzo, much faster than previously, which depicts the cherubim as they scurry about in heaven. The fifth section, which serves as the Prologue’s finale, begins with a hymn in honor of Mary as la Regina di cielo.122 Her presence among the angels is now revealed. The three important musical motives heard in the Prologue’s opening section now return. They are transformed and given new associations to illustrate both Mary’s role as a heavenly intercessor and her special place in heaven. The relationship between Mary and the angels is portrayed musically, when this final section commences with the Salve Regina. The prayer is set to the woodwind motive which was previously associated with the angels and which is now sung by the angels themselves. Boito’s setting of the Salve Regina uses music to make a subtle connection between Mary and angels and indicates that he intended to portray Mary as la Regina degli angeli. The musical discourse continues with other angels joining the Salve Regina hymn. These angels sing rapidly with an unceasing chatter. The result is polyphonic music with a double texture: one group of angels sings the Salve Regina, while another group presents the prayers of the faithful to la Regina. 123 Boito’s use of this two-layered structure becomes an effective means of depicting devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice in terms of her role in heaven as spiritual mother and intercessor.

the first with a fallen angel, the devil, and the second with the cherubim. Mary later appears only in conjunction with the cherubim and other faithful angels. 120 Boito’s use of the symphonic form is used to make a subtle Marian point. During Boito’s lifetime, a symphony typically consisted of four movements. The opening movement was usually in a fast allegro tempo, was the longest in duration, and contained the greatest dramatic contrasts. The second was typically a slow and lyrical movement in andante or adagio tempo. The third movement was a dance movement, usually a scherzo (see previous footnote). The finale was originally a short and fast rondo, but during Boito’s lifetime the weight of the symphonic form often shifted to the finale. A finale could now rival the first movement in duration and breadth of musical content. This transference of musical weight to the finale is observable in Boito’s Prologue. The final section is the most elaborate of the five sections. Because the final section of the Prologue is the place where Mary appears, one can infer that Boito used a development in symphonic form to emphasize the importance of both Mary and her place in heaven. Boito follows the standard symphonic pattern with the exception that he has inserted an additional scherzo after the opening section. As mentioned in the previous footnote, each scherzo is associated with a group of angels. Boito uses the double scherzo structure to musically depict the separation of the faithful angels and Mary from the devil and the other fallen angels. 121 Mefistofele, 3; 4; 8-10. 122 Mefistofele, 39. 123 “Polyphonic” refers to a music in which more than one melodic line is heard simultaneously.

39 It is only natural that such a depiction of Mary’s spiritual maternity should include the recitation of the Ave Maria and soon the angelic begins to repeat the words “Ave Maria, gratia plena.”124 The repetition of the opening words of the Ave Maria is used to express Mary’s intercessory role and great holiness, which are both consequences of her fullness of grace. The influence of recent magisterial activity is present here, since Mary’s holiness had been a primary feature in the definition of the Immaculate Conception a decade before the composition of the opera.125 The music now moves into the truly critical passage in this final section of the Prologue. First, the angelic choir reduces “Ave Maria” to just a single word, “Ave:”126 The repeated “Aves” form a truly extraordinary passage of ascending harmonies based on a sequence of minor and augmented chords. A crescendo begins. The effect is to create an urgent sense of direction as the music grows in volume and power. After a final moment of great tension, the sequence of “Aves” reaches its goal, the “Ave Signore” hymn, which was heard at the opening of the Prologue.127 The word “Ave” has served as a link in a musical and textual transition: “Ave Maria” has become “Ave Signore.” In this manner, Boito connects Marian devotion with praise of God. This relationship becomes even more prominent in the Prologue’s massive final peroration, when the brass fanfare associated with God’s presence returns in full cry amidst the fortissimo strength of the orchestra and chorus. The Prologue’s final section has connected organically, in both musical and literary terms, Salve Regina and Ave Signore. Both music and text function together as languages of artistic expression in a context which makes the listener aware of the divine presence and Mary’s place in heaven as an intercessor who leads people to God. During the opening stages of the ensuing first act, a crowd scene takes place at a festival. Faust is enjoying his new-found youth together with his companion Wagner. In the background, a somewhat mysterious monk is carrying a rosary. Unknown to Faust and Wagner, the monk is the devil, who has deceptively taken on a religious habit and rosary in order to secretly shadow Faust, his prey. In this scene, the rosary is used for the expository purpose of emphasizing the deceitfulness of the devil’s character and outward appearance. In the following acts of the opera, Faust has a series of unhappy experiences in which he lives out his rediscovered youthfulness. Faust meets the young girl Margareta. They fall in love and have a child. The devil, to increase his hold on Faust, takes him to a witches’ sabbath, during which Faust has a vision of Margareta in prison. Tragically, the vision comes true. Margareta has poisoned her mother and drowned the child, because her mother would not let her marry Faust. After Margareta dies in prison, the devil takes Faust back in time to meet Helen of Troy. Faust and Helen have a brief affair, but it comes to nothing. During the opera’s Epilogue, Faust has returned to his study and is reflecting on the vanity of his experiences. In the final scene of the Epilogue, Faust is presented with an opportunity to make a definitive choice between following the devil or the Gospel. To the devil’s dismay, Faust chooses the Gospel. As Faust experiences redemption, an additional and rather amusing reference to Mary takes place. The angelic choir of “Ave Signore” from the Prologue returns to celebrate Faust’s deliverance and to clinch the opera’s conclusion. Such a massive hymn of praise to God causes great consternation to the devil, who complains loudly that he is unable to bear the presence of the

124 Mefistofele, 41. 125 Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (December 8, 1854) promulgated the definition of the Immaculate Conception. 126 Mefistofele, 46-47. 127 Mefistofele, 48-51

40 Gospel or the singing of the heavenly choir of angels. As the devil whistles, whines, covers his ears and grovels on the ground, his affliction only gets worse when he is showered with roses.128 Roses are associated with Mary and although there is no explicit reference to her in the opera’s stage directions, one can infer that Boito used the image of a groveling devil under a shower of roses to illustrate that the devil’s final defeat in the opera has a Marian dimension.129

Ponchielli: La Gioconda

This work is an example of the influence of “.” This genre traces its origin , especially Paris, during the period 1820 to 1850. The distinguishing characteristics of French Grand Opera are an expansive scale (four or five acts), a large cast, elaborate sets, a historical setting and a sequence. The success of French Grand Opera encouraged later composers in other countries to compose in this genre. 130 La Gioconda (1876), written by (1834-1886) to a libretto by Boito, is a late example of such an attempt at Grand Opera by an Italian composer.131 La Gioconda is unique from a Marian perspective, because the rosary plays an important role in the development of the storyline. The second act has the title Il Rosario and an actual rosary becomes an important element in the narrative.132 Other Marian content in the opera includes the praying of the Ave Maria, invocation of Mary’s help, Marian intercession, and an example of Marian exemplarity. Because La Gioconda is a grand opera, this Marian content is placed in an extravagant staging. The opera is set in Venice during the seventeenth century. The story involves some complicated romantic entanglements among many characters, including members of the Inquisition. The title of the opera is the name of the heroine, a street singer whose name translates to “the happy woman.” It is Gioconda who will eventually be transformed into an exemplar of Mary through the effect of the rosary. The first act takes place in a courtyard outside the palace of the doge, a local political leader. A festival is taking place to mark the last days before the beginning of Lent. Gioconda and her blind mother, La Cieca, are walking across the courtyard, when they are confronted by the evil Barnaba, a spy for the Inquisition. Barnaba is attracted to Gioconda and has been pursuing her romantically for some time. When Cieca hears Barnaba approach, she takes her rosary out of her pocket.133 After Gioconda rebuffs Barnaba, he becomes angry and vengefully accuses her mother of being a witch who has influenced the result of a regatta (boat race) during the festival. Terrified, Cieca grasps her rosary and prays the Ave Maria. 134 The blind mother’s invocation of Mary is a simple example of an endangered operatic character turning to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani. When a mob of onlookers, incited by Barnaba’s accusations, threatens to attack Cieca, a boat captain named Enzo intervenes and saves her. Shortly afterwards, the local head of the Inquisition, Alvise, and his wife Laura appear. When the couple realizes what has just

128 Mefistofele, 261-271. 129 Boito does not make great use of the literary theme of the “eternal feminine,” which is an essential aspect of Goethe’s original and is one of the important ways Romanticism influenced Marian devotion (see page 16). 130 Julian Budden and Fedele D;Amico, “Amilcare Ponchielli” in Groves, Volume 20, 88-91. 131 Amilcare Ponchielli, La Gioconda. (Milan, D. Ricordi, 1904; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, ca 1950). 132 La Gioconda, 195. 133 La Gioconda, 48. 134 La Gioconda, 52.

41 occurred, Laura takes Cieca under her personal protection. Seeing Cieca’s rosary, Laura tells the violent crowd that a woman who carries a rosary cannot be a witch. (“Essa ha un rosario! No, l'inferno non è con quella pia./She has a rosary! No, hell is not with that pious woman.”)135 In gratitude, Cieca gives the rosary, her most prized possession, to Laura and makes a prophecy:

A te questo Rosario Che le preghiere aduna. Io te lo porgo, accettalo, Ti porterà fortuna; Sulla tua testa vigili La mia benedizion.136

(This Rosary is for you With my prayers added to it. I give it to you, accept it, It will bring you luck; May my blessing Remain on your head.)

Laura’s possession of the rosary and Cieca’s prophecy now become important dramatic elements as the story develops. To understand why this is so, it is necessary to explain the romantic entanglements of the story. Gioconda and Laura are rivals for the love of the captain Enzo. Laura desperately wants to visit him. Because of her husband Alvise, she can only come to Enzo secretly at night by taking a rowboat from the shore into the harbor where Enzo’s vessel is anchored. The spy Barnaba offers to help her, because he sees an opportunity to improve his chances with Gioconda. During the second act, which, as mentioned above, is titled Il Rosario, Barnaba takes Laura to Enzo’s ship. Enzo and Laura have a happy reunion, and then Enzo leaves her alone on deck as he goes below and prepares his ship for departure. As she waits, Laura anxiously realizes the danger she faces if she leaves with Enzo. She knows her husband Alvise will pursue and kill her. In a gentle but anguished aria, she turns to Mary for help:

Stella del marinar! Vergine Santa, Tu mi difendi in quest' ora suprema, Tu vedi quanta passïone e quanta Fede mi trasse a tale audacia estrema! Sotto il tuo velo che i prostrati ammanta Ricovera costei che prega e trema, Scenda per questa fervida orazion Sul capo mio, Madonna del perdon, Una benedizion.137

Star of the mariner! Holy Virgin,

135 La Gioconda, 116. 136 La Gioconda, 119-121. 137 La Gioconda, 260-264.

42 May you defend me in this supreme hour, You see how much passion and how much Faith brought me to such great difficulty! Under your veil that cloaks the prostrate Bring her that prays and trembles, Through this fervent oration May a blessing descend on my head, Madonna of forgiveness.

Essential elements of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Christiani are present in Laura’s aria. The Vergine Santa is invoked as Stella del marinar, an Italian equivalent to Maris Stella. The use of this title, which invokes Mary in terms of a star guiding sailors across the sea. is appropriate, since the scene takes place on a ship in a harbor. In another operatic reference to Mary’s mantle, Laura asks the Vergine Santa for protection. The sense of Mary’s presence is prominent when Laura asks Mary to forgive the sin of marital infidelity. The restless and chromatic musical setting expresses Laura’s anxiety and reinforces the perception of a Marian presence as Laura prays. When Laura invokes Mary’s blessing, the music takes on a more hopeful and confident character. Gioconda, however, has followed Laura and seeks to eliminate a romantic rival. As they confront one another on the deck of Enzo’s ship, Gioconda draws a knife to kill Laura. At this very moment, Gioconda sees that Laura is grasping her mother’s rosary and hears Laura plead to Mary “Vergin, m’aita! Vergine!/Virgin, help me! Virgin!”138 The rosary produces an immediate reaction in Gioconda – “Che! quel rosario!/What! that rosary!.”139 At once, Gioconda’s attitude changes. Moved by the sight of the rosary, she now wants to help Laura in any way possible. Laura’s plea to Mary for help has been answered with an act of Marian intercession. In musical terms, Mary’s intercession is accompanied by long-held notes in the upper register of flute and clarinet in octaves. The dynamic level changes from to pianissimo and the notes move upward from E flat to E. This simplicity of musical means corresponds to the simplicity of Laura’s devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Christiani. The music here expresses the gentleness of Marian intercession. Transformed into an exemplar of Mary, Gioconda embodies important aspects of an Ausiliatrice, since she will now act only as a helper and intercessor. This change in Gioconda has immediate results. When the two women realize that Laura’s husband has sent armed men out to the ship in pursuit of his unfaithful wife, Gioconda helps Laura into a rowboat, and Laura makes her escape. The third act takes place in the palace of Alvise and Laura. Alvise has finally been able to capture his cheating wife and has brought her back to their palace, where she is held captive. The angry husband demands that Laura take poison, because he desires that she be damned for self- murder. Gioconda; in an act which can again be interpreted as an exemplar of Marian intercession, once more intervenes on behalf of her former romantic rival. Having secretly followed Laura home, Gioconda substitutes a powerful drug for the poison. When Laura takes it, the imprisoned wife simply falls into a deep sleep, although everyone else believes that Laura has died. As the third act ends, preparations are made for Laura’s funeral, while Enzo, who has tried to kill Alvise in revenge for Laura’s apparent death, is captured by Alvise’s henchmen.

138 La Gioconda, 281. 139 La Gioconda, 281.

43 The dramatic tensions of La Gioconda are resolved during its fourth and final act, in which the stage action includes a culminating example of Marian exemplarity. Gioconda has been able to secure Enzo’s release only by agreeing to give herself to the spy Barnaba. She has arranged with Barnaba that they will meet in Gioconda’s ruined home, where Enzo will be released. As she waits alone in the ruins for the arrival of Barnaba and Enzo, Gioconda resolves to sacrifice her life so Enzo and Laura can be together. Her sacrifice is not without conflict. She is angry that she cannot be with Enzo (she is still in love with him), yet she is willing to give up her life so that he can be happy with Laura. The music of this scene effectively portrays Gioconda’s anguish as she anticipates her definitive act of self-giving. Barnaba and Enzo arrive. In a final act of assistance to her rival, Gioconda has the body of Laura brought from her tomb and presented to Enzo. His fury at the sight of Laura’s body changes to joy when Laura awakens from the effects of the drug, As Enzo and Laura prepare to leave, Gioconda notices that Laura is still wearing the rosary. This sight reminds Gioconda of her mother’s prophecy (“Che vedo là! Il rosario! oh sommo Dio! Così dicea la profezia profonda. What do I see there! The rosary! O great God! So speaks the profound prophecy.”) 140 Since she intends to give up her life for Enzo and Laura’s sake, Gioconda now realizes that her act of self-sacrifice is the ultimate fulfillment of the prophecy associated with her mother’s rosary. With Gioconda’s assistance, Enzo and Laura escape together. Gioconda is left alone to face Barnaba. When she is unable to evade him, she turns a knife on herself and dies. As is typical for Grand Opera, the plot of La Gioconda contains complexities which can be difficult to follow. Nevertheless, the work exhibits prominent Marian content through the central place given to the rosary and through the transformed character of Gioconda. Devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani is illustrated both in the simple piety of a mother who spontaneously prays the Ave Maria when physically threatened and in the conflicted Laura’s plea for Mary’s help. The mother’s gift of her precious rosary is an indication of the importance to her of Marian devotion. Her rosary later transforms her daughter into a woman who, like Mary, is an active force for the benefit of others. A maternal thread can be traced in this development of the narrative. A mother’s devotion to the rosary results in her daughter acting in a manner which strongly parallels the spiritual maternity of Mary. Although her actions benefit her rival Laura, Gioconda’s intercession is oriented to the real object of her love, Enzo. In parallel with Mary’s self-giving, Gioconda is willing to sacrifice her own happiness in order that Enzo and Laura can be together. Even Gioconda’s death, as a fulfillment of the prophecy associated with the rosary, can be understood as a Marian-like act of total kenosis.

Verdi: Otello

Otello (1887) is the last of Verdi’s dramatic tragic operas.141 The libretto, skillfully written by Boito, follows the plot of the Shakespearean play. The ruler Otello descends from a victorious conqueror into a murderous husband who unjustly kills his wife, Desdemona, in a fit of jealous passion.

140 La Gioconda, 517-518. 141 Giuseppe Verdi, Otello (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1913; reprinted Mineola: Dover Publications, 1986).

44 In musical terms, Otello is distinguished from Verdi’s prior work because of the expanded role which he gives to the orchestra. No longer simply a provider of musical accompaniment, the orchestra becomes a virtuoso participant in the musical discourse and the dramatic action. The opera’s orchestral music narrates the story of the opera with power and subtlety. The opera takes place in Cyprus in the 15th century. As the opera begins, Otello, the governor, returns victorious from a naval battle. Later in the first act, he sings a rapturous love duet with his wife Desdemona. Over the course of the second and third acts, however, the naval officer Iago, who is disgruntled because Otello denied him a promotion, gradually deceives Otello into believing that the innocent Desdemona has been unfaithful. The jealous Otello resolves to kill his wife. As the final act begins, Desdemona has become aware of her husband’s unjust suspicion that she has been unfaithful. The depth in Verdi’s orchestral music enriches the ensuing Marian episode. The scene begins with a quiet instrumental prelude in which the music (repeated notes in the lower register of the clarinets) creates a dark sense of fear. The music effectively expresses Desdemona’s fear and foreboding. The prelude is followed by an exchange between Desdemona and one of her servants. Desdemona then sings the “Willow Song,” in which she expresses her desire to escape from the danger which threatens her. In her repeated cries of “salce/willow,” the willow tree becomes a symbol of protection from danger.142 As the Willow Song ends quietly, the servant leaves and Desdemona kneels and prays to Mary. The symbolic willow tree now is revealed to be an anticipation of the invocation of Mary’s protection. At first, Desdemona recites the opening half of the Ave Maria; some of it literally, the rest in paraphrase:

Ave Maria, piena di grazia, eletta fra le spose e le vergini sei tu, sia benedetto il frutto, o Benedetta, di tue materne viscere, Gesù.143

(Hail Mary, full of grace, chosen among the wives and virgins are you, blessed be the fruit, Blessed One of your maternal depths, Jesus.)

Next, in words which recall the themes of the Magnificat, Desdemona prays for sinners, the poor, the oppressed, and victims of injustice:

Prega per chi, adorando te, si prostra prega pel peccator, per l’innocente, e pel debole oppresso e pel possente, misero anch’esso, tua pietà dimostra. Prega per chi sotto l’oltraggio piega la fronte,

142 Otello, 476. The libretto uses an alternative spelling for the Italian “salice.” 143 Otello, 378-490. As in the case of a I Lombardi, the use of a paraphrase indicates there was still a some need to avoid the impression of the depiction on stage of a liturgical act.

45 e sotto la malvagia sorte.144

(Pray for those who, prostrate, adore you, Pray for the sinner, for the innocent. And for the poor oppressed and to the powerful one, Who is also in misery, show your compassion. Pray for those made low before injustice, Who bow their heads before evil fate.)

Devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice is combined with desperation when Desdemona, returning to the Ave Maria, concludes with a series of petitions asking for the Holy Virgin’s help at the hour of death: Per noi, per noi tu prega, prega sempre,e nell’ora della morte nostra, prega per noi, prega per noi,prega! Ave Maria ... nell’ora della morte. Ave! Amen!145

For us, for us pray, pray always, in the hour of our death, pray for us, pray for us pray! Hail Mary ... .in the hour of death. Hail! Amen!

After Desdemona has completed her Marian prayer and fallen asleep, the mood changes. What follows is an extraordinary example of a powerful effect achieved by the simplest of musical means. A single pianissimo low E on the double basses announces the sinister figure of Otello as he emerges from the shadows and enters into Desdemona’s room. He awakens his wife with three kisses. After a final exchange with his wife, he strangles her in jealous rage. When he later learns that the innocent Desdemona had actually been faithful to him, he remorsefully kills himself in despair. As this final scene unfolds, the use of Marian devotion increases the dramatic tension which results from Desdemona’s anxiety for her life. Verdi’s use of such a dramatic device indicates that the simple Marian piety demonstrated by Desdemona was a common practice. An operatic audience of the time would have responded to this portrayal. The cultural importance of Marian devotion is implied in Otello’s question to Desdemona when, just before murdering her, he asks her whether she has prayed, because he does not want her to die unprepared. This final scene in Otello is not a portrayal of effective Marian intercession. Verdi perhaps had some ironic or polemic intention, since Desdemona is murdered after praying the last line of the Hail Mary with its reference to the hour of death. Whatever Verdi’s purpose, the use of Marian devotion enhances the depiction of the sweetness and innocence of Desdemona. That depiction adds additional irony to the action when her deluded husband murders her. The concluding sequence of Otello illustrates how a reference to Marian piety can contribute to the dramatic development and action within the plot of an opera.

144 Otello, 490-491. 145 Otello, 491-492.

46

Summary of Chapter 3

The examples analyzed in this chapter indicate the diversity of the operatic portrayal of Marian devotion. That portrayal is closely associated with Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani and Ausiliatrice. Important characteristics of the devotion, such as Marian presence, pursuit of purity, and protection from danger, are all included. This prevalence of Mary as Ausiliatrice will become more marked, however, in the next chapter with the onset of the Verismo period.

47 Chapter 4: The Marian Operatic Presence during the Verismo Period

The year 1890 is an important milestone in Italian opera, because it marks the beginning of the Verismo period. As described above (page 18), the Verismo period saw a greater emphasis on real life characters in real-life situations. The result in operatic terms was an even more extensive Marian presence.

Mascagni: Cavalleria Rusticana

The first important example of the Verismo style is Cavalleria Rusticana (1890) by (1863-1945).146 The work, whose title means “rustic chivalry,” is set in a rural Sicilian village which is immersed in Catholic imagery. This ambience is evidence of enculturation and is enhanced by the device of placing the action on Easter Sunday. The celebration of one of the holiest days of the liturgical year forms an effective foil to the storyline of infidelity, jealousy, despair and revenge. The libretto is based on a novella of the same name by Giovanni Verga, an important writer of the Verismo movement. Verga sought to portray the reality of life in Italy, particularly in Sicily, after unification and the idealism of Risorgimento.147 Two couples form the basis for the story of Cavalleria Rusticana. The first is Turiddu and Santuzza, who are not married but have been romantically involved in the past. The second is the married couple Alfio and Lola. Santuzza still loves Turiddu, but he has been secretly seeing Lola while Alfio is away from the village on business,

The opening stages of the opera present this romantic conflict. Alfio then returns to the village and senses that his wife has been unfaithful. The stage is now set for the “rustic chivalry” of the opera’s title, a showdown between Turiddu and Alfio. There is a pause as the villagers gather outside the local church for Easter morning Mass. At this point, the strongest Marian content in the opera emerges: the assembly begins to sing the Regina Coeli softly in Latin. This scene exemplifies the connection between Mary, music and the liturgy, since the celebration of Easter Mass is naturally accompanied by the singing of a Marian antiphon. As more and more villagers gradually gather, the music grows in intensity. The staging of this scene may even include a procession which includes Marian statues, images or iconography. The language switches to Italian, but the subject is still an expression of joy in the Resurrection. The music grows to a great climax, which involves the full orchestra, vocal soloists and chorus. The power of the music in this episode evokes both the celebratory mood of Easter morning and a strong Marian presence. Mascagni has created a magnificent example of how music can lead a listener to the perception of the divine. A second Marian reference occurs in the next scene. Santuzza, unhappy that she has been spurned by Turiddu and fearful of the outcome of his impending confrontation with Alfio, is explaining the reasons for her sorrow to Turridu’s mother, Lucia. Santuzza asks Lucia to pray to the Savior that Santuzza might be reconciled with Turiddu. Lucia agrees to do so, and as she is

146 Michele Giardi, “Pietro Mascagni” in Groves, Volume 16, 21-25. Also M. Sansone, “Verismo” in Groves, Volume 26, 477-478. 147 Pietro Mascagni, Cavalleria Rusticana (: Bote & Bock, 1920; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, 1950).

48 leaving to go to the church, she adds the exclamation “Ajutatela voi, Santa Maria!/Help her, Holy Mary!”148 Once again, an operatic character has turned to Mary as Ausiliatrice in a time of need. Unfortunately, in this case there is no happy ending. Turiddu refuses to listen to Santuzza’s pleas to stay away from Lola. After Easter Mass, the villagers have a celebration in the town square at which a great deal of wine is consumed by all. Alfio challenges Turiddu to a duel to the death. In one of the great operatic scenes for , a tipsy Turiddu sings a farewell aria to his mother Lucia before departing for the duel. The opera comes to a tragic conclusion when Alfio kills Turiddu during their duel. The celebration of Easter and resurrection has descended into a jealous act of murder. Despite this unhappy denouement, Marian devotion has an important place in the story of Cavalleria Rusticana. Mascagni’s use of the Regina Coeli allows Marian devotion to serve two dramatic purposes. First, the joyful singing of ordinary people occurs in a Marian liturgical context and contrasts with the base emotions which characterize the romantic entanglements of the principal characters. That contrast enhances the opera’s escalating sense of tragedy. Second, the Regina Coeli episode, using full orchestral and vocal forces, extends the musical structure of the opera in a way which gives the dramatic structure a necessary sense of the passage of time. This temporal extension is another device which enhances the escalating sense of tragedy. Since Marian devotion is so enculturated in the opera’s setting, it is appropriate that Mascagni would use the singing of the Regina Coeli on Easter morning to give his opera a sense of dramatic progression. Similarly, the use of Marian devotion gives the ensuing episode between Santuzza and Lucia additional emotional impact. The enculturated Catholicism of the rural Sicilian setting provides a natural environment for invocation of Mary as Ausiliatrice. The result is a greater sense of desperation when Lucia turns to Mary for assistance. One mother turns to another mother for help on behalf of a son who is in danger and his girlfriend who is unhappy in love. In the exchange between Santuzza and Lucia, Mascagni provides another example of how Marian references can enhance the effectiveness of an operatic episode.

Leoncavallo: Pagliacci

Completed by Ruggero Leoncavallo in 1892, Pagliacci, with its images of clowns, drums and the sobbing tenor of the great aria “”, is the opera most iconic and recognizable to the general public.149 Like Cavalleria Rusticana, with which it is often paired in performance, Pagliacci is an early example of the Verismo style. The setting is a rural village in in southern Italy, where a small traveling troupe of actors (the “clowns” or “players” of the opera’s title), arrives for their next performance. In a further parallel to Cavalleria Rusticana, Pagliacci takes place on an important feast day of the Catholic Church - August 15th, the feast of the Assumption. The dramatic action, which again revolves around a love triangle, finds its consummation through the literary device of a play within a play.150 The setting of the opera on the feast of the Assumption gives the opera a Marian ambience. It is Mary’s day. In the enculturated Catholicism of a rural Italian village, there is the expectation

148Cavalleria Rusticana, 87. 149 Michele Girardi, “Ruggero Leoncavallo” in Groves, Volume 14, 561-563. 150 Ruggero Leoncavallo, Pagliacci. (Milan: Sonzogno, 1895; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, 1951).

49 that everyone will respect her and behave appropriately. As the story develops, however, the main characters do not display the required respect for la Vergin. The story begins as the troupe arrives in the village and announces with bass drums that their next performance will take place that evening. Canio is the head of the troupe; other members are his wife Nedda and the cripple Tonio. As the villagers gather in excitement, an ominous tone soon emerges. In a dark aria, Canio is portrayed as a jealous, angry, and potentially violent man. The reason for his behavior is his suspicion that his wife Nedda is being unfaithful. As the crowd breaks up and the actors prepare for the evening performance, Canio’s unresolved suspicions begin to dominate the progress of the story. In the next scene, Nedda seems faithful enough, when the cripple Tonio makes an amorous advance to her. Her response is to mock him and slash his face with a knife. In a twisted use of the invocation of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani, the angered Tonio invokes the Virgin of the Assumption in order to warn Nedda that she will pay for her mockery and injury of him (“Per la Vergin pia di mezz’agosto, Nedda, lo giuro, me la pagherai!/Through the Holy Virgin of the 15th of August, Nedda, I swear, you will pay!”) 151 In this episode, the Marian content has the expository function of characterization. Tonio’s dark, vengeful temperament is revealed when, cognizant of the ongoing feast day, he vindictively invokes la Vergin. Tonio’s warning is accompanied by dark, serpentine music in the lower register of the orchestra. This choice of orchestration compliments the stage action in describing Tonio’s vindictiveness. Nedda has been a bad girl on Mary’s day, Tonio says, and the Holy Virgin will make Nedda pay. The subsequent course of the story does reveal a basis for Canio’s jealousy. Nedda is romantically involved with a young man named Silvio, and in the ensuing scene the two illicit lovers sing a rapturous duet. Tonio sees them together, and, seeking revenge against Nedda, quickly informs Canio. When Canio confronts his cheating wife, the Holy Virgin is invoked again. The enraged husband demands to know the name of his wife’s lover. With raised stiletto, he commands Nedda to tell the truth by swearing by Mary (“per la Madonna”).152 This exclamatory statement by Canio is another example of the degree of enculturation of popular Marian devotion. In the 21st century, it would be highly unusual for someone to invoke Mary to validate an oral statement. At the time when Pagliacci was written, such an invocation was a commonplace. The Verismo style of the opera utilizes that Marian enculturation to make Cano’s expression of rage and jealousy even more intense. Nedda, however, refuses to answer Canio. In the following scene, Canio is left alone to ruminate on his wife’s infidelity. Canio sings the famous aria “Vesti la giubba/Put on the costume” in which he despondently describes how he must dress as a clown and perform in a comedy before a laughing audience, even though he is hurting inside because he knows that his wife is being unfaithful to him. The setting of the opera on the feast of the Assumption provides a subtle Marian dimension to this scene. Like Tonio, Canio believes that Nedda is being a bad girl on Mary’s day. The first act ends with Canio sobbing in his clown costume. The climactic scene of the opera takes place in the second act, when the troupe begins its performance. Canio, Nedda and Tonio assume their roles in the play along with the rest of the troupe. The villagers are assembled in the audience. During the play, an oblique and ultimately ironic Marian reference occurs, when Tonio’s character introduces Nedda’s as the “vergin devina,”

151 Pagliacci, 134-135. 152 Pagliacci, 185.

50 much to the amusement of the audience.153 Canio and Nedda later engage in a dialogue which at first is light-hearted and comical. The audience’s amusement turns to horror, however, as the play is gradually transformed into a real-life drama of mounting jealousy and rage. Canio drops out of his role in the play and again demands that Nedda reveal the name of her lover. When she refuses, he kills her with a knife. When Silvio, Nedda’s lover, angrily comes out of the audience onto the stage, Canio kills him as well. As the opera ends, Canio drops the knife before the terrified audience with the words “la comedia è finita./The comedy is finished.” The murdered Nedda was no vergin devina. In operatic terms. the Virgin of the Assumption has had her revenge on those who violate her day. The three Marian references in Pagliacci are primarily of an exclamatory character. In conformity with the Verismo style, each of the references to Mary can be viewed as ordinary expressions in the local southern Italian dialect of a traveling troupe of actors. The use of these exclamations serves the purpose of characterization. They portray the vindictiveness of Tonio, the anger of Canio, and the humorous nature of Nedda’s character during the play. Pagliacci therefore provides an example of how the invocation of Mary can be enculturated and influence the everyday speech of a particular time and place. The setting of the opera on the feast of the Assumption creates a Marian ambiance which gives the developing story a darker meaning. The Marian exclamations thereby become more incisive and even minatory,

Puccini: La Bohème

Like Mascagni and Leoncavallo, Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) is another example of a composer who wrote in the Verismo style.154 Puccini’s first major success was La Bohème, and it has remained a staple of the operatic repertoire since its premiere in 1896.155 The story concerns a group of impoverished artists, among whom the poet Rodolfo is the male protagonist. The group lives in Paris in a sparse attic apartment, which they can barely afford. The first act takes place on Christmas Eve. When the other artists go out to celebrate the holiday, Rodolfo remains alone in the apartment to finish something he is writing. A frail young woman named knocks on the door. She lives in an adjacent apartment and needs a match to light a candle. The two immediately fall in love. La Bohème now traces the course of the love between Rodolfo and Mimi. During acts two and three, they begin life together. At first things go well, but it eventually becomes clear that Mimi has a serious illness. Their relationship becomes strained, because Rodolfo wants Mimi to find a wealthier suitor who can provide for her needs. They are nearly separated, but eventually they agree to stay together for a short time. Several months pass. In the fourth and final act, Mimi has returned with Rodolfo to the artists’ apartment. The reunion, however, is an unhappy one. Mimi’s illness is fatal, and she lies dying in bed. During the concluding scene, while Rodolfo and the other artists are gathered around Mimi, Musetta, the girlfriend of one of the artists, turns to Mary for help. Musetta’s prayer is a lovely one:

“Madonna benedetta, fate la grazia a questa poveretta che non debba morire.

153 Pagliacci, 248-249. 154 Gabriela Biag Ravenni, “Giacomo Puccini” in Groves, Volume 20, 567-580. 155Giacomo. Puccini, La Bohème (Milan: G. Ricordi, 1920).

51 “...E che possa guarire, Madonna santa. Io sono indegna di perdono, mentre invece Mimì è un angelo del cielo.” 156

(Blessed Mother, grant grace to this poor one who does not deserve to die;” ... Let her be healed, Holy Mary. I am not worthy of forgiveness, but Mimi is an angel from heaven.)

This prayer invokes Mary’s help in terms of her mediation of grace with an implication of Mimi’s purity. Musetta calls on Mary as a mother, rather than the more common Madonna or Vergine, After Musetta’s prayer, a brokenhearted Rodolfo soon discovers that Mimi has died. Although La Bohème reaches this unhappy ending, Musetta’s beautiful act of devotion to Mary has served an important dramatic purpose. As a common form of prayer, invocation of Mary’s intercession on behalf of an ailing friend, meets the expectations of Italian audiences regarding the portrayal of Marian devotion. La Bohème takes advantage of this enculturation to enhance the poignancy of the final scene as Mimi dies surrounded by her lover and friends. The sparse but gentle music of this episode admirably expresses the simplicity of devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice. Containing both devotional and expository aspects, Musetta’s prayer is another example of how Marian invocation can be used to enrich an opera’s effectiveness.

Puccini: Tosca

Another frequently performed Puccini opera, Tosca (1900) is a famous example of the Verismo style. The work is full of Marian references. 157 Set in the year 1800 during the Napoleonic advance into Italy, the story is centered on the love between Tosca, an opera singer, and Cavaradossi, a painter. Because of the political circumstances, the opera also develops into a confrontation between Tosca and the opera’s villain, the police chief Baron Scarpia. Most of the Marian content occurs in the opening act, which is set in the church of Sant’Andrea della Valle in Rome. The act opens as an escaped political prisoner, Angelotti, enters the church and approaches a statue of the la Madonna. Angelotti is being pursued by Scarpia’s police agents. Beneath the statue, Angelotti finds a key hidden by his sister which enables him to enter a locked area of the church, where he can hide from his pursuers. The association of Mary with protection from danger is an essential dramatic element in this opening scene. The statue of la Madonna serves an expository function of creating an atmosphere of safety throughout the church interior which serves as the setting of the first act. The lush and relaxed music of this scene glows with a soft radiance which invokes Mary’s presence and creates an ambiance of maternal protection. In this gentle manner, Puccini provides yet another example of how music can invoke a sacred presence As Angelotti leaves with the key, the sacristan enters. There is a great deal of cleaning up required, since the inside of the church is being repainted. As the sacristan goes about his work, bells ring and he drops to his knees and prays the Angelus (this may be the only instance of an operatic character praying verses of the Angelus.)158

156 La Bohème, Act IV Nr, 29. 157 Giacomo Puccini, Tosca (Milan: G. Ricordi,1924). 158 Tosca, 16-18.

52 The sacristan’s prayer is interrupted when the painter Cavaradossi enters. The Angelus episode is now used to depict the character of Cavaradossi. Although the ringing of the church bells was clearly audible, Cavaradossi asks the sacristan what he is doing. In the light of the high degree of enculturation of Marian devotion at the time of the opera’s composition, this exchange indicates that Cavaradossi is not a religious man. Still, despite his religious indifferentism, he proceeds to mount his scaffold and continue with his painting of a portrait of Mary Magdalene. After a further exchange between the sacristan and Cavaradossi, in which the sacristan unfavorably compares the painter’s work to the beautiful statue of la Madonna, the sacristan exits. Now Angelotti again makes an appearance. Cavaradossi speaks to him briefly and then sends him away with a basket of food which has been left in the church. Cavaradossi has seen that Tosca, the eponymous female protagonist of the opera, has entered the church. She is a fiery and jealous character, who also has a gentle and pious side. She is indeed immediately jealous, since she heard Cavaradossi talking to someone. When he reassures her and tries to kiss her, she gently rebukes him with the phrase “Innanzi la Madonna, No/Not before the Madonna.”159 Tosca will not talk further to Cavaradossi until she has placed flowers before the statue of la Madonna. As the scene continues, Tosca becomes jealous of the beautiful woman in Cavaradossi’s painting. The dialogue between the lovers continues, until it is time for Tosca to depart for an opera performance in which she is singing. Before she leaves, Tosca asks Cavaradossi to forgive her jealousy and falls into his arms. Cavaradossi can now turn Tosca’s prior rebuke around. With an affectionate smile, he responds “Davanti alla Madonna?/Before the Madonna?”160 This scene illustrates the influence of Marian presence and the connection between Marian devotion and purity. The statue of la Madonna creates a strong Marian atmosphere which is reinforced by the luscious musical accompaniment. This is another example of music invoking the sacred. At the same time. the mutual rebukes of Tosca and Cavaradossi indicate that, due to enculturation, a strong sense of purity was associated in popular devotion with la Madonna. The sense of Marian presence and purity in the sacred space of the church sanctuary becomes a foil to the dark character of the chief of police Scarpia, who enters the church towards the end of the first act in pursuit of Angelotti. Scarpia may be chasing political prisoners, but he also has a basic physical interest in Tosca. The dramatic action can now draw a strong contrast between the peaceful Marian presence in the church and the cruel and violent character of Scarpia. The characterization of Scarpia achieves a great intensity at the very end of the act. A religious procession enters the church and sings the Te Deum. As the procession, with its Marian imagery and other iconography, reaches its concluding stage in the sanctuary, Puccini’s music pursues a double course. While the setting of the Te Deum grows in power and erupts in a final climax based on a musical motive associated with Scarpia, that villain is heard muttering on the side as he expresses his lust for Tosca. The second act of Tosca develops into the confrontation between Scarpia and Tosca. The scene is Scarpia’s quarters, where he has taken Cavaradossi into custody because the painter assisted Angelotti’s flight. The imprisonment of Cavaradossi now becomes a means for Scarpia to fulfill his desire for Tosca. Scarpia offers to give the two lovers a bill of passage to freedom. His only condition is that Tosca submit to him for one time. In reply, Tosca sings the well-known aria Vissi d’arte (I have lived for art), In it, she describes how as an artist (she is an opera singer)

159 Tosca, 50. 160 Tosca, 89.

53 she has always been faithful to la Madonna. Tosca even mentions that she once left jewels for Mary on an altar:161

Sempre con fe' sincera diedi fiori agli altar. … Diedi gioielli della Madonna al manto.162

(Always with sincere faith I brought flowers to the altar. ... I gave jewels of the Madonna for her cloak.)

This beautiful aria is a superbly written passage of Puccini’s uniquely lush and lyrical musical style. The references to Tosca’s devotion to la Madonna portray Tosca as an innocent and pious woman. The connection between devotion to Mary and purity is prominent. Marian presence and protection are invoked when Tosca mentions Mary’s mantle. At length, Tosca agrees to Scarpia’s bargain. While he is busy writing out the bill of passage, however, she secretly takes a knife. As Scarpia completes his work and approaches her with open arms, she stabs him in the heart and he dies. As the second act ends, Tosca places candles around Scarpia’s dead body and then departs. This sequence provides another example of how Marian devotion can be used to assist in the characterization of a complex person. The gentle qualities of Tosca, which were expressed in her reference to jewels and la Madonna, stand in sharp contrast to her assault on Scarpia. Although the conflict between Tosca and Scarpia may seem to be over, there is an ironic twist in the third and final act. Tosca arrives to visit Cavaradossi in prison, where he is awaiting execution. She describes how Scarpia tried to force himself on her and mentions that she appealed to the la Madonna and the saints for help. Once again, Tosca here demonstrates her devotion to Mary. In this case, invocation of her as Ausiliatrice is specifically mentioned. Tosca explains to Cavaradossi that, although Scarpia has given them a bill of passage, for political reasons Cavaradossi must submit to a mock execution. Scarpia assured Tosca that the bullets used would only be blanks. When the muskets are fired, Cavaradossi need only fall down, after which he and Tosca will be free to make their escape. In the final scene, the execution takes place and Cavaradossi goes to ground. When Tosca runs to him, she discovers that he is dead. Scarpia had deceitfully ordered a real execution. Once more, Tosca’s fiery character is revealed. As the police pursue her for the murder of Scarpia, she jumps to her death from the prison walls with the cry “O Scarpia, avanti a Dio!/O Scarpia, before God!”163 Tosca’s reference to God at the moment of her death is an indication that her piety is authentic and sincere. The episodes of her Marian devotion throughout the earlier stages of the opera have made this characterization credible and intensify the dramatic effect as she dies. The powerfully dark music of this scene only increases the sense of tragedy. The opera Tosca’s climactic scene demonstrates how the Verismo style can use Marian devotion to create an even stronger dramatic impact in a conclusion of great emotional force and intensity.

Wolf-Ferrari: I Gioielli della Madonna

161 Tosca, 317 ff. 162 Tosca 317-317; 320-321. 163 Tosca, 434-435.

54

Of all the operas considered in the present study, this work is the one most extensively infused with Marian images and associations. Written by Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari (1876-1948) and premiered in 1913, I Gioielli della Madonna (The Jewels of the Madonna) stands as one of the final examples of the Verismo style.164 Although the work initially experienced a run of popularity, its rich late romantic musical style, much indebted to the music of Richard Wagner, Gustav Mahler and , fell out of favor after the First World War and the work disappeared from the repertoire.165 Other than the lovely which is heard prior to the second act, I Gioielli della Madonna is rarely performed today, although recently it has been revived and recorded commercially.166 Like La Festa di Piedigrotta, I Gioielli della Madonna is set during the feast of Mary’s Nativity on September 8 in Naples. This time, however, the story is not a comedy, but a serious drama. Once again, a love triangle forms the core of the dramatic action, in this case between the young girl Maliella, her stepbrother Gennaro, and the leader of the local mafia group, Rafaele. The jewels of the story’s title refer to decorations which adorn a statue of la Madonna. This statue appears during the magnificent Marian procession which concludes the first act. In the latter stages of the story, the jewels become important dramatically, since Gennaro steals them to impress Maliella and win her love. This theft ultimately has tragic consequences, Although the statue and jewels are actual physical objects, they can be understood to have a second and symbolic association taken from Jungian psychology.167 The Virgin Mary is an example of Jung’s mother archetype, i.e. the universal desire of human beings for a mothering and nurturing figure. A fuller discussion of Jung’s psychological ideas is beyond the scope of this study. The important point in the present context is that in this Jungian context Mary becomes a maternal symbol of purity and sublimated sexuality.168

164 Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari. I Gioielli della Madonna(New York: G. Schirmer, 1912). 165 Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss were influential composers during the time of the opera’s composition. Although Wolf-Ferrari’s music is not derivative, a careful listener can hear in it echoes of Mahler and Strauss. Their music is written in a late romantic style, which utilizes complex harmony, lush textures, and large orchestral forces. Wolf-Ferrari inherited those stylistic features and used them in I Gioielli della Madonna to enrich his opera’s communicative power. This technical point is the reason that the music of the Marian episodes in I Gioielli della Madonna is unusually effective in portraying Marian content . An example is the Marian procession in the first act, which is accompanied by a rich and complex musical structure and performed by a large orchestral and vocal ensemble. The influence of Richard Wagner is described on page 56, footnote 169. 166 John C G Waterhouse, “Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari ” in Groves, Volume 27, 308-310. 167 In the booklet notes for a recent commercial recording, the conductor Friedrich Halder mentions the Jungian psychological dimension of the opera and indicates that “… the Mother of God played an important role in the manifestation of the matriarchal archetype. Marian influences were everywhere, in art, culture and science …” Halder adds that Wolf-Ferrari was acquainted with Jung’s ideas and acknowledged their influence on the opera. See Ermanno Wolf- Ferrari, I Gioielli della Madonna (With the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Friedrich Halder and the Slovak National Theater Opera Chorus conducted by Pavol Prochazká. Recorded November 29 and December 2, 2015. Naxos CD 8.660386-87, 2 compacts and booklet. Booklet notes by Friedrich Halder), 8. 168 For a concise two-page description of the mother archetype by Jung himself, see Carl G. Jung. “The Mother Archetype” in Mary Ann Mattoon, Understanding Dreams, 139-140. Dallas: Spring Publication, 1993. Jung discusses maternal symbols in a religious context from a wide range of cultures in Carl G. Jung, Symbols of Transformation: An Analysis of the Prelude to Case of a Schizophrenia. 2 Volumes. (New York: Harper, 1962), 207- 393. The fullest treatment of the archetypes is found in Carl G. Jung, “The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious” Vol. 9.1 Of The Collected Works Of C.J. Jung. Trans. R.F.C. Hull (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

55 Each of the three principal characters can be interpreted psychologically in terms of Mary and the mother archetype. Maliella is an untouched example of virginal purity and becomes a foil to the desires and behaviors of the two principal male characters. Gennaro, as her stepbrother, is conflicted between the chastity associated with his devotion to the Holy Virgin, and his illicit love for his stepsister, herself a symbol of chastity. For Rafaele, the mafia leader, it is the sexual purity of Maliella which informs his attraction to her. He loves her only while she is a virgin and rejects her when she is violated by Gennaro. These psychological considerations give the opera’s title a double meaning. If Maliella is a symbol of Mary’s purity, then the jewels of the Madonna are Maliella’s sexual purity and virginity. As a result, Gennaro steals the jewels of the Madonna in two senses. First, he makes a literal theft of the jewels which adorn the statue of the Madonna. Shortly thereafter, he takes Maliella’s virginity, when he eventually causes her to submit to him. In addition to these psychological considerations, the work contains a wealth of other Marian associations in its music, lyrics and stage action. A specialized study would be required to consider in depth the meaning of all of them. The following discussion will only consider those Marian references which are important for the development of the opera’s storyline. In musical terms, Mary is identified in specific ways through the Wagnerian leitmotiv technique. A leitmotiv is a short musical phrase, which is associated with a character, object, emotion, place, or abstract concept.169 I Gioielli della Madonna contains several leitmotivs, two of which are associated directly with Mary. 170 The first leitmotiv is a repeated descending triplet pattern in crotchets (quarter notes) which depicts the ringing of church bells. This “bell motive” reappears at important dramatic junctures and is transformed in accordance with the character of the stage action:171

The second leitmotiv is a six-note falling and rising figure, which is reminiscent of plainsong or chant. This “song motive” is used, with various rhythmic transformations, to set hymns to la Madonna:172

169 The first full development of the leitmotiv technique in opera is associated with the mature work of the German composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883). A superb example is his masterpiece Der Ring des Nibelungen, in which over two hundred leitmotivs are employed. Wagner’s use of leitmotivs was influential on later composers. The technique is familiar to present day movie goers, who, if only unconsciously, recognize a film’s “love theme” or musical ideas associated with the hero, villain and other important elements of the film’s story. 170 The names of the following two Marian leitmotivs are the author's own and do not reflect any generally accepted musicological usage. 171 The bell motive is first heard during the opening bars. See I Gioielli della Madonna, 4-7. 172 The song motive occurs for the first time at I Gioielli della Madonna, 7-8. The quotation in the musical excerpt above presents only the outline of the essential melodic form. In his booklet notes, Halder points out the motivic similarity between the first three notes of the song motive and the bell motive. This musical device is one way in which Wolf=Ferrari’s use of leitmotivs establishes a Marian atmosphere throughout the opera.

56

The first act opens in a public street amidst the commotion and bustle surrounding the celebration of the Marian feast of September 8 in Naples. From the outset, the bell motive is heard above the busy musical texture and establishes an animated Marian atmosphere. The stage action is boisterous and varied. A crowd gathers, street merchants hawk flowers and statues of la Madonna, and a group of children sings the song motive as they imitate the cries of the street vendors. As the festive mood increases, a chorus of townspeople sings that Mary has commanded everyone to celebrate. Amidst the growing commotion, a pair of monks enters and implores the townspeople to remember St. Francis. The music then becomes quieter and a chorus sings a beautiful hymn to la Vergine:

O Vegine bella di stella vestita Regina tu splendi fra gli angeli, Speranza e conforto tu sei della vita Dolcezza infinita del mondo sei tu.173

(O beautiful Virgin clothed with the stars, You shine as queen among the angels, You are the hope and comfort of life. You are the infinite sweetness of the world.)

This brief text provides several indications about popular Marian devotion. There is a strong awareness of Mary’s place as Queen of heaven and the angels. The use of the images of stars and shining light recalls the Woman of Revelation 12. Mary’s intercessory role is indicated when she is called “speranza/hope” and “conforto/comfort.” Her maternal influence is described when she is referred to as “dolcezza infinita del mondo/infinite sweetness of the world.” In musical terms, these aspects of Marian devotion are presented in a slower tempo with a simple and peaceful musical texture. This musical technique provides a strong contrast to the dynamic rhythms, complex chromaticism and frequent modulations of the rapidly changing music which depicts the activities surrounding the public celebration of the Marian feast. This opening scene winds down and further Marian references occur as the storyline presents and characterizes the main protagonists. The first to appear is Gennaro. After a transformed version of the bell motive is heard quietly and establishes an ominous atmosphere, Gennaro sings an anguished aria to Mary in which he invokes her as the Mother of Sorrows (“Madonna con sospiri, in lunghe veglie ardenti/Madonna, with sighs through long and passionate vigils”)174 The quiet and restless music conveys a sense of unfulfilled longing. In an expression

173 I Gioielli della Madonna, 35-39. 174 I Gioielli della Madonna, 47ff.

57 of his conflicted emotions between his love for Maliella and his Marian devotion, Gennaro tells la Madonna that because she suffered during her life, she will be able to understand his suffering. As the aria ends, the bell motive is heard quietly again and confirms the Marian dimension of Gennaro’s anguish. The young girl Maliella appears and rebuffs an advance from Gennaro. His mother Carmela then enters and tries to comfort him. She tells him that when he was a young child and very sick, she entrusted him to the protection of la Madonna. Carmella promised that, if Gennaro recovered, she would take in an orphaned child from the street. When Gennaro did regain his health, Carmela adopted Maliella and raised the young girl together with him as stepbrother and stepsister. The presence of Maliella in Gennaro’s life is consequently the result of an act of Marian intercession. His awareness of this reality only increases his anguish. As Gennaro grapples with his feelings, he asks his mother for a blessing. Carmela encourages Gennaro to pray to la Madonna (“vai dalla Madonna/go to the Madonna” and “Dille: Madonna, se tu vuoi, tu puoi/Pray like this: Madonna, if you will, you can”) in the hope that his anguish can be relieved.175 Carmela’s suggestion does improve Gennaro’s mood. As the first act continues, the character of Rafaele, the mafia leader, is introduced. His dialogue with Maliella indicates that they are attracted to one another. Rafaele, in , offers to steal the jewels of the Madonna to please Maliella. Rafaele’s humor will later contribute to the sequence of events which leads to the opera’s dark conclusion. The exchange between Maliella and Rafaele is interrupted as the bell motive is sounded again.176 This time, the Marian leitmotiv announces a change to a celebratory atmosphere. A Marian procession is approaching. The procession arrives to the accompaniment of the song motive, which is now transformed into a hymn of praise to la Madonna in combination with a line from the Magnificat in Latin (Beata me dicent omnes generationes.)177 As Rafaele watches the procession pass by, the statue of la Madonna comes into view. He comments that Maliella is the only Madonna that he worships. This statement is an indication of the psychological interpretation mentioned above, in which Maliella represents purity and Rafaele is attracted to her for that reason. As a crowd of onlookers gathers, they sing another hymn of praise which invokes Mary as Maris stella (“O maris stella, Vergin pia, Mamma del Carmine, Gloria a Maria/O star of the sea, pious Virgin, Mother of Carmine, Glory to Mary!”)178 While the words “gloria a Maria” are repeated, this episode reaches a climax in a chorale-like passage with chromatically shifting harmonies which express a sense of wonder and majesty. Because of the arrival of the statue of la Madonna, the mood of the crowd has become serious and solemn, rather than celebratory. The statue causes the crowd to become aware of a Marian presence, and the music underscores this change. This episode is another example of music’s ability to invoke the sacred. As the processions resumes, the music utilizes both Marian leitmotivs as elements in a larger musical texture. The music grows in volume and power as the chorus continually repeats the line from the Magnificat. Propelled by the music, the procession continues its course. The hymn to Mary is expanded when the Verginelle, little girls who are dressed in white and scatter flowers, march by in the procession ahead of the statue of la Madonna. The Verginelle sing the song motive to invoke Mary by using the words of the Ave Maria and titles from the Litany

175 I Gioielli della Madonna, 86-87. 176 I Gioielli della Madonna, 114-115. 177 I Gioielli della Madonna, 117-118. 178 I Gioielli della Madonna, 131-136.

58 of Blessed Virgin Mary: “Mater Purissima ora pro nobis, Mater castissima ora pro nobis, Mater inviolata.”179 This touching episode of children dressed in honor of Mary’s purity provides a glimpse into the contemporary conception of a Marian procession. As the act ends, the music of the Marian procession reaches a great climax for the full ensemble in which the bell motive, the song motive, and the quotation from the Magnificat are combined in a massive paean to Mary. The final bars, with their soaring violin lines punctuated by the pounding rhythms of the bell motive, achieve an almost Brucknerian intensity. 180 Once again, an opera composer has created music which leads the listener to a perception of the sacred. In the present case, the music is on a large scale at an enormous dynamic level. This conclusion is fitting for a hymn in honor of the Mother of God. The Marian dimension of I Gioielli della Madonna takes on a darker character during the second act. It is the evening of the festival, and Maliella and Gennaro are at home. A critical episode occurs, when Maliella tells Gennaro that she is attracted to Rafaele because Rafaele indicated that he was willing to place the jewels of the Madonna around her neck. Maliella’s preference for Rafaele only increases Gennaro’s anguish. Once he is alone, he conceives the idea to steal the jewels of the Madonna to please Maliella himself. He anxiously gathers the tools which he will need to break open the box where the jewels of the Madonna are stored. In musical terms, this scene is a superb example of how the leitmotiv technique can depict the state of mind of a character. The restless music which accompanies Gennaro’s preparations includes a repeated bass line which is a transformation of the bell motive: By this skillful use of a leitmotiv, Wolf-Ferrari establishes a different kind of Marian context. The celebratory character of the bell motive in the first act has now been changed into something sinister to expresses Gennaro’s anxiety and conflicted emotions. Remarkably, the subtle expressive power of this Marian musical transformation is achieved without the use of any words at all. Music works as a language here to express the combination of Marian presence and Genaro’s anxiety.181 While Gennaro is away on his errand of thievery, Rafaele comes to visit Maliella. He invites her to the hideout where his mafia group lives outside of the town. In another indication of Rafaele’s idealized view of Maliella, he tells her that when she comes, she will be crowned as queen of all lands. This statement can be understood as an allusion to Mary’s place as a heavenly queen. After Rafaele leaves, Gennaro returns home and presents the stolen jewels to Maliella. At first, she is shocked and repelled. Gennaro then sings a brief aria (“No, la Madonna sa che non l’offesi/No, the Madonna knows that I have not offended her.” 182 ) in which he explains that after stealing the jewels, he went to church and prayed to la Madonna. He describes how he felt Mary’s presence deep in his soul and received her pardon, because Mary is a merciful mother who understands his passions and forgives him. Gennaro’s explanation betrays his conflict between devotion to the la Madonna and his love for his stepsister.

179 I Gioielli della Madonna, 140-142. 180 (1824-1896) was an Austrian composer whose music was deeply influenced by his devout Catholic faith. His best-known compositions are large-scale symphonies which contain massive climaxes for a large orchestra. The adjectival use of Bruckner’s name alludes to these climaxes. A sympathetic listener can easily associate them with affirmations of Catholic faith and religious experience. The final climax of the first act of I Gioielli della Madonna mirrors the spiritual intensity achieved by Bruckner’s symphonies. 181 I Gioielli della Madonna, 183-184. 182 I Gioielli della Madonna, 213ff.

59 Enticed by the dazzling appearance of the jewels and their powerful odor of incense, Maliella gives in to temptation and places the jewels around her neck. As she does so, Gennaro triumphantly cries out (“La Madonna che ti vuole salvata/The Madonna has willed that you be saved.”)183 Maliella now becomes confused and experiences a distorted Marian apparition. She describes seeing la Madonna pass by dressed in white with a divine splendor and a glittering queenly crown. Men kneel before her, and angels sing of her glory. The power of music, in combination with words, to invoke a sacred presence is prominent in this scene. The apparition episode now takes on a negative character. Until this point in the story, Maliella has been characterized as a willful and untamed girl who wants to break free from what she perceives as the bonds of living at home with her mother and stepbrother. (At one point, she compares her restricted home life to a convent.). When the willful Maliella becomes spellbound because of the sight of the jewels and then experiences a Marian encounter, the subject of apparitions is depicted unfavorably. The apparition episode becomes a caricature which distorts the Catholic Church’s acceptance of apparitions. This negative view influences the portrayal of the effect of the vision on Maliella. Her experience does not induce a greater sense of religious devotion, as is typical for an authentic visionary. She instead becomes disoriented and believes that Gennaro is Rafaele. The second act ends with her submitting to Gennaro’s sexual advance. In doing so, he fulfills the opera’s central psychological parallelism. Gennaro steals Maliella’s virginity, just as he has stolen the jewels of the Madonna. The final act takes place in the hideout of the local mafia. Their abode is adorned with an image of Our Lady of Monte Christo, who was known in the popular devotion of the time as la Madonna di Purità. The librettist took advantage of this well-known devotion to establish an atmosphere which depicts Mary as a symbol of purity. The icon has an ironic effect, since it adorns the residence of a group of criminals. Some of the members of the mafia group are at home recovering from the celebration of the Marian feast. A few of them are still ambulatory enough to engage in a rather orgiastic dance. In an admission that the dance is of a less than pious character, one of the members of the group takes a cloth and covers up the image of Our Lady of Monte Christo. Once this dance episode has concluded, the cover is removed from the image. The action of the opera now rapidly moves towards its tragic conclusion. Rafaele joins his companions in the hideout. Maliella, as arranged previously, arrives. She hopes to impress Rafaele, because she is wearing the jewels of the Madonna. Her appearance has the opposite effect. Rafaele is shocked when he learns that Maliella received the jewels from Gennaro and then submitted to him. Once Maliella has lost her virginity, Rafaele rejects her, because she no longer possesses the purity which Rafaele associates la Vergine. Gennaro comes to the hideout because he hopes to find Maliella. Fully cognizant now of what Gennaro has done, she confronts him. After violently throwing the jewels at his feet, she tells him that he is damned. Despondent, she runs outside and drowns herself in the sea. A storm arises and the candles in the hideout are blown out. The superstitious members of the mafia group are terrified. Their fear increases when the bell motive is heard one final time. The church bells are ringing, and the bell motive serves to make one final Marian connection in the storyline. The mafia members believe the bells are a sign that Gennaro’s crime has been discovered. They are afraid that they will be arrested as accomplices. This threat is too much for

183 I Gioielli della Madonna, 217.

60 them. After a final exclamation of their devotion to Mary (“Noi la bella Madonna rispetto! Viva Maria./We respect the beautiful Madonna! Hail Mary”), they flee.184 Left alone in the darkened hideout, the grief stricken Gennaro collapses and crawls towards the image of Our Lady of Monte Christo. Having lost Maliella, he invokes Mary’s help as mother and virgin. He begs forgiveness in language which emphasizes his devotion to Mary as a spiritual mother (“O mamma mia, La Vergin pia mi guarda e mi perdona. E mi chiama se nel ciel/O my mother, the Blessed Virgin looks upon me, and forgives me and calls me to heaven.”185) In despair, he kills himself with a knife before the image of Our Lady of Monte Christo. Despite the dark story and distasteful psychological associations in I Gioielli della Madonna, the work provides many indications of the characteristics of Italian Marian devotion in the period just prior to the First World War. The celebration of the feast of Mary’s Nativity is presented as a major annual event which involves the entire population of Naples. Besides the statue of la Madonna herself, the Marian procession includes flowers, balloons, singing, musical bands and the Verginelle. When the statue finally appears, it is venerated by all the onlookers. The tortured character of Gennaro exhibits the greatest degree of internalized Marian devotion. He is the only character who prays in a church. His spirituality, for all its Angst, exhibits the greatest awareness of Mary as a maternal presence. His Marian devotion is closely associated with the security and protection he feels from his biological mother. His emotional conflict between Marian devotion and attraction to Maliella reflects a preoccupation with purity. His relationship with la Madonna illustrates important elements in Don Bosco’s understanding of the title Aiuto dei Cristiani: presence, protection and purity. Awareness of Mary’s purity is the central aspect of Marian devotion in I Gioielli della Madonna. A sympathetic listener senses the continuing influence of the definition of the Immaculate Conception. Images relevant to the Immaculate Conception are found throughout the opera: the Verginelle invoke Mary as Mater purissima; the words “Beata me dicent omnes generationes” from the Magnificat are repeated during the first act procession; Gennaro frequently refers to Mary’s purity and holiness; for Rafaele, purity is transferred to Maliella and he uses devotional-like language when he refers to her. The icon of Our Lady of Monte Cristo, which helps to establish the setting of scene of the final act, is associated with purity. Despite the work’s negative aspects (street vendors hawking Marian wares, the double meaning of the jewels, a caricature of a Marian apparition), I Gioielli della Madonna remains a remarkable opera with a wealth of positive Marian images and associations. Judged in purely musical terms, the work is of mariological interest and value, since it is the only opera to have two leitmotivs associated with la Madonna herself. These leitmotivs are used tellingly during the musical discourse. The final segment of the first act is the most powerfully scored and viscerally thrilling depiction of a Marian procession in all music.

Giacomo Puccini: Suor Angelica

After the success of the operas for which he is best known, La Bohème, Tosca and Madama Butterfly, Puccini sought a different operatic challenge. He decided to write a trilogy of short operas which could be performed in a single evening. Called Il Trittico and premiered in 1918, the three component operas, Il Tabarro, Suor Angelica and , are of contrasting

184 I Gioielli della Madonna, 308-309. 185 I Gioielli della Madonna, 314-315.

61 character: the first is a typical love triangle which culminates in murder, the second depicts the story of a troubled member of a female religious community, and the third is a comedy involving the madcap antics of family members who fight amongst themselves over their inheritance. As the central work of the trilogy, Suor Angelica (Sister Angelica) includes extensive and varied Marian content within a story which combines an idealized portrayal of religious life with the anguish of the opera’s title character.186 The opening section depicts a community of nuns and is set to music in Puccini’s most saccharine style. The Ave Maria is sung in its entirety as the nuns gather in their church. A brief musical motive in a dotted rhythm invokes the Regina Virginum. This motive recurs frequently throughout the opera in reference to Mary and has the effect of brightening the musical discourse. With one important exception (described below), this “Mary motive” is always performed by a small group of instruments in a major key.187 The subsequent banter among the sisters includes several further references to Mary and indicates that their community has a strong Marian charism. Some examples:

- Non tardate! La Vergine vi guarda!188 - È Maggio! È Maggio! È il bel sorriso di Nostra Signora che viene con quel raggio. Regina di Clemenza, grazie! Grazie!189 - Qual grazia della Vergine rallegra le sorelle?190 - Perchè la Madre Vergine soccorre e in Sua benignità liberamente191 - Prima che un desiderio sia Fiorito la Madre delle Madri l'ha esaudito. 192 - Ogni parola è udita dalla Vergine Pia.193 - La Vergine m'ascolti e così sia.194 - - (Don’t be late! The Virgin is watching you! - It is May! It is May! It is the beautiful smile of Our Lady who comes with that ray. Queen of Mercy, thanks, thanks! - What grace of the Virgin is cheering up the sisters? - Because the Virgin Mother in her goodness freely helps - Before a desire flourishes, the Mother of Mothers has heard it. - Every Word is heard by the Holy Virgin. - The Virgin hears me and so it must be.)

The action now moves from the community to the individual. The narrative centers on Sister Angelica and her personal history. She has left her wealthy family and joined the convent, because she has an illegitimate child. The consequences of this backstory give the opera an escalating dramatic power. The crisis is initiated when a member of Sister Angelica’s family

186 Giacomo Puccini,. Il Trittico.( Milan: G. Ricordi, 1919; reprinted Minola: Dover Publications, 1996). 187 The names given to musical motives throughout this analysis are the author’s own and do not reflect any standard musicological practice. 188 Il Trittico,151. 189 Il Trittico, 156-157. 190 Il Trittico, 157. 191 Il Trittico, 162. 192 Il Trittico, 162. 193 Il Trittico, 193 194 Il Trittico, 193.

62 comes to visit her. The sweetness of the music of the opera’s opening section is replaced with darker musical material, which only grows more ominous as the story progresses. The visitor is Sister Angelica’s aunt, a princess. She has come to ask Sister Angelica to renounce her claim to her inheritance, because Angelica’s sister is to be married. The Princess cynically encourages Sister Angelica to make this sacrifice for la Vergine. Sister Angelica responds that, although by becoming a nun she has atoned for her sin of having an illegitimate child, she is not prepared to sacrifice everything to Mary:

Tutto ho offerto alla Vergine, sì tutto! Ma v'è un'offerta che non posso fare! Alla Madre soave delle Madri Non posso offrire di scordar mio figlio, mio figlio! il figlio mio!195

(I have offered everything to the Virgin, yes everything. But there is one offer I cannot make! To the gentle Mother of Mothers I cannot offer to forget my son, my son, my son!)

Sister Angelica is unwilling to give up her inheritance because she is thinking of the future needs of her son. To depict Sister Angelica’s maternal concern and conflicted emotions, Puccini introduces a new, darker musical motive which languishes in the string section. This “mother’s anxiety” motive will be used again in the opera’s final sequence. At this point, the Princess informs Sister Angelica that the boy has died. Devastated by this news, Sister Angelica sings the aria “Senza mamma/Without mother,” in which she expresses her grief that her son has never known how much she loves him. 196 She prays and wonders how she can ever see him again. A few of the sisters try to comfort Sister Angelica by invoking the help of la Vergine:

Sarete contenta sorella, la Vergine ha accolto la prece. Sarete contenta, sorella, la Vergine ha fatto la grazia. 197

(Be happy sister, the Virgin has heard your prayer. Be happy sister, the Virgin has saved a life.)

Sister Angelica’s prayer is heard and the promise of an answer from the Virgin is immediately fulfilled. Encouraged by her fellow sisters, Sister Angelica enters an ecstatic state in which she has a vision of her son asking her to join him in heaven.

La grazia è discesa, dal cielo …198 Lodiamo la Vergine santa …199

195 Il Trittico, 202-203. 196 Il Trittico, 211 ff. 197 Il Trittico, 217-218. 198 Il Trittico, 218. 199 Il Trittico, 223

63 M'ha detto: Mamma, vieni in Paradiso!200

(The grace has descended from heaven ... Let us praise the Holy Virgin …. He said to me: Mamma, come into Paradise!)

The vocal line here is set to a long, soaring, and lyrical phrase. This “grace motive” expresses hope in Mary’s intercession as Ausiliatrice. This is another example of music’s ability to invoke a scared presence. The grace motive will return as an important musical element during the opera’s climax. Overcome by her desire to see her son, Sister Angelica rashly takes poison, because she wants to die and be with him. Suddenly, she comes to her senses and realizes that suicide is a mortal sin and she has condemned herself to eternal separation from her son. Her suicidal act has only increased her distress, The concluding sequence of the opera now begins. The story is told both by the text and by Puccini’s skillful use of musical motives introduced at an earlier stage of the opera. Initially. the “mother’s anxiety” motive is repeated in the orchestra as Sister Angelica expresses her remorse. She is a despondent and repentant mother who desperately desires to see her son again. In her dying moments, she cries out to the Virgin Mary in opera’s most wrenching and intense example of invocation of Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani:

O Madonna, Madonna, per amor di mio figlio, smarrita ho la ragione! Non mi fare morire in dannazione! Dammi un segno di grazia! grazia! Una madre ti prega, una madre t'implora.... O Madonna, salvami!201

(O Mary, Mary, for love of my son, I lost my reason! Do not let me die in damnation! Give me a sign of grace! A mother prays to you, a mother implores you. O Mary, save me!)

In the final stages of Sister Angelica’s plea to la Madonna, she is accompanied by only the barest of orchestral textures. Her vocal line is then punctuated by repeated occurrences of the “Mary motive” as the other sisters invoke Mary through the titles Mater castissima and Regina pacis and through petitions of Salve Maria. From this dual texture, a chorus of angels emerges and sings a Latin hymn to Mary (“O gloriosa virginum, sublimis inter sidera/O glorious virgin, sublime among the stars). The stage directions indícate that the hymn is offered in response to Sister Angelica’s plea and is raised alla Madre dalle Madri/to the Mother of all Mothers. 202 The musical line of this hymn is the “grace motive,” which was the music used to set Sister Angelica’s praise to Mary in an earlier scene.

200 Il Trittico, 231. 201Il Trittico, 236-237, 239-240. 202 Il Trittico, 238ff.

64 Sister Angelica’s prayer is heard once again. The grace motive surges in the orchestra. A climax is reached, and for the only time in the opera the “Mary motive” is played fortissimo by the full orchestra and transformed into a minor key. This musical gesture marks the precise moment of Marian intercession. Dying from the effects of the poison, Sister Angelica suddenly sees a mystical light. The “grace motive” returns quietly in the orchestra. The “Mary motive” is heard repeatedly in the chorus along with other Marian titles from the Litany of the Blessed Virgin. A woman appears with a boy. The stage directions refer here to “la Regina del conforto, solenne, dolcissima/the Queen of consolation, solemn, most sweet.”203 Mary herself has appeared with Sister Angelica’s son. The angels acknowledge Mary’s presence (“Virgo fidelis! Santa Maria! /Faithful Virgin! Holy Mary!”204) With a gentle gesture, la Madonna sends the boy to his mother. All three of them enter paradise together. The suppressed power of the music of this final climax, clothed in great beauty, Marian gentleness, and the warmth of maternal love, is a perfect means to lead the listener into a perception of the sacred and divine. The appearance of Mary is a vivid operatic portrayal of her as Ausiliatrice and illustrates her spiritual maternity in two complementary ways. First, Mary functions as a channel of grace, through which a repentant sinner receives God’s forgiveness. The libretto at this point frequently refers to grace. A portion of the concluding sequence is even subtitled “La Grazia.” Secondly, the dramatic device of a mother praying to another mother is fulfilled through an act of Mary’s intercession. Her maternal love moves her to reunite a distraught mother with her dead child in heaven. Suor Angelica therefore portrays Marian invocation as an effective and productive spiritual practice. That portrayal reflects common characteristics of popular Marian devotion. Examples are referring to Mary as the source of grace, attributing a kind of omnipresence to her (Mary hears all) and asking her for salvation. An especially positive reflection of popular Marian devotion is found in the title “Regina del conforto/Queen of comfort” in the stage directions, which do not refer to Mary by name. Because of the enculturation of Puccini’s day, Marian devotion becomes for him an element which is completely compatible with the Verismo style. He could hardly realistically portray events within a community of nuns of his time and omit any reference to Mary. The happy result is that in Sour Angelica, the invocation of Mary as Ausiliatrice is depicted in a thoroughly positive manner.

Summary of Chapter 4

This chapter has demonstrated how the Verismo style made depiction of Marian devotion more prevalent and integrated within the operatic narrative. The artistic objective of greater realism resulted in a richer and more diverse portrayal of Marian devotion than ever before. All the important aspects of Mary as Ausiliatrice (Marian presence, protection and purity) are present, sometimes with great vividness. The music expresses the varied emotions of the characters as they invoke Mary’s help. In some cases, the music powerfully invokes a divine or sacred Marian presence.

203 Il Trittico, 240. 204 Il Trittico, 242.

65 Chapter 5: Reflections and Conclusions

The preceding survey has presented the variety of ways in which Mary appears in Italian opera. Music, text and stagecraft – Mary has been present in all three. The references to Mary range from brief exclamations to essential elements of the storyline. In this final chapter, consideration will be given to this Marian content in terms of specific themes which have emerged during this survey. These themes will first be summarized and correlated with the background presented in chapters 1 and 2. A final section will then present a few conclusions.

The Place of Music in Theological Method

The discussion in this study has intentionally taken place in a primarily theological, and not a musicological, context. This methodology does not imply that music has a limited place in theological reflection. The music in the operas supports the opposite conclusion. From many examples, one can note how the massive peroration at the end of the Prologue to Mefistofele suggests the glory of God and Mary’s place in heaven; the lush music in the opening act of Tosca creates a Marian presence; the use of the leitmotiv technique in I Gioielli della Madonna enriches the capacity of the music to tell a story; the dark and violent music in the penultimate stage of Suor Angelica vividly illustrates the eponymous character’s desperation as she turns to Mary for help. This Marian musical content has a place in theological method because of music’s ability to open human perception to the divine. This communicative power of music can express sacred or theological realities in a manner which transcends what can be expressed by words alone. Simply stated, operatic music says unique things about Mary which have legitimate theological significance. The rest of this chapter will reflect on the theological significance of that Marian content.

Correlation of Operatic Content with Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani

What in fact is the nature of the Marian content in Italian opera? This study proposes that that content reflects devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani. This assertion is supported by the high correlation between Marian operatic content and the important theological elements which give the title Aiuto dei Cristiani its meaning. That meaning was found in the work of Don Bosco, whose interpretation of the title Aiuto dei Cristiani is representative of 19th century Marian devotion in Italy. The conclusion to chapter 2 presented four aspects which were significant for Don Bosco: presence, purity, protection, and opposition to heresy. Examples of the first three abound in the preceding survey. The discussion of every opera referred in some way to an aspect of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani. To cite again just a few instances, Marian presence is a key element during the final segment of the Prologue to Mefistofele, during the opening Act of Tosca, and in the characterization of Gennaro in I Gioielli della Madonna. In each of these works, purity is another important element. Mefistofele depicts Mary’s fullness of grace by repetition of gratia plena; the character Tosca senses Mary’s purity when she enters the church and sees the statue of la Madonna; purity is an essential element in the story of I Gioielli della Madonna. Finally, every opera in this survey

66 contains a dramatically significant episode in which there is a request for Mary’s help, protection or intercession. Only the fourth element, opposition to heresy, is not present. This omission is explained by practical considerations. Marian devotion is used in Italian opera primarily to assist in telling stories. Due to their technical nature, discussion of dogmatic questions cannot serve such a purpose. An operatic audience of the time was not interested in the theological subtleties of, say, the Immaculate Completion, however topical that subject might have been during the 19th century. What did engage audiences was the use of a virtue such as purity (a foundational element of the Immaculate Conception and devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani) as a dramatic device. A lovely instance of such a use of purity is found in Musetta’s prayer to Mary on behalf of the dying Mimi towards the close of La Bohème. This episode gains in poignancy and dramatic effect because Musetta refers to Mimi in terms of purity and innocence. In other operas, both Mary’s presence and her protection are used in a similar way for dramatic effect.

The Depiction of Marian Devotion: Praxis

Presence, purity and protection are present in Italian opera as elements of praxis. The portrayal of praxis in terms of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani provides insights for 21st century listeners into the state of devotion in Italy during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The following are some recurrent characteristics of Marian devotion which emerge from that portrayal. Mary as a Helper and Protector – As an essential element of the Aiuto dei Cristiani devotion, this is the most common Marian role in which she is invoked. Operatic characters pray to Mary for their personal safety, for family members or friends who are sick, for the resolution of an unhappy romantic entanglement and for deliverance from danger, sin or damnation. The extensive portrayal of Mary as helper and protector is a strong indication that popular devotion viewed her as an active participant in daily life. La Madonna was not merely a remote and exalted figure detached from human affairs. The invocation of Mary as a helper is the best example of how popular devotional praxis displays the characteristics of Mary’s power, familiarity and maternal care. which De Fiores used to describe popular Marian devotion.205 Awareness of presence - Another important aspect of devotion to Mary as Aiuto dei Cristiani, awareness enriches praxis when characters invoke Mary because they believe she is watching over their daily activities. Characters also behave more virtuously in Mary’s presence. An example is the two lovers in the church sanctuary during the first act of Tosca. Awareness reaches a highly developed form in the early stages of Suor Angelica, when an older member of the religious community reminds a newer member that Mary sees everything the nuns are doing. Presence reflects the aspects of familiarity and maternal care in De Fiore’s formulation. Veneration - Frequent references to Mary’s power and purity indicate that she was a special object of veneration. A full expression of this veneration is found during the Salve Regina episode in Boito’s Prologue. A highly developed form of veneration is present in the religious community in Suor Angelica, when the nuns repeatedly sing in praise of Mary. The Marian procession in I Gioielli della Madonna contains numerous examples of veneration, which culminate in a massive setting of Beata me dicent omnes generationes. Veneration reflects the aspect of Mary’s power in De Fiore’s formulation.

205S. De Fiores, Marie dans la religion populaire, 18-24. See pages 6-7.

67 Veneration influences the manner of Marian invocation. Rarely called Maria, she is most often referred to as la Madonna, a title which connotes respect and deference. The next most common title is la Vergine, which connotes Mary’s purity and holiness. The invocation of Mary in such terms is an indication of the ongoing influence of the definition of the Immaculate Conception in 1854. Forms of Prayer – Although the form of invocation can be an improvised prayer, operatic characters often employ a standard Marian prayer. The most common are the Ave Maria and Salve Regina. Because of censorship concerns, I Lombardi (and perhaps Otello) had to resort to a paraphrase of the Ave Maria. The frequency with which some form of the Ave Maria or Salve Regina occurs implies that these prayers were in common usage. Use of Images - The veneration of Mary is at times depicted with Marian images. An image of Our Lady of Monte Christo is present in the mafia hideout in I Gioielli della Madonna. A statue of Mary inside a church establishes a Marian presence in Tosca, while a statue is a central dramatic element in I Gioielli della Madonna. The employment of icons and statues in such a prominent way indicates that their use was an important aspect of Marian praxis and popular devotion. Processions and Public Celebrations - Public expressions of Marian devotion sometimes take place. Marian processions are depicted in various ways - reverent in Cavalleria Rusticana, solemn in Tosca and celebratory in I Gioielli della Madonna. In both La Festa di Piedigrotta and I Gioielli della Madonna, a setting during the celebration of Mary’s Nativity demonstrates the importance of that feast for the city of Naples. Rosary - References to the rosary can be present. In Act I of Mephistopheles, the devil humorously appears disguised as a monk who is carrying a rosary. More positively, the rosary plays a vital role in the dramatic course of La Gioconda. In this case, the rosary’s transformative power as a vehicle of Marian intercession is illustrated. These dramatic usages of the rosary suggest this devotion was in common practice. Intercession - Operatic characters are aware of intercession’s potential and act accordingly. The possibility of Marian intercession is the driving force behind the invocation of Mary by operatic characters in a wide range of situations. Intercession is mentioned in I Gioielli della Madonna in connection with Gennaro’s recovery from illness as a child. The entire cast acknowledges the effects of Marian intercession during the conclusion of La Festa di Piedigrotta. The character development of Gioconda in La Gioconda takes place in response to Laura’s invocation of Mary as Aiuto dei Christiani. The most powerful example of a specific intercessory act occurs during Mary’s appearance at the end of Suor Angelica. Entrustment – Although references to entrustment are not frequent, one example occurs in I Gioielli della Madonna. The mother of Gennaro entrusts him to the Holy Virgin as a sick infant. A somewhat adumbrated notion of entrustment is mentioned in Suor Angelica. The title character indicates that she is not willing to give up everything for Mary, because Sister Angelica must provide for the needs of her son. Some form of Marian consecration has influenced this episode. Although a definitive identification is not possible, it is worth noting that consecration according to the Montfort formulation was spreading through Europe at the time Suor Angelica was written. A feminine proclivity - In most instances, the character who invokes Mary is female. This portrayal reflects a certain bias in the enculturation of Marian devotion. Librettists were more likely to associate Marian devotion with naïve girls, older women and mothers. The influence of religious indifferentism; which resulted from the secularizing tendencies of Risorgimento, is present as well. This indifferentism is displayed in Tosca by the character Cavaradossi, who is not

68 aware that the Angelus is prayed when church bells ring. The feminine proclivity suggests that Marian devotion was more commonly practiced by Italian girls and women. Apparitions – Although apparitions sometimes occur (such as Griselda’s vision of Oronte in I Lombardi), Marian apparitions are not a regular feature of Italian operas. This absence at first seems inexplicable, since supernatural happenings were often present during the bel canto periods. Similarly, awareness of the supernatural was an important element of the later Romantic style. The nationalistic focus which came into play during Risorgimento may provide an explanation. The approved Marian apparitions during the 19th century took place outside of Italy. Apparitions were not Italian in origin and consequently Italian libretti do not exhibit a preoccupation with them. With the arrival of the Verismo style, the artistic objective to portray realistic events marginalized the use of the supernatural even further. The only opera in the present study which contains a Marian apparition is I Gioielli della Madonna. In that case, the apparition is presented as a caricature.

Theological Accuracy

In assessing the theological accuracy of Marian devotion in Italian opera, one is dealing with depictions of popular piety as it existed in 19th century Italy. The object of devotion is the Mary of folklore described by De Fiores.206. One should not seek or require theological precision. Instead, the influence of enculturation is decisive. The diverse depictions of devotion illustrate how deeply Italian people had internalized aspects of their faith, such as devotion to la Madonna, which were important in their daily lives. In most cases, the portrayal of devotion to Mary as Ausiliatrice remains within the bounds of theological orthodoxy. One finds appropriate veneration, recognition of Mary’s purity, and the invocation of her assistance and protection. In accordance with the characteristics of the Mary of folklore, the great reverence for Mary which is evinced in this portrayal occasionally produces practices which can seem exaggerated.207 This phenomenon is not a theological difficulty. It reflects the nature of popular devotion and the way it was enculturated. For example, operatic characters sometimes, either directly or by implication, attribute powers to Mary which exceed her status as a creature. Although the characters are simply acting in accordance with their high respect for the exalted place of la Madonna, the result is that she can be portrayed as possessing qualities which belong to God alone. Although they never address la Madonna directly as a divine figure, operatic characters sometimes speak of her power in terms which approximate the divine attributes of omniscience or omnipotence. An exaggerated view of Mary’s knowledge of human affairs is revealed when a nun in Suor Angelica states that Mary is aware of everything that takes place in the nun’s religious community. When Tonio in Pagliacci threatens Nedda with revenge through the instrumentality of the Virgin of the Assumption, he is attributing a power to Mary which she does not possess, and which is contrary to her loving maternal character. The Scriptures reserve revenge to God alone (e.g., Rom. 12:19). These examples are less an exaggeration and more an indication of deep reverence for la Madonna. An operatic character might extend Mary’s power to the realm of soteriology. In the final scene of Suor Angelica, Sister Angelica cries out to Mary for salvation from damnation. This

206 See Chapter 1, pages 6-7. 207 Both Lumen Gentium 67 and Marialis Cultus 38 caution against exaggerations in Marian devotion.

69 example just manages to remain within the boundaries of orthodoxy. Sister Angelica asks for grace, rather than salvation itself, from Mary. The desperate nun’s prayer thereby establishes a theologically sound Christological connection. An episode in I Gioielli della Madonna is similar. When Maliella places the stolen jewels around her neck, Gennaro immediately exclaims that la Madonna has ordained Maliella for salvation. At this point, it may seem that a theological line has been crossed, since salvation here is separated from grace and hence from a Christological context. There is also an implication that Mary has a role in the complicated theological question of the basis for predestination. In the case of Gennaro, however, any theological difficulty is more a product of his conflicted emotions (between devotion to la Madonna and his love for his step-sister) rather than of confused theological understanding. Another practice which appears problematic is asking Mary for forgiveness. This practice is acceptable when an operatic character, acting out of great respect for la Madonna, apologizes for having offended her in some way. In some instances, however, operatic characters seek forgiveness for sin from Mary or believe they have received forgiveness from her. Examples are Leonora in La Forza del Destino and Gennaro in I Gioielli della Madonna. The theological issue is that forgiveness of sins is a prerogative of God alone. Any apparent theological difficulty is resolved when one recalls the close connection which existed in popular piety between la Madonna and the divine. In the case of forgiveness of sins, God and Mary are identified in a way which does not detract from any divine prerogative. In all the above examples, operatic characters perceive such a close connection between Mary and the divine that any apparent theological confusion is zealous devotion to la Madonna as Ausiliatrice. The deeply internalized Marian devotion of some operatic characters is a natural part of their life of faith and inseparable from their relationship with the divine. This is a positive, not a negative aspect of the popular piety of the time. As the next section will demonstrate, the positive aspects of popular Marian devotion in Italian opera are what give it its enduring exemplary value.

Exemplary Value

A final question is what significance the artistic phenomenon of Marian devotion in Italian opera has for operatic listeners and Marian devotees in the 21st century. Although these works reflect historical and cultural conditions which were prevalent in a specific country over a century ago, their Marian content is still relevant to the spiritual life and daily concerns of present-day Christians. An examination of this relationship reveals the similarities and differences between Marian devotion in both time periods. That comparison is possible because of the nature of artistic endeavor. All art reflects life and provides a commentary on it. In the case of opera, that commentary takes place through the medium of telling stories through text and music. Storytelling provides a connection with Mary, because Mary is part of the greatest story, the story of redemption. Operatic storytelling presents Marian devotion within the daily activities of a wide variety of people: great and small, rich and poor, believers and nonbelievers. This depiction establishes a connection between the characters on stage and the members of the audience. Operatic characters are often placed in situations which involve the same difficulties and hard choices which are shared by the audience members. That connection includes the practice of Marian devotion, since any person devoted to Mary will easily identify with operatic characters who seek her assistance.

70 The practical value of Marian devotion energizes this connection between stage characters and the audience. The foundation of this connection in practicality is an important reason why Mary as Ausiliatrice is a defining characteristic in the operatic portrayal of Marian piety. Don Bosco viewed the title Aiuto dei Cristiani above all else in practical terms. He believed devotion to Mary should be a force for the development of virtue and the attainment of salvation. Because of its practical nature, the operatic portrayal of Marian devotion has an exemplary value for a modern listener. Operatic characters can exhibit devotional practices which are worthy of imitation. Characters are portrayed reciting common Marian prayers, such as the Ave Maria, Salve Regina, and the rosary. They venerate Mary because they perceive her holiness and fullness of grace. When in need, they turn to Mary for help and invoke her as an advocate and intercessor. Some characters set aside personal considerations and display Marian kenosis by making sacrifices for the sake of others. In this varied devotional praxis, operatic characters set a good example for today’s listeners. In their positive depiction of Marian devotion, Italian operas function as a window into the past. They hold up a mirror to contemporary Western culture and compare it to a prior culture in which attitudes toward Marian devotion were different. The result is a challenge to attitudes which are prevalent in present day Western society. This challenge arises from the positive operatic depictions of the virtue of purity, the value of Marian prayer, and the Christian’s need to rely on Mary for help. The pursuit of virtue (in the theological sense of achieving union with God and salvation) is marginalized by today’s secular culture, which rejects any teleological meaning for human life and opposes limitations on personal conduct. Prayer and dependence on Mary’s intercession contrast sharply with the exaggerated self-reliance which characterizes much of contemporary Western society. Another challenge is found in the frequent references to religious life. This vocational choice was more common and accepted in 19th century Italy. Many operas include priests, nuns, or monks who are faithful to their vocations and act in honorable ways. Such attitudes differ considerably from contemporary Western society, where in many places religious vocations are marginalized and in decline. Western movies, literature, and art typically portray religious life as oppressive, cynical, or hypocritical. This attitude is generally absent from Italian opera. The most telling challenge concerns the value of that greatest of all Marian characteristics, motherhood. Mothers are important characters in Cavalleria Rusticana, La Gioconda, Suor Angelica and I Gioielli della Madonna. In each case, a mother prays to Mary as a mother. All, except the mother in La Gioconda, invoke Mary on behalf of a child. In La Gioconda, the mother’s rosary produces a transformation of her child into a woman who exhibits a thoroughly Marian quality of self-sacrifice. Sister Angelica even punctuates her final prayer with the phrase “Una madre ti prega, una madre t'implora/A mother begs you, a mother implores you.” She prays mother to mother.208 In Italian opera, motherhood has great value, because it affirms life and contributes to the welfare of others. As Aiuto dei Cristiani, Mary is an exalted mother whose maternal care gives devotion through that title its efficacy. Contrary to the typical conception of Mary in modern feminism, the Mary of opera is not a symbol or instrument of oppression. There is likewise never any sense that a woman should avoid motherhood in order to achieve self-actualization. In contrast to the materialistic concerns of the culture of death, there is never the suggestion that contraception or abortion are acceptable alternatives to avoid any inconvenience, financial sacrifice or diversion of material resources because of the birth of a child.

208 Suor Angelica, 239-240.

71 The exemplary value and challenge of Italian operas finds Western culture to be wanting. These works from the past suggest that there would be much benefit in the recovery of an aspect of the older culture, Marian devotion, which to a great extent has been discarded in contemporary Western society. By furnishing an abundance of fine examples of Marian devotion, this witness of Italian operas is an important way in which these works have enduring value. Which opera contains the best example of Marian devotion? There are many excellent examples, but the first choice must be La Gioconda, because of the central place given to the Rosary. Two characters, the blind mother and Laura, turn to Mary for help through the Rosary when they are in danger. Marian intercession takes place through the Rosary, and as a result the title character is transformed into an exemplar of Marian qualities, especially help for others and self-sacrifice. La Giaconda is opera’s best portrayal of the value of praying the rosary, a quintessential Marian devotion.

Summary

The course of this survey began with a methodological, historical and theological background and then proceeded to analyze Italian operas from the time frame 1840-1920. That analysis uncovered a rich and diverse Marian presence and an extensive array of examples of Marian devotion. To complete and summarize this Marian operatic journey, the following conclusions are offered:

1. The portrayal of Marian devotion in Italian opera reflects popular piety and enculturation. Mary is present in a manner which reflects characteristics of folklore, rather than theological dogma or doctrine.

2. The Marian content in these operas correlates well with St. Don Bosco’s formulation of the essential elements of the devotion Aiuto dei Cristiani: presence, purity, help and protection.

3. Operas portray Marian devotion through the skillful combination of text, music and stagecraft. Music helps to narrate the story and has the capacity to make a listener aware of a divine or sacred presence.

4. Italian Operas provide many positive examples of Marian devotion, which form a rich picture of the state of Marian devotion in 19th century Italy.

5. As an art form with enduring value, Italian opera has an exemplary value which indicates the continuing importance of Marian devotion for present-day Christians.

These conclusions reveal how effective an art form such as opera can be, even when it deals with subjects of a theological or devotional nature. These works provide ample evidence that Don Bosco was correct when he determined that Marian devotion under the title Aiuto dei Cristiani was the fulfillment of other forms of Marian devotion. The convergence between Italian opera and Mary as Ausiliatrice is a truly happy circumstance, which does honor to the Blessed Virgin Mary and encourages greater devotion to her.

72 Bibliography

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74 Ponchielli, Amilcare. La Gioconda. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1904; reprinted New York: Broude Brothers, ca 1950. http://imslp.org/wiki/La_Gioconda%2C_Op.9_(Ponchielli%2C_Amilcare). Puccini. Giacomo. La Bohème. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1920. http://imslp.org/wiki/La_bohème_(Puccini,_Giacomo). ------. Tosca. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1924). http://imslp.org/wiki/Tosca_(Puccini,_Giacomo) ------. Il Trittico. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1919; reprinted Minola: Dover Publications, 1996. http://imslp.org/wiki/Suor_Angelica_(Puccini,_Giacomo). Ricci, Luigi. La Festa di Piedigrotta. Napoli: Stabilmento Musicale T. Cottrau. (Libretto only). Roten, Johann G. “Culture et Theologie Mariales dans la Periode Romantique et le Pietsme” in La Figura di Maria tra Fide, Ragione e Sentimento: Aspetti Teologico - Culturali della Modernità, 55-121. Roma: Edizioni Marianum, 2013. Simon, Henry W., ed. The Victor Book of the Opera. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968. Söll, P. Georg.. “Die Begruendung der Maria Hilf Verehrung und ihre Besondere Foederung durch den Heiligen Don Don Boscos (1815-1888).” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 365-378. Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991. Stella, P/ Pietro... “Don Bosco e il Titolo Mariano Auxilium Christianorum tra Politica e Religiosità Popolare.” In Du Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX-xx Acta Congressus Mariologici-Mariani Internationalis in Sanctuario Marianokvelaer (Germania) Anno 1967 celebrati Vol. 3: De Cultu Mariano Saeculis XIX-XX usque ad Concilium Vaticanum II studia indolis generalioris, 379-398. Roma: Pontificia Academia Mariana Internationalis, 1991. Terrien, Samuel. The Magnificat: Musicians as Biblical Interpreters. Paulist Press: Mahwah, NewJersey, 1995. Verdi, Giuseppe. La Forza del Destino. Milan:G. Ricordi, 1904. Reprinted: Mineola: Dover Publications, 1991. http://imslp.org/wiki/La_forza_del_destino_(Verdi,_Giuseppe). ------I Lombardi alla prima croccia. Milan: G. Ricordi. Reprinted Miami: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1980-87. http://imslp.org/wiki/I_Lombardi_alla_prima_crociata_(Verdi%2C_Giuseppe). ------Otello. Milan: G. Ricordi, 1913; reprinted Mineola: Dover Publications, 1986. http://imslp.org/wiki/Otello_(Verdi,_Giuseppe). Vehlow, Gero. Maria in der Musik. Köln: Verlag Christoph Dohr, 2007. Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno. I Gioielli della Madonna. New York: G. Schirmer, 1912. http://imslp.org/wiki/I_gioielli_della_Madonna_(Wolf-Ferrari%2C_Ermanno). ------I Gioielli della Madonna. With the Slovak Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by Friedrich Halder and the Slovak National Theater Opera Chorus conducted by Pavol Prochazká.. Recorded November 29 and December 2, 2015. Naxos CD 8.660386-87, 2 compacts and booklet. Booklet notes by Friedrich Halder.

75 Notes on the Bibliography:

1. Articles for individual composers in the New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians were used to verify biographical information and dates of composition or performance. 2. The summary of storylines utilizes the synopses in The Victor Book of the Opera and The Rough Guide .to Opera. 3. Whenever possible, the author’s commentary is based on the published musical scores. All scores were found in the online library at imslp.org. This site only includes public domain material. Recorded performances were consulted in combination with the printed scores. 4. When scores were not available, the author has relied on recorded performances. 5. Compact disc recordings are included in the bibliography only when the accompanying booklet was consulted for background information or for the libretto/text used in the composition.

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