INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island Narragansett, Rhode Island USA • #35 • Winter 2000 Complacency or Action:Which Way to Deal with Natural Hazards? FOCUS ON: By Pamela Rubinoff and be tamed, causes natural hazards community is immune to that one NATURAL DISASTERS NATURAL Noëlle F. Lewis worldwide affecting both rich and event that causes huge loss of life and property, months and even atural events become natural poor. years of disruption, and millions to disasters when peoples’ lives, As the earth’s population grows, N billions of dollars spent to re-build properties and ways of life are reaching 6 billion in 1999, and the or re-locate entire villages, towns threatened.The occurrence of a population density grows in areas of frequent hazards, even a small and cities. Highlights natural disaster cannot be Though not a new concept, considered an individual event; natural hazard event can be considered a crisis. Nevertheless, recent emphasis has been placed on 2 natural disasters are a civilization as a whole has not This issue of InterCoast looks at Hurricane conglomeration of many different heeded nature’s warning and various tools of hazard mitigation Forecasting earth processes, sometimes enhanced by human influences, 11 each having its own cause and Hazard Mitigation 1. Sustained action to reduce risk to property, human life, El Niño Causes disastrous effect. Natural hazards natural resources and economic health of our communities Erosion affect man in the form of 2. Actions that have long-term impacts and benefits earthquakes, hurricanes, typhoons, 13 severe storms, volcanoes, moved from these vulnerable areas and disaster management including Special Section: avalanches and more. Man feels the to safer grounds. Instead, we have prediction, planning and Electronic effects as loss of life and property tried to defy Mother Nature, to management, infrastructure Resources manifested in erosion, flooding, development, partnerships and drought, mud slides, avalanches, withstand her forces. Our attempts include building huge public education. Hazard 18 coastal defenses, mitigation can not be considered a Project Impact designing better luxury—it is an essential buildings to survive component of community planning 21 her wrath, or buying and economic development. Managed insurance to Mitigation strategies should be Retreat subsidize our losses. incorporated into permitting In some regions the decisions, infrastructure design, chosen solution is and long-term economic evacuation, where development schemes.The “menu” extensive efforts are presented here offers decision- made to save makers a selection of pre-disaster Theme proactive initiatives and post- Eye of a Hurricane peoples’ lives while Advisor: disaster recovery actions from etc. Civilization has explained accepting that property can be which to build a comprehensive natural disasters in many ways: reclaimed and rebuilt. In other Pamela strategy. punishment by the gods, voices of regions, those that do not have the Rubinoff Prediction is a critical tool for demons, or loss of luck.Today, resources for such alternatives, understanding hazards and risks. communities have accepted that there is only hope for survival. No (continued page 35) Mother Nature, a force that cannot Improving Hurricane Forecasting

INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT By Isaac Ginis model developed at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric ropical cyclones are among the Administration’s Geophysical Fluid Editor: Stephen B. Olsen most dangerous of our natural T Dynamic Laboratory (GFDL).This Managing hazards. Each year communities model predicted the path of a Editor: Noëlle F. Lewis suffer devastation, destruction and hurricane with approximately 20 Designer: Matt Castigliego often-severe casualties from percent more accuracy than its tropical cyclones.Today, the coastal predecessor. In addition to InterCoast is an United States is occupied by predicting where the hurricane international newsletter of millions of people who live and would go, the model predicts coastal management, published vacation along the coast.This where the heaviest rain would be three times each year by the makes the United States more located, the wind and air pressure Coastal Resources vulnerable now, than ever before, patterns and other parameters. Management Project of the to the effects of tropical cyclones While hurricane track prediction University of Rhode Island's (hurricanes). has been improved significantly, Coastal Resources Center Improvements in forecasts, there is little new skill in (CRC) and the U.S. Agency warnings, communications and forecasting of storm-intensity for International Development public awareness have greatly change.This shortcoming greatly (USAID). Funding to publish reduced the loss of life associated impairs forecasters’ ability to InterCoast is provided by with hurricanes. Nevertheless, provide timely hurricane warnings. USAID's Global Environment storm-related damage has increased Given the expense and inconve- Center, and the National significantly as coastal population nience of hurricane evacuations and Institute for Coastal and growth in the United States emergency preparations, the public Marine Mangement,The outpaces the rate of improvement benefits greatly if unnecessary Netherlands. in official hurricane track hurricane warnings can be avoided. InterCoast’s objective is to predictions. In addition, hurricane Furthermore, residents are likely facilitate information exchange preparation costs have increased to take hurricane warnings more on coastal management. eight-fold in the past nine years seriously if the intensity forecasts Readers are invited to contact from US$50 million per storm in are shown to be more reliable.The Noëlle F. Lewis, managing 1989 to an estimated US$300 Federal Emergency Management editor, with contributions, million per storm in 1998, or Agency requires coastal questions and comments on about US$640,000 per mile of communities with limited escape InterCoast. coastline warned. routes to have evacuated before the In recent years, new research InterCoast Network arrival of gale-force winds, tools have contributed to improved Noëlle F. Lewis typically 24-48 hours before hurricane prediction. But the most Coastal Resources Center landfall. Errors in wind, storm important advances have been University of Rhode Island surge and rainfall sometime made in developing new hurricane Narragansett, RI 02882 prevent accurately defining the forecast models. Computer USA most vulnerable regions to modeling is the basis for all United Tel: 401-874-6870 expedite preparations well in Fax: 401-789-4670 States National Weather Service ASSESSMENT MANAGEMENT RECOVERY ASSESSMENT MANAGEMENT advance of the projected landfall. forecasts, including hurricane E-mail: [email protected] With potential damage from a predictions. New computer models We invite others to reprint single storm exceeding US$25 are continually being developed to

PREDICTION POLICY PLANNING OUTREACH articles found in InterCoast. billion (e.g., Hurricane Andrew in improve weather predictions for all 1992), reliable short-term types of weather events. preparations, while expensive to Improving the undertake, can result in large net Forecast Model savings. COASTAL RESOURCES CENTER In the 1995 hurricane season, One potentially significant University of Rhode Island the National Weather Service constrain on the GFDL hurricane- (NWS) began using a new forecast prediction model is lack of

2 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 knowledge about air-sea inter- Hurricane Earl (6), Hurricane hurricane reaching land within 24 actions. Physical oceanographers at Georges (42), Hurricane Ivan (3), hours of landfall.This will further the University of Rhode Island, Hurricane Jeanne (10) and improve predicting hurricane Graduate School of Oceanography, Hurricane Mitch (25).The new landfall. Rhode Island, USA, have con- model predicted certain This hurricane-ocean model ducted studies of the effects of air- parameters significantly better than being developed by physical PREDICTION sea interaction on hurricane the operational GFDL model. oceanographers at the University behavior. Coupling the GFDL Some of the best forecasts made of Rhode Island is about more than hurricane model with an ocean by the coupled model were for just science and technology.This model can identify positive and Hurricane Bonnie and Danielle. translates directly into saving lives, negative feedback mechanisms that On August 23, 1998, Hurricane property and millions of dollars in exist in the hurricane-ocean system Bonnie was moving toward the evacuation costs.This new model is and are important for accurate U.S. East Coast.The GFDL model expected to more accurately prediction.To account for air-sea forecasts largely over-predicted forecast where a hurricane will interaction in hurricanes, a new storm intensity. However, the strike land, thus allowing better coupled hurricane-ocean pre- intensity prediction by the coupled predictions of coastal areas needing diction model (coupled model) has model was more accurate than the evacuation. been developed. GFDL prediction. Similar results For further information contact: Hurricane Opal in October were found for Hurricane Danielle. Isaac Ginis, Graduate School of 1995 offers a good example of the The coupled model is being Oceanography, University of improvements in the hurricane tested at the National Centers for Rhode Island, Box 28, 215 South intensity forecasts using this new Environmental Prediction during Ferry Road, Narragansett, Rhode model. Opal was the most the 1999-2000 hurricane season. If Island, 02882 USA.Tel: 401 874 destructive hurricane to hit the the model validations are 6484. U.S. mainland since Hurricane successful, the coupled hurricane- Fax: 401 874 6728. Andrew, inflicting about US$3 ocean model will be implemented E-mail: [email protected] billion of insured property damage as an official prediction system at and nine deaths.The operational the National Weather Service. model did not predict the rapid Conclusions increase in speed and intensity, At the same time approaching Category 5 status, that model within 12 hours of landfall, giving development has no time to alert the public. progressed, Fortunately, the storm quickly emerging weakened; yet, it still caused technologies have extensive damage. matured to a state Simulations using the new where observations coupled model have been and models can be conducted for Opal and other integrated, thus hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico improving both our and Atlantic Ocean. In each case, understanding and inclusion of ocean coupling led to prediction of substantial improvements in the hurricanes.The prediction of storm intensity. NWS has nearly Real-Time Testing of completed its the Coupled Model observation net- During the 1998-99 hurricane work modern- season, the new coupled model ization. In addition, was run in near real-time mode. In a mobile observing total, 135 forecasts were system is being performed:Tropical Storm Alex (8 developed that will cases), Hurricane Bonnie (23), be positioned in Hurricane Danielle (18), front of any

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 3 Mitigation Efforts After Hurricane Mitch By Henrik Franklin inland areas. Nevertheless, these social groups such as children, Photos by David Mangurian, important resources are suffering women and the elderly was Inter-American Development Bank from over-exploitation and discussed.Three important entral America is one of the deterioration due to unsustainable conclusions are: Cmost natural hazard-prone mariculture, salt production 1. Integrate vulnerability regions in the world. Every year expansion, uncontrolled tourism mitigation at the local, national and hundreds of small- and medium- development, and poor water regional levels.The regional scale disaster events affect the quality due to sedimentation and perspective is particularly region. In 1998 Hurricane Mitch pollution from land-based sources. important in Central America, ASSESSMENT resulted in direct and indirect Many of these problems can be where natural hazards and the damages estimated at US$6.3 decreased through upstream soil watersheds are transboundary.The billion and caused more than conservation and land-use combined effect of working 10,000 casualties. Industries such planning. together can significantly decrease the region’s vulnerability. as tourism and agricultural Reconstruction of exports, which are largely coastal 2. Undertake local-level Central America participatory hazard vulnerability based, suffered greatly. In March 1999, the Inter- The extensive coastline makes mitigation and disaster prevention American Development Bank planning.This is to include Central America especially (IDB) and the Central American vulnerable. Coastal areas are environmental and natural hazard Integration System organized a vulnerability education and affected by the direct threats from regional workshop in San Salvador, the ocean (waves, wind and information management. Many El Salvador, on the topic of remote coastal communities are flooding) and the indirect impacts environmental management and from inland precipitation cut off from national emergency natural disaster vulnerability and efforts during natural disasters; (increased low-lying coastal area mitigation. Over 130 government flooding and sedimentation). thus, there is a need for adequate officials and environmental and and independent local prevention Extreme events such as Hurricane natural hazard experts from El Mitch are even more devastating plans based on active community Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala participation. due to factors such as poverty and and Nicaragua along with social exclusion, as well as In the lower and coastal part of representatives from other the Lempa River Basin in El unsustainable exploitation of governments, institutions and natural resources and inadequate Salvador is a successful multilateral organizations demonstration of community coastal management. participated.The purpose was The connection between involvement in preparing local to share experiences and draw emergency response plans, disasters and “lessons learned” from the other social including basic organization, relationship between natural responsibilities and procedures for factors is not hazards and resource manage- always clear evacuation and emergency ment. In an effort to decrease the management. In addition, local and, to a risk of similar damages in the large extent, hazard vulnerability maps and early future, ideas, policies and action alert systems based on accurate has not plans were explored that could be received hydrological and precipitation data integrated into the national and were developed.This area received enough regional reconstruction plans. In Mangroves protect the coast attention in more rainfall than any other area in from storms and floods May 1999 in Stockholm, Sweden, the country during Hurricane this or many IDB and the Swedish government other regions. For example, the Mitch and, as a result of the area’s organized a workshop focusing on preparedness, there were no deaths need to integrate watershed and social and ecological vulnerability. coastal zone management is among the 35,000 inhabitants. The issue of vulnerability mit- 3. Strengthen the institutional evident. Coastal and marine igation was addressed with a ecosystems, such as mangroves, framework for environmental and broader and more regional hazard management.This can be wetlands and coral reefs, play a dimension.The particular vulner- vital role as protection barriers for accomplished by facilitating the use ability to natural hazards of certain of effective tools such as land-use

4 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 planning, environmental impact cfm/205/ENGLISH/pub/574); modification or development of statements, natural hazard and http://www.iadb.org building codes, education, among vulnerability assessments and /sds/utility.cfm/188/ENGLISH others. economic incentives to promote /pub/695). Other post-Mitch IDB- sustainable use of the natural After Hurricane Mitch, IDB supported programs include: resources. For example, during supported a series of recon- • Developing a national program Hurricane Mitch a large warehouse struction programs incorporating for the sustainable management of containing highly toxic agro- environmental management priority watersheds in Guatemala chemicals was flooded in the strategies. For example, a post- • Developing a tri-national coastal city of Choluteca, hurricane housing program in watershed management program Honduras. Nearby areas, including Honduras will develop guidelines focusing on environmental the Gulf of Fonseca, were for risk mapping and prepare management and resource contaminated, potentially affecting municipal maps of natural hazard human health, and marine and risk to be used for the delineation coastal productivity (e.g., shrimp of uninhabitable areas. Only farming industry). Having these households resettling outside high- types of facilities located in high risk areas will be eligible for the flood-risk areas indicates both housing program benefits. In inadequate land-use planning and addition, communities living in poor environmental impact areas of high risk will be provided assessments.This shows the need with information about the risks to consider both the effects of they face and their options to be infrastructure on the natural relocated to alternative locations environment and the impact the with support from the program. Landslide in Honduras environment may have on Another example is a road development in Guatemala, infrastructure.This further rehabilitation program in Honduras and El Salvador suggests the need to specifically Nicaragua in which environmental • Developing an environmental require natural hazard vulner- and preventive considerations are program for sustainable ability assessments as a part of addressed in the project’s design, management of coastal and marine environmental impact assessment supervision and monitoring. Slope ecosystems and land-use planning legislation and practice. stabilization, reforestation, in the Bay Islands, Honduras. Governments and international Mitigation and improvement of drainage systems and maintenance procedures are funders must be aware that the Prevention planning and early reconstruction IDB is supporting various among the measures included. IDB,The World Bank and the stages are where steps should be programs and initiatives in Central taken for prevention and mitigation America aimed at decreasing Japanese government are supporting the Center for in order to reduce vulnerability. vulnerability to natural hazards. One lesson to be learned by These efforts follow a series of IDB Coordination of Natural Disaster Prevention in Central America Hurricane Mitch is that prevention strategies and guidelines including: and mitigation efforts must be • A comprehensive strategy on (CEPREDENAC) in an effort to improve hazard mitigation and strongly voiced to ensure their natural and unexpected disasters inclusion at the planning stage. which stipulates that all projects disaster prevention (http://www.cepredenac.org). Otherwise, the reconstruction must include an analysis containing stage will be a mere ‘restoration’ of natural hazard risk assessments This program includes a Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Fund the scene for the next disaster. • Specific environmental and social For further information contact: procedures to be approval for all that provides matching grants (maximum of US$150,000) for Henrik Franklin, Inter-American projects Development Bank, Environment • Implement two newly approved mitigation and prevention projects at the national and local levels. and Natural Resources strategies for marine and coastal Management Division, 1300 New resources management and Eligible projects include development or implementation of York Avenue,Washington D.C. integrated water resources 20577 U.S.A.Tel: 202 623 2860. management (Websites: http:// natural hazard mitigation plans, vulnerability and risk studies, E-mail: [email protected]: www.iadb.org/sds/utility. http://www.iadb.org

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 5 Real-Time Flood Modeling by weather scenario. USGS quadrangle maps, GIS map layers, By Hassan S. Mashriqui and developed to simulate flooding John C. Pine from severe rainfall. Flood and output displays for the inundation maps using the model functioning hydraulic and new tool in understanding the showed the nature and extent of floodplain delineation models were nature and extent of flooding A flooded areas including critical also provided to officials. Multiple is now available to local-level building, public service structures scenarios were used to identify emergency managers and other and transportation routes inside the buffer zones for potential flood personnel.This tool links flood zones. events in the river basin. hydrologic and hydraulic modeling GIS provides a unique tool to programs, geographic information Flood Modeling and merge and display geographic systems (GIS) and real-time Data images.Watersheds may be

PREDICTION weather data.The tool has the Hydrologic and hydraulic displayed using three-dimensional capability to predict or determine modeling was performed using the technology.A USGS Quarter areas that may be impacted by Watershed Modeling System in Quadrangle can be draped over the association with Federal Emerg- USGS DEM contour map creating ency Management Agency a three-dimensional image of the (FEMA)-approved hydraulic area.This type of image is useful to models.These models predict real- local officials and businesses time water surface profiles. because it can display a three- The model used three primary dimensional image of the flooding data sources: impact.The three-dimensional 1. GIS data (water and road image has the capacity to show the features, land use, soils types and elevation of the water and its surveyed cross sections) impact on buildings, bridges, 2. US Geologic Survey (USGS) roads, land and levees. 1:24,000 Digital Elevation West Fork Calcasieu River Models (DEMs) Conclusions rising floodwaters. Local officials 3.Triangulated Irregular Hydraulic models for predicting can use this information for Networks (TINs) water-surface profiles and flood business emergency planning and As a part of this demonstration, inundation may be used by local land-use planning and for selection local officials were provided emergency management, public of evacuation routes and buildings model-generated flood inundation works, planning, flood to be used as shelters. In addition, maps in both paper and digital management and public safety the technology provides form. Map layers were provided to personnel to identify structures information enable a comparison between and organizations at risk.The for mitigating alternative flooding buffer zones models also provide a basis for flood damage and selected features of the predicting the area to be impacted, such as geographic area. Map layers such as the water level and the flow rate. examination of hospitals, schools, nursing homes, The most convenient and user- alternate bridges, residents, businesses, friendly method to display and strategies for roads and many others could be query this information is through identifying viewed in comparison with the the use of a GIS. drainage areas, various flood-zone scenarios. For further information contact: adding Population census data at the John C. Pine, Institute for Environmental Studies, Louisiana West Fork Calcasieu River Watershed pumping county, tract, block group and stations and levees, and land use block level was also included. State University, Baton Rouge, LA options. Population counts using census 70803-5705 USA.Tel: 225-388- The West Fork Calcasieu River data are made to describe the 1075. Fax: 225-388-4286. E-mail: Basin, Louisiana, USA, (see map) is characteristics of the population in [email protected]: an area that experiences serious a specific flood zone. Features http://www.hurricane.lsu.edu flooding.As a trial for this tool, a falling within a specific buffer zone fully operational model was can be selected, saved and grouped

6 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 ASSESSMENT (continued page 8) Winter 2000 7 In addition to documenting the In addition to documenting to goals were of ITST’s Two tsunamis in an area. in an tsunamis nearly For region, tsunami-prone every the historic of tsunamis is record short non-existent and or relatively the truedoes not reflect natural hazard. scientists cannot Because a tsunami will when predict yet occur, geologic obtaining a record to way of past tsunamis is one of future assess the likelihood events. occurrence of past tsunamis, help in the tsunami deposits can of characteristicsanalysis such as height,wave and extent of power inundation. Interpreting deposits is science. new a relatively Devel- valuable be oping this ability would for understanding 17 PNG the July and for identifying tsunami event occurrences worldwide, both ancient and modern. determine whether or not the a PNG tsunami produced sediment deposit and recognizable to determine whether the geologic contains in the area record information about past tsunamis. GeologicalThe United State Survey the and PNG scientists with of land ITST made measurements elevation, depth, tsunami flow flow direction, and tsunami deposit thickness and character along transects in the affected several area.Arop the at One transect was School,Community several metershundred the village. from dug along this Small pits were transect to examine the tsunami deposits.Thedeposits were identified as common and were sand typically gray-colored a brown,overlying soil.The rooted and measured deposits were described in the field and samples for laboratory analyses. taken were The tsunami deposited a thin sand thick) (up to 12-cm inland layer than 600 m of coastal more across plain. In some places, a zone about Network • Network InterCoast When sediment is deposited by a When sediment is deposited by In order to assess the nature of nature In order to assess the A second ITST returned to PNG Preliminary analysis of seismo- analysis Preliminary graphs put other field evidence and of the earthquakethe center a at Sissano of the offshore 20-km mere Lagoon. Assessing Tsunami Using the Hazards Record Geologic Rapid Response to Rapid Tsunami tsunami and preserved, a geologic tsunami is created. of that record sediments in an area, By looking at to identify be able geologists may such deposits and infer the occurrence of past tsunamis.The of past tsunamis allows recognition geologists of to extend the record the tsunami, members of the international community tsunami conducted a field survey of the area. international A similar has been undertakenresponse in Japan, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Philippines, within Russia and Peru the past six years.Within of weeks PNG tsunami,the devastating the International Tsunami Survey Team (ITST), team of a multi-national scientists and engineers from Japan, United States, and Australia Zealand visited the region to New install seismographs, measure and interview levels water eyewitnesses. September 1998 to retrieve in late data, assess damage to buildings and structures, and examine the the tsunami.sediments left by In addition to collecting scientific information, ITST members meet officials,with government relief and local organizations to discuss and help representatives guide reconstruction decisions in of another tsunami or the event hazards. natural eyewitness accounts, eyewitness

sunamis (also known as tidal known sunamis (also by often caused are waves)

The tsunami consisted of three On the evening of July 17, of July On the evening 1998, large waves, the first making 20 minutes landfall approximately felt the after coastal residents earthquake.The second and third minutes of came within five waves wave.The force of the preceding great enough to rip was the waves the the ground from by large trees both traditional and to move roots and modern structures landward of meters. some tens to hundreds an earthquake of magnitude 7.0 a series of by followed was that tsunami waves catastrophic on the villages several devastated Guinea north New coast of Papua (PNG). Early confirmedlater field studies, by 7- to 10-meters reported waves the coast.Thehigh at confirmed 2,000, over toll was death and the and Warapu coastal villages of Arop, on barrier located spits the Sissano Lagoon,around were destroyed.completely In the aftermath, thousands of coastal their forced to leave were residents villages and set up temporary camps inland. of the villagers Many fearful of further disastrous were uncertain about and were waves returning to their coastal villages. underwater earthquakes or underwater triggerlandslides that a series of ocean waves.Tsunami traveling of miles, hundreds can travel waves height of a wave have only may but or less and cannot be felt feet a few the air from aboard ships nor seen in the open ocean. However, once reach shore,they tsunami waves can be as much high as 100-feet to coastal a major threat and are communities; much waves even destructive. smaller can be very

T 1998 Tsunami:Papua 1998 Guinea New Gelfenbaum,By Guy Bruce Jaffe, and Christina Neal Hugh Davies Tsunami and to improve public awareness of hospitals and churches should not (continued from page 7) coastal and other geologic hazards. be located closer than 800 m from 75-m wide near the ocean had USAID’s strategy included the ocean in areas of known been eroded as evidenced by upgrading the geophysical monit- tsunami risk exposed tree roots. Some sand oring and warning systems within • Evacuation drills should be deposited further inland came from PNG. Due to the vast stretches of conducted annually, and people the eroded beach, but at least some remote, isolated coastline; should be taught to run inland as of the sand deposited by the limitations of communication far as possible whenever they feel tsunami is believed to have come infrastructure; and other an earthquake from offshore, as numerous sand constraints, a tsunami warning • Casuarina forests should be dollars (Dendraster excentricus) system based on seismic stations planted in front of coastal villages, and tide gauge sensors is and trees should have steps or not feasible in PNG. ladders to facilitate vertical Instead, USAID is evacuation when necessary supporting an ongoing There is still much to be learned collaboration of the U.S. about the recent and past tsunamis Geological Survey’s in PNG. For example, analysis of Volcano Disaster the sedimentary deposits in the Assistance Program area and along other stretches of (VDAP), the Rabaul potentially vulnerable coast could Volcano Observatory help officials in PNG assess future (RVO) in PNG, and the tsunami risk by identifying the Australian Geological recurrence interval of past events. Survey (AGSO). RVO is Finally, such work in PNG will responsible for seismic also aid in understanding and monitoring of active mitigating tsunami hazards volcanoes in PNG and elsewhere in the world. Analysis of Member of foreign assistance team speaking with viligers warning of potential and known tsunami deposits in PNG were found near the surface of the actual eruptions. A number of will assist in the development of deposit. PNG’s active volcanoes are situated sediment transport models that The Arop School transect was on islands or near will relate characteristics of a also chosen as a site to look into the coastline; thus there are tsunami to any deposits left by the the sedimentary record for past overlapping efforts to reduce risk wave.These models can then be tsunamis. Sediment analyses found from volcanic eruptions as well as used to help interpret the number a layer possibly deposited by a past tsunamis.With technical assistance and size of tsunamis that have tsunami.This material was from AGSO and VDAP,RVO will impacted the coast in areas of the collected for radiometric dating be upgrading and expanding world where there is little or no to determine its approximate age. earthquake and volcano monitoring written record of tsunamis. These dates will be added to the systems and contributing to public For further information contact: record of past tsunamis. education campaigns about both Guy Gelfenbaum or Bruce Jaffe at Tsunami Hazard hazards. USGS, 345 Middlefield RD, MS Mitigation In addition to these steps to 999, Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA. reduce risk from tsunamis E-mail: [email protected]; In addition to providing throughout PNG, the ITST made Bruce humanitarian relief to survivors of several preliminary recommen- Jaffe, E-mail: [email protected]; the tsunami, the United States’ dations for the safe relocation of Christina Neal, USAID, E-Mail: Agency for International Devel- villages in the effected area.Those [email protected]; or Hugh Davies, opment’s (USAID), Office of recommendations include the University of Papua New Guinea. Foreign Disaster Assistance, following: E-mail: hda [email protected] pledged support for a mitigation •There should be no relocation of program in PNG. One objective villages near the coast in areas was to strengthen the capacity of fronted by the ocean and backed by PNG’s emergency management rivers or lagoons. and disaster response organizations • Critical facilities such as schools,

8 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 develop an agreement on: Recognizing the Need for Coastal • The current nature, extent and Disaster Planning in Micronesia cause of coastal degradation •The degree to which these By Douglas Ramsay • Rapid infrastructure development increase coastal erosion occurring in the immediate coastal • The risks and potential impacts he island of Kosrae is the PLANNING hinterland over the last 30 years easternmost island in the faced by each community from T (e.g., paved roadways, dock and Federated States of Micronesia. coastal hazards airport facilities).This has lead to Kosrae is a 112 km2 volcanic island The communities of each of the the need for coastal defenses for surrounded by well-developed four municipalities have established protection and for land coastal mangroves and a narrow a group to address the issues reclamation. fringing reef with no outer islands. identified by the community • Non-traditional use of coastal The population is approximately workshop.The group includes the resources by landowners (e.g., 8,000; most depend on fishing and mayor, representatives from the switch from traditional thatched farming for their livelihood. council, fishers, church groups, housing to concrete buildings) On Kosrae, major typhoon senior citizens, women’s groups, • Over-exploitation ofd natural events are rare; the main tracks are shoreline landowners and other resources located to the north and west of interested parties. A fifth group • Constitutional right of a shoreline the island.The last major typhoon consists of decisionmakers from landowner to reclaim abutting land to affect the island was in 1905. various governmental departments, on the foreshore or mangrove areas This absence of a significant natural nongovernmental organizations and • Dependence on foreign aid, destructive event within the notably US Compact funding that memory of much of the population is decreasing and due to stop in has had a major impact on the 2001 economic development of the • Increased public and private island. Specifically, virtually the ventures geared to short-term entire population and most of the profits island’s infrastructure are now • Shift from small family/land located within the immediate settlements to municipal urban coastal hinterland, on land villages generally less than 2 m above In 1998 the Kosrae government spring high tide. In addition, recognized that an increasing coastal erosion has intensified over coastal population and changing the last 50 years leading to a socioeconomic pressures were landward retreat (between 5 to 30 causing the majority of the Erosion undermining mangroves along the Malem coastline m) of the shoreline around much of population and infrastructure to be the island and a loss of shoreline the municipal mayors. A located in the high-risk zone. In mangroves.This retreat is of community liaison officer has been response, the government started concern because approximately half appointed to help facilitate developing a shoreline management of Kosrae’s coastal fringe is communication between the plan.The goal is to provide a developed.The remainder is in a groups, community and framework for future development natural and undisturbed state, and government. and resource management within some areas are being developed The goal is to make the public the context of coastal erosion and into community-managed marine and the government aware of their coastal hazard management. parks. coastal resource, the coastal A key factor in this strategy is Though Kosrae’s coastal zone is degradation and hazard the integration of state and still relatively healthy, it is subject management opportunities. municipal governments and local to the same forces that have Education activities in 1999 communities. Although the plan is depleted coastal resources in other include: being coordinated at the state level, parts of the Pacific, namely: • An awareness program on various the driving force comes from the • Rapid population growth with coastal issues using posters and communities within each greater than 50 percent of the radio broadcasts municipality. Community population under 16 years of age • Monthly environmental video workshops are being used to (continued page 10)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 9 Community Action erosion, hazard mitigation and management of the coastal zone. (continued from page 9) resource depletion An additional aim is to have the shows in each municipality (There • Development of teaching tools on entire community aware of the is no television in Kosrae.) coastal issues for use in schools full range of natural and man- • Church sermons and classes •Training and capacity-building made hazards and the risks that • Community workshops on coastal programs on impact assessment these pose to the island and its and decisionmaking people. procedures for For further information, government and contact: Douglas Ramsay, community members Development Review The plan aims to Commission, PO Box DRC, provide a foundation Kosrae 96944, Federated States for an integrated, of Micronesia.Tel: 691 370 2076; participatory and Fax: 691 370 3000. E-mail: informed process on [email protected]: development and http://www.Geocities.com/Rai Sand mining, a major cause of coastal erosion

Communities Addressing Erosion located on the eastern coast of the Minahasa peninsula.The coastal By Pierre Gosal two villages in North erosion rate has been estimated to Sulawesi–Bentenan and Talise–to oastal erosion and flooding be one to two meters per year, strengthen the villages’ capacity to cause significant damage in with occasional periods of C handle these problems. As part of a coastal communities in North deposition. Erosion has broader village-level coastal Sulawesi, Indonesia. Some undermined the only road OUTREACH management initiative, Proyek communities are concerned, but connecting Bentenan and Rumbia. Pesisir is emphasizing community- are unaware of what can be done to Some houses built in the intertidal based monitoring and beach prevent unnecessary damage. It is zone are periodically flooded.The profiling in areas that are prone area’s growing population is rapidly to erosion and flooding. It is decreasing the availability of good hoped this initiative can be quality buildable land thus, houses applied in other coastal are being built on less favorable communities. land subject to frequent flooding. Talise The Bentenan Beach Resort built Erosion is a problem for a jetty to maintain a permanent Talise Island and even more connection between an artificial severe on the island of lagoon and the sea. As a result, Kinabuhutan, east of Talise there has been deposition to the Island. Dense mangrove forests north of the jetty and erosion to once surrounded Kinabuhutan the south. Island and protected its coast. Other factors contributing to the These mangroves have been cut erosion are uncontrolled cutting of and, as a result, most of the mangroves and thatch palms in the Erosion in Talise impossible for the Indonesian inhabitable area is flooded at a full marshy lagoon and sand and coral government to address all coastal moon high tide. Flooding in other mining for building material and erosion issues; thus, it is at the areas is stripping the land of topsoil lime. Dynamite fishing continues community level that action must and erosion endangers the only to damage the reef structure, also be taken. elementary school on the island. reducing the reef’s ability to withstand wave action. Proyek Pesisir (the Indonesian Bentenan Coastal Resources Management (continued page 12) Project) is developing programs in The village of Bentenan, is

10 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Beach Erosion Caused by the 1998 El Niño

By Christian M.Appendini strategy, certain activities were beach’ as greater than 70 m, and a and Román Lizárraga- carried out: ‘narrow beach’ as less than 70 m. Arciniega • Analysis of the coastal processes (Seventy meters was observed to ASSESSMENT orldwide there is increasing and beach erosion be the largest shoreline recession Wconcern about coastal • Analysis of coastal vulnerability after extreme wave events.) Using hazards and, in a broader sense, all to erosion beach-loss potential and natural disasters. It is not that the • Development of a sediment morphology, the coast was events are more frequent or budget classified into low, medium or high stronger, it is the increasing human • Classification of coastal potential beach loss. development and population morphology The potential damage other than density that now makes people • Consideration of coastal beach loss was estimated using land more vulnerable. Natural events structures and land use use, population density and type of become natural disasters when This article aims to show the existing coastal protection.The peoples’ lives, properties and the importance of these studies and categories of coastal protection way-of-life are threatened. stress that they be undertaken for considered were engineered, non- Since natural events have and every coastal area to assess engineered and no protection at will always exist, society needs to vulnerability to coastal hazards and Before El Nino.Area predicted as highly venerable to erosion learn to plan accordingly. Coastal ultimately develop a events are no exception.With management plan. the coastal population density The study started in increasing so quickly, it is not 1996, two years before surprising coastal areas are the 1998 El Niño event commonly affected. Coastal that severely eroded erosion is a problem for every Rosarito Beach. Erosion coastal community, particularly was so severe the area where development has occurred was declared a national with no consideration of existing disaster area. Although a natural processes.This problem management plan had exists more frequently in devel- not yet been completed, oping countries where coastal the 1998 El Niño and the planning is not available or only in resulting erosion, though its infancy. devastating to the Coastal development in Mexico region, was a great has accelerated with little opportunity for scientists consideration of coastal processes. to compare predicted Now, what was once a coastal event results to the actual is a coastal hazard, thus a problem. condition of Rosarito Nevertheless, no policies exist that Beach after the El Niño. require development to In order to identify incorporate actions to reduce the areas most vulnerable to affects of coastal hazards. erosion, an erosion The economy of Rosarito Beach, vulnerability analysis was used to After El Nino. As predicted,significant erosion occured Baja California, Mexico, strongly assess beach-loss potential and the depends on tourism, as do many resulting potential damage. Beach- all. Using these, the coastal damage other coastal areas in Mexico. It is loss potential was defined as the was classified into low, medium or not surprising that coastal erosion susceptibility of the sand deposits high potential of damage. Beach- is now considered a coastal hazard. (beach) to be removed. For this, loss potential and damage This led the Universidad Autónoma the existing morphologies were potential, other than beach loss, de Baja California to develop a defined: igneous cliffs, sedimentary were then combined to obtain an beach erosion management plan. cliffs and a low-lying beach.The erosion vulnerability map. Before proposing a management beach width was definied: a ‘wide (continued page 12)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 11 Public education efforts in Talise Community Action prohibiting sand and coral mining, and Bentenan stress the devastating (continued from page 10) and tree cutting in rural areas, impacts of mangrove cutting, coral Efforts to Address especially mangroves. and sand mining, and dynamite Erosion Village leaders in Talise have fishing. In Bentenan, over a dozen Proyek Pesisir has been working proposed an ongoing program for individuals have been trained and in North Sulawesi since 1997 and replanting mangroves. Proyek are participating in monthly beach continues to strengthen the Pesisir supports this proposal, and profiling and monitoring. In Talise, community’s interest and through its extension officer will coastal monitoring has also been knowledge of preserving their provide the education on methods successfully conducted. environment. Both communities and conditions for proper Through workshops, counseling are being trained in beach mangrove replanting. and training events, Proyek Pesisir monitoring and physical coastal For further information contact: is assisting the villagers in processes. In Talise, Proyek Pesisir Pierre Gosal or J. Johnnes developing regulations and assisted with the construction of Tulungen, Proyek Pesisir North ordinances.Their intent is to dikes behind the mangrove forest Sulawesi, Jl.Wolter Monginsidi No. mitigate coastal erosion and to prevent flooding.With the help 5 Kleak Lingk. 1 / 19, Manado, flooding problems, with an of an elementary school teacher, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.Tel: emphasis on preventing loss of Proyek Pesisir also sponsored a 0431 841 671. Fax: 0431 841 673. private and public infrastructure. mangrove-replanting project. E-mail: [email protected] Regulations would include

El Niño results demonstrated that although For further information contact: (continued from page 11) many coastal areas are making Christian M. Appendini, Coastal The February 1998 El Niño changes to minimize damage, these Engineering Department, Danish event caused severe damage.The changes are usually not Hydraulic Institute, Agern All‚ 5, actual damage was compared to the scientifically based. Scientifically DK-2970 Horsholm.Tel: +45 45 predicted damage using the based analyses should be completed 179 100 or +45 45 179 281. Fax: analyses. Devastating damage in all areas to identify critical areas +45 45 179 200. E-mail: occurred in the area predicted as and develop management plans to [email protected]: highly vulnerabile to erosion by the minimize or prevent further www.dhi.dk analysis (see photo previous page). damage. Mitigation strategies have As shown in this photo, the sand already been developed and used level was about the same as the successfully for house before the event.The event many areas and lowered the sand level in this area circumstances. by about 3 m.The damage may If coastal have been prevented had a policy conditions in based on an erosion-vulnerability areas of high analysis been implemented in this erosion were area. assessed using Though devastating to the the techniques region, the 1998 El Niño and the mentioned resulting erosion were a great here, existing opportunity for research scientists strategies could to compare the predicted condition be adapted for of Rosarito Beach to the actual use elsewhere. Sand collected behind a jetty condition after the El Niño.The

12 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 ELECTRONIC RESOURCES SPECIAL SECTION he following information includes websites and E-mail discussion Tgroups available to those interested in natural disasters; emergency planning; management and response; hazard mitigation and numerous other hazard-pertinent topics.The information represents only a few of the 100s to 1000s of websites on these topics.Two sites of particular interest are Emergency Management Gold©1999 (EMGold) at: http://www. disasters.org/emgold/index.htm and Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, Boulder, USA, at: http://www.colorado. edu/hazards/ Selected E-mail Information Sources elow is a listing, brief description and subscription information of some of the E-mail discussion groups that Bcover all aspects of disasters.These are a valuable tool particularly for those who do not have internet, worldwide web access. The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok, offers an on-line subscription by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe hazards [your name].” Networks in Emergency Management (Nets) (focuses on computer networks and networking in emergency management) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe nets-em [your E-mail address].” Natural-Hazards-Disasters - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the command in the body of the message: “join natural-hazards-disasters [your first name, your last name].” Disaster Grads - subscribe by sending E-mail to [email protected], and in the body of the message write “subscribe disaster_grads [your first name] [your last name].” HAZMIT - (a mailing list for the global hazard mitigation community, covering both natural and anthropogenic disasters) - subscribe by sending and E-mail message to [email protected] with the command “subscribe” in either the subject or body of the message. EMERGENCY-MANAGEMENT -subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe emergency-management [your real name].” RISKANAL (Society for Risk Analysis list) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe riskanal [your name].” CCEP News E-Zine (the Canadian Centre for Emergency Preparedness free weekly E-mail magazine) - subscribe by completing the registration from at http://www.ccep.ca. PRIMAtalk (an unmoderated E-mail discussion list to promote discussion of risk management in the public sector - from the Public Risk Management Association) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe prima-talk.”. EMERG-L (emergency services list) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe EMERG-L [your name].” QUAKE-L (all things seismic, especially current, ongoing disasters) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “sub QUAKE-L [firstname, lastname].” GIS_GROUP (a list for hazards GIS researchers and users) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe gis_group.” DisasterInfo (disaster information relevant to the Americas from the Pan American Health Organization) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] containing your postal and E-mail addresses. DESASTRES-CA (a list, primarily in Spanish, for disaster managers and others concerned about hazards in Central America) - subscribe by sending an E-mail message to [email protected] with the single command in the body of the message: “subscribe desastres-ca [your E-mail address].” CEPREDENAC - the Center for Prevention and Coordination of Disaster in Central America publishes a weekly, Spanish-language E-mail bulletin.To subscribe, send an E-mail message to [email protected]. (continued page 32)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 13 groups of 60 households were Technological Challenge in a compared: those using the new Fragile Coastal Ecosystem technology and those using traditional open stoves.The By Sarah Gammage, Melany merely the delivery of an households were chosen randomly Machado and Manuel acceptable inexpensive substitute, to ensure all economic activities Benítez it is a process that results in the and income levels were overty, population expansion successful application of a workable represented. Pand civil conflict in El Salvador alternative. Attempts to channel The community chose the have promoted migration both technology directly to women to “Finlandia” stove.While the change household resource use,

OUTREACH internally and internationally. Many principles on which these improved households fled conflictive zones to minimize additional household fuelwood stoves operate are relocate along the coast, switching burdens, and increase the fuel similar, different varieties allow for activities to become artisanal efficiency of domestic stoves may greater on-site modification.The fishers, loggers and salt producers. prove to be extremely worthwhile. community members chose a stove One coastal resource highly Attempts to introduce solar that could be adapted to the size impacted is the mangroves. cookers, solar driers and food and location of each site and to Fuelwood and timber demands on storage technologies have often each household’s pots and pans. the already shrinking mangrove failed, largely because women did The community also elected to tile forests are increasing. Deforestation not participate in the problem- the stove providing what was to of the mangrove environment not identification or solution- become the only clean working only decreases the availability of generation phase.Without a surface on which to prepare food. fuelwood but makes coastal commitment to participatory Community members and the communities significantly more methods of design, application and 60 households receiving the stove vulnerable to coastal storms, evaluation, the technology may be were involved in all stages of the leading to erosion and flooding. less than suitable, erratically project design, implementation and In El Tamarindo, El Salvador, adopted, poorly used and rapidly evaluation.With the help of the rapid deforestation and the abandoned. beneficiaries, a household survey unregulated expansion of Improved fuelwood stoves and was designed to measure whether aquaculture coupled with a other non-combustible devices the project had reduced fuelwood consistent and sustained demand have often been used in attempts to use and fuelwood costs. Of reduce fuelwood con- additional importance to the sumption.These have met household was whether the new with varying success. If the stove took more time to tend, thus introduction of alternative decreasing the time for other tasks. technology imposes even a Data were collected on fuelwood small constraint upon the use during the wet and dry household, it is not likely to seasons. Families were asked how be adopted. For example, much fuelwood they had bought or solar cookers require gathered and how much they had constant sun, needing to consumed each week. A reduction be moved continually of almost six pounds per household throughout the day.This member per week (6 lbs per interrupts other domestic household member per week) was Community women building a Finlandia stove actives or increases the time spent observed. For a family of five, this for fuelwood have led to the cooking, thus making the use of the translates into almost 30 lbs of deterioration of the mangrove solar cooker a burden. fuelwood saved a week, a large ecosystems.This concern Acceptance of decrease in gathered and/or prompted the design and use of an Alternative Fuelwood purchased fuelwood. alternate technology to reduce A more rigorous test was done fuelwood consumption, thus Stove weighing the fuelwood consumed reducing mangrove use. In order to evaluate the each day over a period of two The development and use of introduction and acceptance of an weeks during both the dry and wet appropriate technology is not alternative fuelwood stove, two seasons.The results were that the

14 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Finlandia stoves required focuses on the roles and has been interested for some time significantly less fuelwood per responsibilities of women in the in mangrove management.The capita than the open stoves.The community was critical to ensure availability of stoves that reduce Finlandia stoves were also easier to improved fuelwood stoves were fuelwood consumption may prove light and retained heat for longer. adopted and appropriately used. useful in any strategy to reduce Unfortunately, the Finlandia stoves The findings clearly relate total fuelwood consumption in this took longer to boil a given amount fuelwood consumption to poverty, and surrounding communities. of water.This was a concern; income and cash constraints and However, alone these behavioral however, the total length of time the collapse of the rural economy changes do not address the the Finlandia stoves remained lit in El Salvador. It was encouraging fundamental cause of environ- (using less fuelwood) was only to see that even in the face of mental dependency. Change must slightly longer than the traditional economic hardship and in the wake be part of an integrated strategy stoves. In fact, those who used the of Hurricane Mitch, changes can be that addresses education, provides Finlandia stove were able to made in the way fuelwood is used affordable health care, and develops combine several dishes and cook and consumed. policies that enable a shift from them simultaneously instead of It is clear that the Finlandia unsustainable for-profit and sequentially (the traditional variety of improved fuelwood stove subsistence activities to sustainable method), saving time and can reduce fuelwood consumption ones that preserve livelihoods and increasing time for other tasks. Conclusions and Recommendations The findings demonstrate that fuelwood consumption and expenditures per capita have decreased with the use of the Finlandia improved fuelwood stoves.The health data from the project also recorded significant reductions in the incidence of burns, respiratory, sight and kidney ailments. Although the data regarding time saved were less conclusive, it appears that being able to cook different dishes Cooking on a finished Finlandia stove simultaneously was an improve- and may contribute to reducing ment. At the very least, the environmental dependency in habitats.This change must be Finlandia stoves did not increase fragile ecosystems. Fuelwood is a community initiated and the time spent on cooking. plentiful renewable energy source sanctioned to be effective and to Few studies have attempted to and when managed sustainably can contribute to an integrated measure fuelwood consumption provide an excellent source of development strategy. comparing the use of improved and domestic energy. Strategies that Copies of the full report are traditional fuelwood stoves over focus on substituting other non- available from the International both wet and dry seasons.This renewable energy sources may be Center for Research on Women, study collected information over a both short sighted and difficult to 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, period of 18 months and combined implement given the tastes and Washington, DC 20036 USA.The socioeconomic data on income, preferences of the rural authors are members of the Centro expenditures and time-allocation communities. Obviously a long- de Estudios Ambientales y Sociales with quantitative and qualitative term goal would be to reduce para el Desarrollo Sostenible in El data on fuelwood consumption and fuelwood consumption to Salvador. Contact: Sarah the use and operation of the stoves. sustainable levels, substituting Gammage, E-mail: Though time-consuming at the other forms of renewable energy [email protected] outset, applying a participatory and wherever possible. gender-sensitive methodology that The community of El Tamarindo

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 15 Guiding Principles for a European Integrated Coastal Management Strategy number of general principles that By Anne Burrill, Peter Processes: Sectoral and Territorial should be followed to strengthen Burbridge and Sarah Cooperation Humphrey efforts. 5. Influence of EU Policies on oastal regions of the European Coastal Zones General Principles CUnion (EU) are being looked 6. Information needs for ICM Coastal zones are subject to to for new opportunities to The findings appear to confirm geographically far-ranging POLICY diversify local and national the hypothesis that most of the environmental and socioeconomic economies, from aquaculture and problems and conflicts observed in influences, many of which windfarms to tourism and leisure. Europe’s coastal zones can be transcend the boundaries of local, Concurrently, coastal populations traced to procedural, planning, regional and even national are growing significantly. policy and institutional weaknesses. administrations.The scope of these Human activities have not been This results from a lack of linkages are only just being without impact to the coastal awareness about the strategic understood, e.g., the importance environment; it is estimated that as economic and social importance of of North Sea sediment dynamics to much as 70 percent of Europe’s sustainable coastal zone the Wadden Sea and the coastline is highly threatened due management. repercussions of changing to direct and indirect human Historical employment patterns for sustaining impacts. Principle areas of concern Perspective communities in peripheral areas. A are loss of natural habitats, loss in systems approach, including both Problems have stemmed from biodiversity and cultural diversity, the land and sea components, will decades of uncoordinated decline in water quality, and help to identify the key driving management that has occurred competition for space, among forces in a given coastal area, and because: others. Demographic changes in appropriate partners are also • Legislation and policy have been coastal areas as a result of changing identified.There are seven sectorally-based and economic opportunities are also principles that should guide coastal uncoordinated, and decisions have presenting new social challenges, management in Europe: often worked against the long-term from urban expansion to decline of Principle 1:Take a Wide- interests of sustainable rural communities. Ranging Perspective. Europe’s development The European Demonstration 89,000 km of coast is extremely • Rigid bureaucratic systems have Programme in Integrated Coastal diverse–not just in environment, limited local creativity and Management has responded to this but in social, cultural, institutional adaptability and economic characteristics. Good concern by undertaking projects • Local initiatives in sustainable local information is critical to that have generated a wealth of management have lacked adequate assess the problems and needs. knowledge. A reflection paper, resources and support from higher Principle 2: Build on an Towards a European Integrated administrative levels Understanding of the Area’s Coastal Zone Management (ICM) • Management of the coast has Specific Conditions and Strategy: General Principles and lacked vision and is based on a Needs.The correct approach to Policy Options, based on the limited understanding of coastal ICM in a specific area should be following six thematic studies was processes determined on the needs and released in April 1999. conditions particular to that area. • Scientific research and data This emphasizes the importance of The Six Thematic collection have been isolated from critical information gathering and Studies end-users strongly suggests that it is not 1. Legal and Regulatory Bodies: Many approaches have been appropriate for the EU to prescribe Appropriateness to ICM used, and a large geographic region a generic ICM approach or 2. Participation in ICM Process: has been covered by the 35 solution. Mechanisms and Procedures demonstration projects–from Cork Numerous economic activities Needed to Athens and the Gulf of Finland are located in risk-prone coastal 3. Role and Use of Technology in to the Algarve. Results indicate that plains, estuaries and nearshore ICM while there is no one correct marine environments.The dynamic 4. Planning and Management approach to ICM, there are a nature of coastal systems is largely

16 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 ignored during the planning stages Responsibility for coastal will continue to influence the way of development in urban and rural management activities is often member states and regions use areas. For example, solid, divided among government coastal areas and resources structural coastal defences (e.g., agencies, services and admin- • Europe’s coastal zones offer an groins and breakwater) lend a istrations operating sectorally or important asset to European policy misguided sense of security to territorially. In many countries, for objectives, from social and developers who continue to invest example, management of offshore economic cohesion to in hazardous areas, thus increasing areas is often a function of the environmental health the potential losses from flooding central government, while land- • Many coastal issues, both or erosion. Such defences are based planning is a function of the socioeconomic and environmental, increasingly costly to maintain- local government. Coastal extend beyond national boundaries particularly with sea-level rise-and management must integrate the Finally, it is worth adding that are now known to adversely affect concerns of all relevant sectoral since many issues are common to other parts of the coast. Planners agencies–from conservation to several coastal member states, need to anticipate and, where heavy industry and tourism. In there is great potential for sharing possible, avoid being locked into addition, all community levels experiences between different costly efforts to maintain status must be involved in policy and parts of the EU.The demonstration quo. decisionmaking–from local, programme has been an important Principle 3:Work with regional and national to first step in this direction, and the Natural Processes-Not continental. In Europe, the challenge now is to determine: Against Them. Working against assignment of management Where do we go from here? natural processes is both costly and responsibilities between different (Details of the individual ineffective. levels of government should be demonstration projects, the Principle 4: Ensure that determined by how the resource is strategy, background documents Today’s Decisions Do Not subsidized. It is critical that policies and thematic studies can be found Eliminate Tomorrow’s and actions be consistent at all at website: Choices. Coastal dynamics levels. http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg11 illustrate where future options are /iczm/) being compromised.These Principle 6: Ensure Support dynamics extend beyond the and Involvement of All For further information contact: physical forces to socioeconomic Relevant Administrative Peter Burbridge, Department of changes associated with broader Bodies. Without involvement of Marine Sciences and Coastal political, sectoral and develop- all relevant administrative bodies, Management, Ridley Building, mental trends.The precautionary support will never be gained, thus University of Newcastle, principle is applicable to all uses of consensus will never be reached. Newcastle upon Tyne, England coastal space and resources. Principle 7: Use a Although the future cannot be Combination of Instruments predicted, the key is to maintain to Achieve Objectives. A range flexibility in the face of of instruments are available to uncertainty. implement ICM–from command Principle 5: Participatory and control to economic incentives Planning is a Key to and voluntary agreements–each Developing Consensus. having its strengths and drawbacks. Participatory planning has been a Ideally, a wide range of instruments strong feature and message of many should be used at all stages, from of the demonstration programmes- developing awareness and often reaching beyond the standard promoting dialogue through procedures associated with strategy development and planning. Participation provides a implementation. means to harness local knowledge, Moving On energy and commitment, and to So what should be the role of arrive at a genuine understanding the EU? Certainly there is of the issues and the stakeholders’ justification for action at the perspectives. Ownership of the process provides a solid foundation European level.The justification for policy adoption and lies in the following factors: implementation. • European sectoral policy has and

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 17 mitigation measures will be Project Impact: Building Disaster included in school building codes. Resistant Communities The county’s emergency management team supports By Jennifer East partner with Broward County in training exercises and drills, the development of a Broward participates in county disaster- he United States’ Federal County Community Emergency awareness programs and staffs the Emergency Management T Response Team (CERT) to train emergency operations center.At Agency (FEMA) has taken a individuals on emergency the school board’s expense, a two- proactive approach to weathering preparedness. So far, 75 residents way radio communications hurricanes in the 1998 and 1999 PLANNING have graduated from the CERT network was installed to be used seasons.While one can not control training program.The goal is to during the frequent breakdown of natural disasters, one can take arm the community with the tools communications across measures to reduce their impacts. necessary to make all residents jurisdictional and agency Project Impact: Building Disaster safer and smarter when the next boundaries during disasters. Resistant Communities is a national storm hits. In addition, a newly renovated initiative designed to undertake Escambia County, Florida water supply plant has been located actions that protect families, Escambia County is at risk from outside the floodplain and designed businesses and communities by a number of hazards.The area has for 120-mile-per-hour winds. reducing the effects of natural been included in four presidential There are two 1,250-kw diesel disasters. At the core of these disaster declarations in the past five generators to supply 100 percent efforts is the belief that we can years, three of them have been power in the event of an come together to create active hurricanes. In light of the region’s emergency. public-private partnerships that vulnerability, the city and county Charleston, South Carolina will build disaster-resistant have implemented strong coastal Charleston has suffered from communities. Since its creation in construction regulations and are numerous hurricanes; notably 1997, 120 communities have currently collaborating on a local Hurricane Hugo in 1989. As a joined on as Project Impact mitigation strategy.The county is direct result of Hurricane Hugo, communities. Since hurricane also involved in a program to damage-reduction tools such as season began in June 1999, some provide hurricane shutters and building and zoning codes and hurricane-prone Project Impact wind retrofitting for a number of floodplain management rules are in communities have made significant critical facilities. place. Moreover, there are now strides toward making themselves Wilmington, North Carolina state regulations for coastal disaster resistant. Wilmington is no stranger to construction on barrier islands. Deerfield Beach, Florida hurricanes. In July 1996, The Charleston community has The coastal communities of Hurricane Bertha caused an also joined Clemson University and Florida are particularly susceptible estimated US$17 million in damage the South Carolina Sea Grant to hurricanes, tropical storms and to homes, businesses and utilities in Consortium to develop a disaster- flooding. For example, the city of New Hanover County. Eight weeks resistant demonstration house in Deerfield Beach has been hit by at later Hurricane Fran caused Charleston’s historic district.This least seven major hurricanes in the US$240 million in damage. demonstration house will serve as last 75 years. Deerfield Beach has Wilmington has joined Project an educational center for been quite active as a Project Impact.The school board is homeowners and contractors Impact community. Deerfield overseeing a large-scale project interested in retrofitting historic Beach joined with the State Farm funded by a Project Impact grant buildings. Insurance Company to build a and a US$1.8 million bond issue to Freeport (Long Island), NY disaster-resistant model home for improve the disaster resistance of Long Island, New York, is public viewing. Dearfield Beach has local schools. A risk assessment was particularly vulnerable to weather also retrofitted the Chamber of conducted for nine school hazards, and many communities Commerce building to be disaster buildings, which are also have suffered significant, repetitive resistant; this building serves as a emergency shelters, and losses caused by flooding. Freeport critical location for businesses and recommendations were made for as a Project Impact community has as the operation center during a mitigation measures. In addition, adopted building codes requiring disaster. Deerfield Beach is also a hurricane straps on houses. (continued page 20)

18 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 informational materials have been Rhode Island: First Showcase tailored to small business sectors. State for Disaster Resistance Two of the most important aspects of creating disaster-resistant By Michele Steinberg of particular states communities are improving the hough the smallest state in the • To learn what works and what way structures are built to PLANNING TUnited States, Rhode Island is does not work to reduce the withstand natural hazards, and one of the most densely populated. emotional and financial devastation ensuring that development With 420 miles of coastline, Rhode caused by natural disasters decisions take natural hazards into Island is vulnerable to hurricanes Rhode Island, though vulnerable account. Rhode Island has a state and winter coastal storms that can to a number of hazards, has not building code with high standards cause extensive loss of life and experienced a major disaster in for wind, water and seismic property and severely disrupt several decades.The Showcase hazards.The Rhode Island Building essential human services. In the State initiative is intended to make Commission is working to improve past century, two major hurricanes loss reduction actions part of education on hazards for builders (1938 and 1954) killed 281 people everyday decisionmaking. In the and enforcement officials, and to and inflicted over US$1 billion in past eight months, the Showcase change the code to promote damage (in 1999 dollars).Today, State effort has made a great deal simple, inexpensive upgrades for residential and commercial coastal of progress in changing the way wind hazards when buildings are property in Rhode Island, valued at Rhode Island deals with natural renovated. Rhode Island has a State more than US$83 billion, is at risk hazards. Guide Plan for development, and of hurricane damage. Milestones mandates comprehensive plans at In consideration of these and A Showcase State Steering the local level.The State Guide other factors, Rhode Island’s Committee has been formed from Plan includes consideration of the governor declared the state a the state agencies and private- flood hazard in its land use “Showcase State” for disaster sector entities responsible and element. In the next several resistance and resilience.This accountable for implementing months, Rhode Island communities directs state agencies to work various actions that will help the will pilot test an IBHS self-rating towards reducing Rhode Island’s state become more disaster form designed to gauge how well future vulnerability to natural resistant and resilient. A their local plans incorporate hazards.The initial partners in this subcommittee on hazard natural hazards concerns. effort were the Institute for identification and risk assessment Coordinated, effective Business & Home Safety (IBHS), will meet in fall 1999 to set emergency response is vital in the Rhode Island Sea Grant at the parameters and a starting point for immediate aftermath of a disaster. University of Rhode Island Coastal a statewide risk assessment. State, local and federal government Resources Center (CRC), the The Showcase State partners officials are working cooperatively Rhode Island Emergency recognize that if businesses do not to improve emergency response Management Agency (RIEMA) and recover after a natural disaster, capability, standards and training, the Federal Emergency communities do not recover.A and shelter capacity. IBHS is Management Agency (FEMA). statewide Disaster Recovery working with the state to develop Much of the Showcase State effort Business Alliance has been started an early access system for builds on work accomplished by as a private-public link intended to insurance adjusters, to speed the Sea Grant/CRC and RIEMA since improve coordination on disaster post-disaster insurance claims 1991 (see “The Rhode Island preparedness, mitigation, response process and thus improve quick Hazard Mitigation Program,” and recovery.The majority of recovery for residents and InterCoast, Fall 1998). businesses in Rhode Island are businesses. The goals of the Showcase small (97 percent have 500 or The Showcase State effort State efforts are: fewer employees), so working with supports and in turn is supported • To help a state and its citizens existing organizations, such as the by FEMA’s Project Impact initiative help themselves by reducing Chambers of Commerce, has been (See article page 18 this issue). In vulnerability to natural disasters necessary to reach businesses with Rhode Island, the cities of Warwick • To generate a “me too” the important message of disaster and Pawtucket received seed funds attitude among other states by resistance.Workshops and from FEMA to reduce their showcasing the successful efforts (continued page 20)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 19 Project Impact along the Pawtuxet River has also education.The city has also (continued from page 18) been a frequent problem.The city’s established a planning council to Elevation projects are also vulnerability is compounded by the focus on disaster-prevention.The underway to elevate streets in close proximity of coastal and council is working in cooperation hard-hit areas, and a US$890,000 riverine environments to with the Coastal Resources Center, Flood Mitigation Assistance Grant residential and commercial areas. University of Rhode Island, USA, is being used to help 30 Having both commercial and and the Rhode Island Emergency homeowners affordably elevate residential areas at risk makes Management Agency, USA, to their homes three feet above the Warwick an ideal Project Impact develop a local all-hazards base flood elevation. community because strong mitigation plan. Key to the success of Project public/private partnerships, the Tragedy caused by natural Impact is a strong partnership with key to Project Impact’s success, are hazards is most acute at the local the business community and strong required for mitigation efforts to level-in the community and in public support. In Freeport, the be successful (see page 19, this neighborhoods.The effects can be business community sponsors issue). devastating; however, there are activities such as hurricane Warwick has a significant many ways to reduce or prevent awareness seminars, lectures for commercial center with several these effects. Although one must public schools and other citizens, large shopping malls, a series of stay prepared to respond to the and hands-on demonstrations of industrial and business parks, and inevitable occurrence of disasters, hurricane proofing. Frequent the largest airport in the state. it is critical that everything possible mailings of emergency information Warwick has a strong Chamber of is done to reduce the potential for ensure the citizens are kept Commerce representing major disaster and create a safer future informed. companies and small businesses for our children: FEMA’s Project Warwick, Rhode Island, USA alike. One example of a strong Impact is a large step towards The city of Warwick is a coastal public/private partnership is the achieving this. community exposed to numerous city’s alliance with a building- For further information contact: hazards.The Hurricane of 1938 supplies store (Home Depot) to Federal Emergency Management and Hurricane Carol in 1954 teach techniques for retrofitting Agency, 500 C Street, SW, caused extensive damage along the and flood-proofing houses and Washington, DC 20472 USA.Tel: entire shoreline. Inland flooding improve community training and 800 480 2520.Website: http://www.fema.gov

Rhode Island sleeves over fluorescent bulbs, and (This article was also published (continued from page 19) installed safety latches in cabinets in CUSEC Journal,Volume 6, Fall vulnerability to natural hazards. and drawers. Safety film was 1999. It is a publication of the Showcase partners are working installed on windows that will keep Central U.S. Earthquake with the two communities to pilot glass shattered by wind or debris Consortium.) various initiatives, including the from flying indoors. For further information contact: retrofit of nonprofit childcare Rhode Island has proved to be an Michele Steinberg, Assistant centers. An IBHS program, excellent pilot for the Showcase Director of Showcase Programs “Protecting Our Kids from State idea. In less than a year, the and Special Projects, Institute for Disasters,” helped raise public goal of generating a “me too” Business & Home Safety, 175 awareness about natural hazards by attitude among other states has Federal Street, Suite 500, Boston, gathering insurance company been met. IBHS will work with MA 02110-2222 USA.Tel: 617- volunteers and others to make the two more states in 2000 and is 292-2003. Fax: 617-292-2022. E- Boys & Girls Club of Warwick and considering requests for design- mail: [email protected] the Pawtucket Day Nursery safer ation from three additional states. places for children.Volunteers The value of protecting public and secured bookshelves and picture private assets from natural hazards frames to walls, placed protective becomes more evident as work proceeds in Rhode Island.

20 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Managed Retreat as a Hazard despite the fact that these seaward areas were also protected under Mitigation Technique the Habitats Directive.This impasse has yet to be resolved. By John Pethick and Jeremy brought about by sea-level rise. Lowe This migration was interrupted as Also contributing to the RECOVERY the marshes were squeezed against standstill of the managed here are over 150 estuaries the reclamation embankments realignment program is scientific along Britain’s coastline.These T causing erosion of their seaward uncertainty. Initially it seemed have played a major role in edge, erosion that was not balanced obvious that if the embankments determining the location of ports, by deposition on their landward prevented landward migration of cities, roads, industries, and margins, increased wave attack on the intertidal zone, then the answer agricultural activities.This land use flood defences, as well as reducing was removal of the embankments, has, in turn, resulted in significant animal habitat. or at least their relocation further modification of the estuarine In response to these findings, a landwards.There was doubt such a environment.These modifications, policy of landward ‘set back’ of the simple solution would be beneficial among other influences, have embankments was proposed to to the natural estuarine environ- resulted in increased flood allow the landward transgression of ment.The controversy’s thrust was potential.The most significant and intertidal habitats.The proposal that much of the land reclamation widespread change occurred met with fierce opposition from occurred centuries ago, giving the between the 17th and 19th farmers and landowners who estuaries time to adjust to the new centuries as land was reclaimed for regarded the proposal as an tidal regime. Re-establishing the agricultural use. Large areas of the economic “set back”’To reduce estuaries’ intertidal zone were public outcry, the policy was removed leaving the estuaries hurriedly renamed ‘managed unable to effectively dissipate tidal retreat’ and then ‘managed or wave energy. In addition, these realignment.’Though conserva- estuaries were unable to respond to tionists recognized the need for future changes imposed by human landward realignment, opposition interference or natural environ- continued. Not until 1991 was a mental change. small-scale trial undertaken at The removal of intertidal areas Northey Island in the Blackwater within estuaries has led to larger Estuary, Essex.This was followed tidal ranges, higher water surges, Managed retreat in progress in the Blackwater Estuary, Essex, by two larger-scale trials in the UK.Tidal water is entering a grazing marsh for the first time and increased wave energy at the since its reclamation in 1750 Blackwater: no further progress has shore. As a result, the self-sustain- since been made. original regime would, it was ability of these critical coastal areas This lack of progress has been argued, cause major re-adjustments has been reduced–in some cases partly due to European legislation, that may be harmful or undesired. eliminated–with former wide the Habitats Directive, that For example, the re-creation of estuaries left as no more than designated areas of internationally- 100 hectares of salt marsh in an parallel-sided canals. important habitat Special estuary could result in an The scale of the problem was Conservation Areas.These areas additional million cubic metres of not realized until the 1980s when were to be protected from change water entering the estuary from English Nature, the government resulting from human activity. the sea on each flood tide.This conservation agency, did a survey In Britain, these protected areas increase would generate increased of estuarine salt marsh habitat in included large expanses of fresh- current velocities and cause erosion Britain.The survey revealed that up water grazing meadow that had of existing intertidal areas-in order to 40 percent of the marshes been created by reclamation of to restore others.The net outcome bounding the estuaries had been former salt marshes.These were could not be predicted given the lost to erosion over the previous the very areas needed for intertidal paucity of estuarine behaviour decade. English Nature termed this retreat.This legislation meant the models. loss “coastal squeeze” and suggested loss of intertidal areas seaward of As a result of the initial doubts, it was due to the landward the embankments could not be and in order to ensure a positive migration of intertidal habitats regained by landward retreat outcome of a managed realignment (continued page 25)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 21 experience a rise in employment Economic Impact of Hurricanes and income.While income is By Richard M.Vogel 24 hurricanes.With a population directly affected by changes in sectoral employment, factors such ince 1990 hurricanes have growth of almost 2 percent as temporary population caused more than US$30 billion annually, the risk to life, property S displacement and altered traffic in damages in the state of Florida, and the economy from hurricanes patterns may cause additional and USA. Hurricane Andrew, a continues to grow.This article indirect changes to income. Category 4 hurricane that struck presents a summary of the Transfer payments into the Miami, Florida, in 1992, alone economic impact of natural community may increase, and accounts for at least US$26 billion disasters, and more specifically an disaster aid may additionally affect worth of damages; while in 1995 in overview of the economic impact ASSESSMENT income. northwest Florida, Hurricane Erin of several recent hurricanes on Inflationary pressures are the (Category 2) and Hurricane Opal northwest Florida. result of shortages that arise in the (Category 3) caused over US$3.7 Economic Impact of disaster’s aftermath. Housing prices billion in combined damages. In a Natural Disaster may rise due to damage and loss to monetary terms, injury, loss of life A natural disaster situation is the housing stock.The degree of and physical damage represent only primarily a local or regional event upward price pressure, however, a part of the economic impact that that gives rise to three levels of depends upon the level of damage, results from a hurricane. In economic impact: direct, indirect the local availability of resources, addition to these, hurricanes can and induced. Direct impacts are and the mobility of resources into cause a rise in unemployment, the result or immediate conse- the affected community. Likewise, changes in income and an altered quence of the disaster such as sellers may not wish to antagonize pattern of regional economic physical damage, loss of life and existing customers by raising growth. injury. Indirect impacts are losses prices, thus face charges of price The impact of a disaster is a resulting from changes in the level gouging and losing customer good function of the event’s severity and of activity arising from damage to will–especially if the emergency intensity; the zone of impact; and the physical economic infra- situation is relatively short-lived. the level of damage, disruption and structure. Increases in unemploy- While there is considerable dislocation.While similar to each ment or lost income resulting from debate about employment and other, hurricanes, tropical storms plant shut downs or business income effects, disasters tend to and other weather related events interruption fall into this category. cause a short-run decrease in striking different parts of the state Induced impacts arise as a result of wealth. Because of deductibles and changes or alter-ations to exclusions, insurance coverage is regional demand and supply typically incomplete. Even with relationships. additional government disaster There are three principal relief and assistance, households short-run economic effects may have to dip into savings and of a natural disaster: changes other holdings to completely in employment levels, rebuild damaged homes or replace changes in income, and lost property. inflationary pressures. In the long run, the natural Employment changes occur disaster may lead to permanent as a result of damage or changes in employment and destruction to residential, income, the acceleration of pre- Shifted beach sand in Florida commercial and industrial facilities existing economic trends, and an temporarily disrupting normal alteration in regional economic are not directly comparable–dif- economic activity. Short-term growth. Long-run changes in fering as a result of variation in the business closures can result in employment and income, outside degree of physical and sectoral increased unemployment and of any pre-existing trends, are impact and differences in regional reductions in income from wages. attributable to factors such as economic and demographic Some sectors, such as construction incomplete sectoral or economic characteristics. and other closely related recon- recovery and disruption to regional In this century, Florida’s struction activities, generally sectoral linkages.The disaster may Panhandle has been struck by over

22 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 act as a catalyst for sectoral in 1997, and Earl and George in with recovery in the four months expansion or decline, especially 1998 caused power outages for up following each of these events. through price and valuation to two days for some households Conclusion changes, accelerating pre-existing and businesses. Hurricanes Erin and Advances in meteorology have trends. Following the disaster, for Opal caused extensive damage to reduced loss of life attributable to example, price and land valuation Pensacola Beach, leading to a steep hurricanes by providing more changes may lead the owners and drop in tourism in 1995, but reliable hurricane warnings, thus operators of land intensive returning to normal levels in 1996 allowing communities along the activities, such as farming and and 1997. Gulf Coast time for preparation mining, to reevaluate their Hurricane Opal struck at the and evacuation. Despite greater operations. Changes in growth and beginning of October 1995, as foreknowledge, coastal development can arise from Pensacola, Navarre and Fort Walton communities still face the risk of sectoral shifts in economic activity Beach were still recovering from dramatic economic losses in the and changes that may arise in the Hurricane Erin in early August. form of property damage, institutional, social and political Regional economic indices disruption of economic activity, relationships within the published by the Haas Center for and losses of income and community. Business Research and Economic employment. Nevertheless, Development showed a drop in The North Florida development in the hardest hit and business activity in the months Gulf Coast most vulnerable areas, such as immediately following Erin and Since 1995, five hurricanes have Pensacola Beach, Navarre Beach Opal. Nonetheless, the existing made landfall in northwest Florida and Fort Walton Beach, has overall upward trend in regional causing almost US$4 billion in continued unabated. business activity continued for property damages and disrupting Over the last decade, hurricanes 1995, surpassing its pre-disaster social and economic activity. in northwest Florida have created growth rate in 1996. Employment Hurricanes Erin and Opal, the five serious life-threatening was relatively undisturbed by the most serious of these storms, emergencies.While future two hurricanes, although sectoral struck Pensacola in summer and hurricanes in the area are sure to variation might have resulted from fall of 1995. Hurricane Danny cause substantial damage, it is a disaster-induced reduction in struck the area around Mobile Bay difficult to predict their outcomes. tourism-related employment in the summer of 1997. In 1998 However, past experience suggests (destruction of hotels and Hurricane George made landfall at that hurricanes affecting primarily restaurants, for example) Biloxi, Mississippi, causing residential property and activity counterbalanced by an increase in considerable damage from Perdido will have only a limited impact on employment from post-disaster Key to Fort Walton Beach, Florida. employment, income and other recovery and reconstruction In August 1998, soon afterwards, economic measures (aside from the activities. Hurricane Earl struck near Panama monetary costs of damage).While The economic impact resulting City; this area was still more severe and long-term from Hurricanes Danny, Earl and experiencing storm surges and economic impacts will be felt by George was even more flooding from Hurricane George. hurricanes causing extensive and limited–confined primarily to Following Hurricane Erin, direct damage to an area’s property damages. For the entire 260,000 households and businesses economic infrastructure. Still, past Gulf Coast, property damage lost electric power a minimum of a experience does not preclude other estimates for Danny range between full day; power was not completely outcomes. US$60 and US$100 million; Earl restored for six days. Hurricane For further information, caused approximately US$79 Opal caused power outages for up contact: Richard M.Vogel, million in damages. Hurricane to four days for some 61,000 Department of History, Economics George, with total property households.These storms addit- and Politics, State University of damages in the United States of ionally resulted in the closure of New York at Farmingdale, US$5.9 billion (mostly in Puerto the bridge from Gulf Breeze to Farmingdale, NY 11787 USA.Tel: Rico and the Virgin Islands), caused Pensacola for several weeks and the 516-420-2063. E-mail: vogelrm@ US$340 million in damages to beach road between Pensacola farmingdale.edu Florida, mainly in the Florida Keys. Beach and Fort Walton Beach for Preliminary economic data show over a year.While less damaging only a minor economic downturn and destructive, Hurricanes Danny

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 23 Authority and Institute’s work. Coastal Management in Belize Measures range from user fees By Janet Gibson programs charged, to donations and funds • Assist with the preparation of a from donor agencies.The CZM ecognizing the importance of national CZM plan Authority is also responsible for coastal resources to a R Presently, the CZM Institute is establishing a Barrier Reef country’s biodiversity, environment involved in data collection and Foundation to promote the and economy, the government of analysis; research on manatees; conservation and management of Belize passed the Coastal Zone coastal water-quality monitoring; Belize’s coastal resources. Management Act (CZM), No. 5, in POLICY and coastal planning, focusing on April 1998.This act establishes a Comments and marine protected areas and island CZM Authority and its technical Reactions development. arm, the CZM Institute. It formally Although this act is viewed as The CZM Institute will be consolidates the work the CZM progress towards integrated affiliated with the University Project carried out over the past CZM in Belize, the act needs College of Belize, working in 10 years–ensuring long-term strengthening. Presently, both the collaboration with the university’s management of Belize’s globally advisory council and the board of Marine Research Centre. Both significant marine and coastal directors are reviewing the act and parties have already signed a resources. submitting recommendations for general framework memorandum amendments that will clarify and The CZM Authority of understanding, and details will strengthen its provisions. The CZM Authority is an be discussed in the near future.The First, the definition of “coastal autonomous public statutory body act requires that the institute zone” as the “area bounded by the established under the Ministry of supports the University College of shoreline up to the mean highwater Agriculture, Fisheries and Belize initiative in providing mark, on its landward side and by Cooperatives. It is charged with courses and educational programs the outer limit of the territorial sea implementing and monitoring related to the coastal zone. on its seaward side, including all policies that govern the use and The act also establishes an coastal waters” is too limiting. It development of the coastal zone in advisory council appointed by the does not address the important link Belize.The minister appoints a Authority.The council replaces the between coastal management and board of directors, and the former CZM technical committee. land-based activities. In reality, the directors appoint a chief executive The council includes representation CZM program has been working officer.The board of directors, from the government, private on watershed issues; however, which includes representatives sector, the NGO community and when the act was drafted this from government, nongovern- academia. Its function is to advise limiting definition was the only one mental organizations (NGOs), the the Institute on technical matters that received consensus. private sector and academia, held concerning coastal issues and to Second, as written, there is its inaugural meeting on December facilitate coordination among possible overlap of user fees 10, 1998, and has been meeting on agencies.The council has the same established by other agencies.This a monthly basis. membership as the original entire system needs to be re- Provisions of the Act technical committee and the same examined and amended in order to function; but it is now formally be effective. The CZM Institute carries out established by law. coastal management in Third, currently the act defines The act requires a coastal zone the CZM Authority as a coordination with the various management plan within three agencies involved. Its main “coordinator.” For the CZM years of an appointed date.This Authority to have the power to be functions are to: plan will include aspects such as • Conduct marine research effective, the legislation needs to land use, marine protected areas, be strengthened.This could be • Maintain a data center cultural and scenic areas, • Provide information as required accomplished if the legislation was recreation and tourism, activities changed to clearly state that the by the Authority such as aquaculture and other • Organize training courses CZM Authority’s mandate industries, and guidelines for transcends individual sectors and • Support other agencies involved environmental monitoring. in CZM ministries.To achieve this, it has The act also introduces fiscal been suggested that the CZM • Maintain coastal monitoring measures to support the CZM

24 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Authority be appointed legally as a acknowledged the need for member of the National multi-sectoral coordination Environmental Appraisal Com- and integration for successful mittee.This committee is management. Integrated responsible for reviewing all coastal management is now a environmental impact assessments; permanent and formalized thus the CZM Authority would be element of governance in in a stronger position to address Belize. the concerns of coastal devel- The act will hopefully opments and their impacts. evolve into a strong legislative Conclusions framework that reaches beyond just coordination, The CZM Act should be viewed progressing towards as a significant “first step” in the implementation and process of sound coastal Small islands off the coast of Belize surrounded by fringing reef management and, ultimately, active management in Belize. By passing mitigation, thus reflecting true For further information, the act, the government of Belize “authority” as embodied in its contact: Janet Gibson, Director, affirmed the importance of the name. CZM Institute, P.O. Box 1884, coastal and marine resources and Belize City, Belize. E-mail: [email protected]

Managed Retreat must be regarded as sacrificial sites due to global warming. In addition, (continued from page 21) for sediment production.This is a restoration of intertidal areas can program, the British government difficult message for conser- reduce the risk of flooding, both by has initiated a major estuarine vationists and landowners alike; decreasing wave-energy dissipation morphology research program.To especially those located in the and water levels. Despite the date the work has concentrated on seaward reaches of an estuary. apparent beneficial results of a the prediction of long-term However, taking these actions restoration program, there are still development of estuaries using could lead to a sustainable areas of concern.The restoration of tidal regime models. Prediction of estuarine resource with widespread an intertidal area can alter the tidal estuarine morphology, particularly social and economic benefits, flow enough to turn an accreting channel width, assuming various which, therefore, transcends local (growing) system into a net sea-level rise scenarios has interests. erosional system.This leads to demonstrated that estuaries will The importance of the location increased flood risk and disinterest respond to increased sea-level rise of inter tidal restoration sites in an by conservationists.The critical by rolling landward.The seaward estuary is emphasised by another issue appears to be the elevation of intertidal areas erode, releasing aspect of the work, which has the restored area; areas with high sediment that is carried landward indicated that restoration of even surface elevations relative to to be re-deposited as transgressive small salt marsh areas. Additional modern sea level, such as recently intertidal areas. Using field data studies indicated that the size and reclaimed marshes, can cause ebb from the Blackwater and Humber location of intertidal restoration irregularities and net erosion. estuaries, these models indicate sites can lower mean water levels Conversely, lower restored that sediment transfer from the in the estuary as a whole. For surfaces, characteristic of older seaward erosional areas neatly example, a 300-hectare restoration 17th century reclamation areas, balances the deposition landward. site located at the head of an result in increased deposition Model predictions suggest the rate estuary can lower water levels by throughout the estuary. of such a transgression is around 2 over 1 m, while a similar area The work outlined here suggest m to 10 m for every millimetre of located at the seaward edge would that the program of managed sea-level rise.The results mean that lower the water level only a few realignment in Britain can be a managed realignment program millimetres. expected to produce major benefits must concentrate on the head of an These studies indicate that to estuarine conservation interests estuary to allow intertidal restoration could be used to offset by increasing intertidal habitats, transgression while seaward areas the local impacts of sea-level rise (continued page 26)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 25 Managed Retreat single functional unit within which Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne (continued from page 25) the exact location and elevation of NE1 7RU England.Tel: 44 0191 and to other estuary users by restored sites are critical. 222 6000. Fax: 44 0191 222 7891. reducing flood risks. However, the For further information contact E-mail: John.Pethick@ results so far emphasize if such John Pethick, Dpt. of Marine ncl.ac.uk benefits are to be realised, the Science and Coastal Management, estuary must be managed as a Ridley Building, University of

changed from destructive fishing Seaweed Farming in Tanzania methods to seaweed farming. By Flower Msuya on in 1989, both men and women Benefits of Seaweed participated. Slowly, in most areas eaweed farming in Tanzania Farming men went back to fishing and began in the 1930s when wild Seaweed farming is more S activities that were triggered by seaweed was harvested from the profitable than traditional activities tourism such as road and house Zanzibar Islands and exported to such as handicraft, collecting construction, making lime and Europe. Seaweeds contain octopus, fishing, petty trade and working in guesthouses.Today on polysaccharides such as agriculture. In Tanzania, for Unguja Island, seaweed is farmed carrageenan, agar, and alginate that example, a seaweed farmer with a mostly by women; however, on have become important ingredients plot of 50 ropes can make 13,000 Pemba Island, Zanzibar, seaweed is in the food, pharmaceutical, and Tshillings (US$22.7) per harvest. farmed mainly by men.The cosmetic industries.The demand Most farmers have more than one difference is the topography, which for seaweed by these industries plot and can harvest every two to determines the farming technique, grew quickly. In the early 1950s, three weeks (the minimum wage in of the two islands. Unguja has about 400 tons (dry weight) of the Tanzania is US$600 per year, shallow bays and intertidal areas red seaweed Eucheuma were gross). As a comparison, a cap/hat that allow farming at low tides.The exported to European markets. (handicraft) that takes three or technique used is fixed wooden Between 1973 and 1975, the more months to make sells at pegs in the sediment with nylon Zanzibar seaweed trade collapsed about US$2. An ordinary fisher ropes holding seaweed tied to the mainly because wild seaweeds makes about US$565 per year, pegs. On Pemba, seaweed is harvests could not satisfy demand, gross income, whereas a seaweed farmed in deeper waters and the and the wild crop could not farmer makes about US$1,000 per long line (floating method) is used. compete with the cleaner, farmed year. In addition, seaweed farms Here farmers use boats or canoes seaweed from the Philippines. attract some fish species allowing to reach their farms.Women, who Seaweed farming, however, farmers to provide for their family continue to attend to agriculture, ensured a continuous supply to the while farming. fishing, caretaking, etc., do not industries, thus making farming participate. On Mainland Tanzania, Negative Impacts of profitable. In the mid-1980s, the although the use of pegs domin- Seaweed Farming first experiments with seaweed ates, both sexes are involved Seaweed farming also has some farming in Tanzania were equally in the farming. Limited negative direct and indirect impacts conducted. However, due to lack of alternative economic activities on the intertidal organisms such as funding, commercial production (lack of a large tourism industry) changes in organism abundance and did not start until 1989 when causes men to participate in biodiversity. Intertidal areas private entrepreneurs started seaweed farming. become barren and in some areas experimental farms in Paje and To a great extent, seaweed algae has overgrown. Farmers, Jambiani on Unguja Island, farming replaced the use of being scared of a sea urchin’s Zanzibar. By 1992 seaweed was destructive fishing methods, poisonous spines, kill those found also farmed on Pemba and Mafia especially dynamite fishing which in their farms.When seaweed is Islands. On Mainland Tanzania has destroyed much of the marine grown on top of seagrass, the commercial seaweed farming environments. Of the two income seagrass dies. Also, opportunistic started in 1995. producing activities, most fishers organisms, such as tubeworms, use When seaweed farming started the dead seagrasses as shelters;

26 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 farmers’ movements cause of young children when farming.As and furniture; many old homes disturbance of the substrate, a result of the accidental death of a have been improved and new exposing and resuspending the clay child, Unguja farmers contributed houses built; and the number of in the substrate; and clay is carried part of their earnings to build a day children suffering from away leaving behind coarse sand. care center to care for children malnutrition has decreased. Studies When under stress, the farmed while mothers farmed. Other by the IMS contributed to the seaweed Eucheuma produces toxic concerns include children leaving establishment of commercial chemicals were likely to affect school early to earn farming seaweed farming on the coast of other intertidal organisms. income, sun-related illness, and Mainland Tanzania. By mid-1996, Seaweed farming has also affect- dangerous marine organisms. 21 villages were participating in ed social structure.Traditionally seaweed farming, now more than Zanzibari women had no means of Impacts of Seaweed 30 villages are involved. earning cash income. The seaweed Farming For further information contact: farming income gave them money The Institute of Marine Sciences Flower Msuya, Israel power, placing them in a different (IMS), University of Dar es Salaam, Oceanographic and Limnological social role. Family conflicts have conducted the first environmental Research,The National Centre for arisen resulting from the wives’ impact study of seaweed farming Mariculture, P.O. Box 1212, Eilat changed role in the family. Some between 1992 and 1995.This and 88112 Israel.Tel: 972 7 6361452. women give part of their earnings other studies showed that seaweed Fax: 972 7 6375761. E-mail: to their husbands to be allowed to farming has improved the standard [email protected] continue farming. of living for farming families. Another obstacle was taking care Farmers are able to purchase items such as radios, kitchenware, cloths,

Economic Valuation of a Mangrove Ecosystem: Practical Implications for Management By Marion Glaser and Moreover, most ecological the natural resources sector. Monica Grasso functions also lack market prices This article is based on field and, as a result, their economic nvironmental functions relate research carried out between value is often ignored or to the capacity of natural 1996-1998 by the socioeconomic E underestimated. However, the use systems and processes to provide group of the Mangrove Dynamics of monetary valuation, be it in the goods and services which, directly and Management Project context of cost-benefit or cost- or indirectly, satisfy human needs. (MADAM) in a coastal area (Caeté effectiveness analysis, constitutes a Mangroves provide many impor- Bay, Bragança municipality) of Pará clear and effective way of tant environmental functions. State, northern Brazil. calibrating information for a range Typically, the extractable harvests The study’s main objectives are: of diverse cultural, ecological, of the mangrove ecosystems are •To present a socioeconomic economic, social and other important in poorer tropical approach for the valuation of

concerns. It is essential to provide ASSESSMENT coastal areas, not only for mangrove ecosystems in a devel- such information as an input into commercial uses but also for oping country ongoing, resource-use decision- subsistence. By definition, such •To introduce some first results making, and alternatives to subsistence use does not pass from the application of this comprehensive monetary valuation through formal markets. approach in a coastal mangrove of ecosystems for this purpose are Particularly in regions with area of northern Brazil not available. For these reasons, important subsistence sectors, • To discuss the implications of economic valuation techniques classic market-based production utilizing the results for mangrove were used for mangrove manage- evaluations of mangrove and associated coastal management ment research in northern Brazil. ecosystems are likely understate planning This was done despite some clear the true social cost of possible Socioeconomic surveys were the problems associated with the use of alternative uses or conversions of main basis for the economic monetary valuation techniques in the mangrove ecosystem. (continued page 28)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 27 Mangroves visitation and the mangroves’ were prioritized in order of highest (continued from page 27) function of providing fishery use among households valuation of the mangrove products.The influence of the •The economy-ecosystem linkages ecosystem. Such surveys are ecosystem’s natural beauty on at the household level for the rural versatile tools since they reveal the visitation rates was also assessed. In and urban areas were determined value to humans for some physical addition to questions related to the • A database of household types, in functions.They also generate visit (reason, expenses and length terms of mangrove uses, was knowledge of the relationship of stay), tourists also answered established for the rural area between society, the economy and questions on the cost of travel. The Urban Survey ecosystems. The existence value of the The survey showed that Methodology mangroves for visitors was relatively high numbers of urban The research area is the determined using the Contingent residents produce mangrove mangrove ecosystem on both sides Valuation Survey. Potential products for sale. However, despite of Caeté Bay.The area of primary alternative uses were the conver- the methodological bias towards human interaction (i.e., sion of the mangrove area to clear surveying urban areas with more production/extraction activities) cutting for charcoal, use as pasture intensive mangrove product use, with those mangroves determined or for real-estate enterprises.The direct mangrove use was found to the geographic limits. specific objective of the contingent be much less diverse and intensive In this area a Community-Based valuation survey was to estimate in the urban than rural area. Statistical Survey (CBS) was done the economic net benefits to Moreover, subsistence use of to determine the actual geographic society from preserving the mangrove products is much rarer area and population size of mangroves.We hypothesize that in the urban than rural area, and is interaction with the mangroves and individuals would be worse off if restricted to the very poorest mangrove-related resources. this specific mangrove area was lost households. Interviews and field visits were to another use.This economic loss The Production Study conducted with town and village would take the form of a reduction Fishers’ net monthly revenue leadership and local government in personal welfare to visitors who from the mangrove ecosystem was officials. Over 50 villages, plus the were assumed to be willing to pay found to be between US$50- town of Bragança, were identified. an amount to prevent the area 1,000. However, the aggregated Information on mangrove and fish from being converted to another value for the mangrove will be products use was gathered on use. underestimated if based solely on individual households in 21 rural The socioeconomic approach the fishers’ income, approximately communities. An Urban Survey, a revealed relationship between the US$228/ha/year (not a final value, replication of the household-level mangrove ecosystem and the local research still in progress), due to survey complemented by questions economic system. Although some the poverty of local mangrove on household structure and income ecological functions of the fishers in the area. was undertaken in two areas of the ecosystem were not evaluated Tourism town of Bragança in June 1997. directly, it was possible to infer a During February 1997, 185 Mangrove productivity and value for the ecosystem to society tourists visiting the area were household production studies were by identifying how the ecosystem interviewed. Seventy-five percent done to obtain information, helps to alleviate poverty areas of respondents were male, with an including but not limited to, where most household depend on average age of 33 years.The main information about family structure the mangrove and have few other recreational activities were fishing, and dependency, income, economic income or employment options. boating and consumption of local activity of household members, Results fishery products. Existence Value-Contingent products collected from the The CBS Valuation mangrove, among others. Some The CBS delivered a first set of About 185 respondents 250 households were visited once results: participated in the survey.The at two-week intervals to capture • Eighteen Caeté Bay mangrove questions used were close-ended, seasonal or moon-phase-related products were identified as used with two possibilities of bid values production variations. for subsistence and commercial (the values presented to the A tourism survey evaluated the purposes. people interviewed). Answers relationship between rate of tourist •The 18 major mangrove products

28 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 The economic valuation decision about the degree of presented the expected behavior, approach assigned no value to desired equity, or conversely the i.e., declining percentages as the mangrove services such as degree of acceptable inequality. prices go up. pollution absorption, coastal It must be concluded that the Practical Application protection and carbon dioxide use of conventional valuation and Outlook absorption. At present, a small techniques needs to include Throughout the three MADAM population and lack of polluting distribution aspects, particularly phases, the integration of research industries suggests a low value. for environments where poverty results into policy relevant Moreover, the absence of frameworks (decision-support hurricanes in coastal northern systems) is ongoing. However, since Brazil renders the coastal the policy process does not wait protection function of the for the conclusion of research mangroves insignificant. projects, the research results are Equity is a major concern in already in demand to guide official socioeconomically-based economic decisionmaking.Thus, in response valuations. In the Caeté Bay to a demand from decisionmakers, villages, mangrove subsistence the results of the socioeconomic production among poor households and natural science working groups is high. By definition, subsistence have provided data for the production does not pass through development of resource market channels; alternative modes management legislation.The of value attribution can be selected mangrove resource with the by the evaluator.Where subsistence highest ecosystem and local production is high and occurs Study area socioeconomic importance was the among the poorest households, the and destitution are common. If not mangrove crab (over half the rural market prices assigned assume a critically examined and appro- population financially depended on purchasing power these products priately corrected, market-based mangrove crab collection). rarely have.The same applies for decision aids such as the Management measures initially assigning the price of a substitute- conventional economic valuation designed to address ecological marketed product.The assumption can fail to reflect more dangers have been modified to that a product used purely for comprehensive perceptions of incorporated the social and subsistence will be substituted by value and may result in economic importance of the an alternative product can be management policies seriously at resource as revealed by the extremely inequitable when the odds with social sustainability research data. In practice, this has function of the subsistence product objectives. meant that draft legislation for a de is only to support the household For further information contact facto year-round prohibition on over periods of extreme economic Dr Marion Glaser, Centre for crab collection was modified to a need. In the research example, the Marine Tropical Ecology (ZMT), prohibition during the main use of the price of alternative Fahrenheitstr 1, 28359 Bremen reproductive period with a view to products available for sale is greatly Germany. FAX: 0049 421 2208 introducing an additional at odds with the actual real-life 330 E-mail: mglaser@ prohibition for a three to four alternative (hunger or worse) for zmt.bremen.de; or Monica Grasso, month period with compensation the resource users. International Society for Ecological to collectors for income loss.To The inclusion of equity criteria Economics, P.O. Box 36, maximize the applicability of would allow an element of social Solomons, MD 20688 USA.Tel: research results, the second phase justice to be incorporated into the of the MADAM socioeconomic valuation exercise. It may therefore research focuses on those be appropriate to employ higher mangrove products which have the weighting of the costs and benefits highest social and economic of poorer ecosystem stakeholders importance, and compares the via an inequality coefficient. effects of alternative, ecologically However, the weighting in the final desirable management approaches. analysis always includes a political

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 29 Economic Instruments used in Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean By Ivica Trumbic and tourism, agriculture and application does result in the Aleksandar Bjelica transportation. Conflicts occur reduction of environmental n 1994, the Priority Actions most frequently between pollution and improvement of IProgramme Regional Activity agriculture and fishing; industry environmental quality. Economic Centre (PAP/RAC) in Split, and tourism; and cities (urban instruments with incentives for Croatia, conducted an analysis of waste) and the natural compliance have proven to be economic instruments used in the environment. more effective than those without Mediterranean.The approach was The Mediterranean countries an incentive. based on the experience of the have developed natural resource Some of the assessed countries Organization for Economic management programs for their have experience in the implement- Cooperation and Development individual environmental problems. ation of economic instruments member countries. A questionnaire Generally, environmental (France, Israel, Italy and Tunisia), was used to collect information on management is centralized and the and some have very little the existing conditions in mid- administrative machinery acts on experience (Croatia, Albania, 1994.The countries of: Albania, the regional and local level. Morocco and Syria). In some, Cyprus, Croatia, Egypt, France, Ministries and government economic instruments are yet to be Israel, Italy, Libya, Morocco, Syria institutions are directly involved in applied (Cyprus, Egypt and Libya). and Tunisia were assessed. environmental management, while It is hoped that those countries Economic instruments are being nongovernmental organizations not yet applying economic implemented to provide a certain participate to a lesser extent. instruments will learn from the level of environmental protection An analysis of the application of successes and failures of those and avoid additional economic economic instruments in the countries currently using these costs.These instruments are usually Mediterranean countries has methods. preferred to existing command shown that economic instruments For further information contact: regulatory policies, since they are being used and are widely Ivica Trumbic, Priority Actions allow polluters greater flexibility in applied in the fields of water Programme Regional Activity achieving the required pollution protection, land management, and Centre, Kraj sv. Ivana 11, HR- level, and they stimulate rapid industrial and solid waste–the areas 21000 Split, Croatia.Tel: +385 21 technology change in pollution with the most apparent 34 34 99. Fax: +385 21 36 16 77. abatement. Another argument, still environmental problems.The E-mail: [email protected]. unexplored and controversial in the analysis identified charges and use of economic instruments, is the resource pricing, and subsidies as so called ‘double-dividend effect.’ the most effective economic Here, some studies suggest that instruments currently in use. economic instruments could be Difficulties most frequently applied in a way that would not encountered in applying economic just reduce the pollution level, but instruments are poor organization, also reduce taxes and increase nonconformity of economic employment.The main environ- instruments with practice, mental problems in coastal areas inadequate environmental are urbanization of agricultural monitoring, inappropriate use of land, increasing population and economic instruments, uncertainty associated increased sewage and whether tax proceeds are being solid waste, and discharge of waste used for maintaining and improving water into the sea and other the natural resources, and small, surface waters. inconsequential fines. Important economic activities in It appears that overall, economic Mediterranean coastal areas include instruments are efficient and their

30 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Marine and Coastal Geographical Information Systems Edited by Dawn J.Wright and Darius J. Bartlett Taylor and Francis, 1999 This book addresses basic and applied scientific problems in deep-sea and coastal science using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies. Part 1 covers the conceptual and technical issues associated with the use of GIS. Issues include data models for marine and coastal GIS; an algorithmic approach to marine GIS; representation of variability in marine environmental data; and coastal geomorphology 3-D GIS. Part II covers the applications of GIS including real-time GIS for marine applications; applications to fisheries management and electronic chart display and information systems;and more. In addition, institutional issues such as managing coastal data sources, applications to maritime boundary delimitation, and information quality consideration are discussed. Mapping capability and other topics are also discussed. “Monographs in GIS” series (# 0-7484-0862-2 Hbk). Addition information and ordereds online at Website: http://wwws.thomson.com/pub/routeldge/order_blank.html, 348 pp.

Disaster by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States Dennis S. Mileti Joseph Henry Press, 1999 Over time, events have shown that natural disasters and the technological hazards that may accompany them are not problems that can be solved in isolation. Losses from hazards-and the fact that the United States cannot reduce them-result from a shortsightedness of the human relationship to the environment. More simply, accepted methods of coping with hazards have been based on the idea that people and technology can control nature.This has not worked. Instead, the nation must shift to a policy of “sustainable hazard mitigation.”This concept links wise management of natural resources with local economic and social resiliency. Recent natural disasters have emphasized that it is increasing important to understand the social science aspect (economic, social and political ramifications) of natural disasters. This summary, and the report it is based on, outlines a comprehensive approach to enhancing society’s ability to reduce the costs of disaster.Topics include fostering local sustainability; using mitigation tools such as land use planning and advanced warning systems and improving engineering and insurance coverage. Also of paramount importance is to establish government policies and conduct hazard and risk assessments, as well as exchanging information and experiences by developing a comprehensive, internationally-supported and shared database on hazards that occur worldwide. For information and/or copies contact: National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW,Lockbox 285,Washington, DC USA 20055.Tel: 202-334-3313. Fax: 202-334-2451.Website:

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 31 ELECTRONIC RESOURCES SPECIAL SECTION (continued from page 13) The Emergency Information Infrastructure Partnership (EIIP) hosts several E-mail discussion lists through its Emergency Management Forum (EMForum) including: [email protected] - research, reference sources, higher education [email protected] - contingency planning and business continuity [email protected] - notification of EIIP events and activities [email protected] - Firefighting.Com & Associates News [email protected] - opinions, comments about government roles [email protected] - in support of the FEMA’s higher education program [email protected] - implementing “Disaster Resistant Communities” [email protected] - the EIIP monthly newsletter [email protected] - planning, training, exercises, evaluation [email protected] - jobs, conferences, announcements, educational opportunities [email protected] - issues in public and individual assistance programs [email protected] - serving the public during the first critical hours [email protected] - issues in emergency information technology [email protected] - vital contributions of volunteers, NGOs [email protected] - FEMA’s Act Now Preparedness Updates [email protected] - National Fire & Rescue News To subscribe contact EIIP at E-mail: [email protected] or see the EMForum website - http://www.emforum.org SELECTED WORLDWIDE WEB/INTERNET INFORMATION SOURCES http://www.disasters.org/emgold/index.htm Emergency Management Gold©1999 (EMGold) is a multilingual site to assist those who use English as a second language. Languages are French (Francias), German (Deutch), Italian (Italiano), Portugese (Portugeze), Spanish (Espanol). EMGold’s listing of the GLOBAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (GEMS) (c)1999 http://www.disasters.org/emgold/library EM Gold gives one of the most comprehensive country by country indexes of disaster-related websites. For example: (underlined items are website links) American Samoa (Unincorporated Territory-Pacific) Claimed in 1900. Area is 75 square miles consisting of five volcanic islands. Capital is Pago Pago. Climate is tropical. Population is 50,923 and is ethnically Polynesian. Official language is English. Unit of currency is the U.S. Dollar. Antigua & Barbuda: (country information) Emergency Guidance, Mitigation Plan for Schools Against Natural Disasters Belgum: (country information) Protection Civile Belgium, Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Red Cross Bosnia: (country information) Dinar. Bosnia Information Turkey:(country information) Telsiz ve Radyo Amatrleri Cemiyeti (TRAC) (ARES) Venezuala: etc. VietNam: etc. Yugoslavia : etc. Zimbabwe: etc. EMGold’s Virtual Library is an integration of information relating to Academia (Education), Business and Industry, Government (Federal, State and Local) and Volunteers (NGOs) in Emergency Management.Topics include:Academia, Associations, Computers, Conferences, Earth Science, Maps, Media and Medical. EMGold’s ALERTS directory http://www.disasters.org/emgold/Alerts.htm This site gives information on current disasters worldwide http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/ Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, Boulder, USA, is a national and international clearinghouse for information on natural hazards and human adjustments to hazards and disasters.The following is a selected list of websites obtained from the Natural Hazards Center and other sites. By visiting these websites and their links, one can compile a network of websites and communications on all aspects of natural hazards and disasters. http://www.fema.gov The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Website now contains thousands of pages of hazards/disaster information. http://www.redcross.org The American Red Cross provides extensive information on disaster mitigation, management, and recovery.

32 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 More Websites http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/programs/emergenc/prevent/prev_em.htm The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) has issued several on-line Prevention Guides to Promote Your Personal Health and Safety Before, During and After Emergencies and Disasters in both English and Spanish. http://hoshi.cic.sfu.ca/~anderson/ The Emergency Preparedness Information Exchange (EPIX) is one of the most comprehensive. EPIX contains extensive information about both current situations and disaster management generally. Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada. http://web20.mindlink.net/sarinfo/sarinfo.htm The SARINFO Home Page provides information on search and rescue.The site includes an extensive file library. http://www.iaem.com The International Association of Emergency Managers (IAEM - formerly the National Coordinating Council on Emergency Management) website includes information on emergency management and on its Certified Emergency Manager program. http://www.disastercenter.com/home.htm The Disaster Center is a ganglion of Web links, bulletin boards, forums, and pages of all kinds dealing with disasters. The site assembles and arranges disaster information from hundreds of others sites and adds information of its own to produce an extensive reference resource. http://www.yahoo.com/Environment_and_Nature/Disasters Yahoo includes a section devoted to disasters that interested persons can consult to determine the latest Net resources. http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/urban/dis_man/dis_man.htm The World Bank established a new Disaster Management Facility (DMF) to ensure that disaster prevention and mitigation are integral parts of development programs. http://www.unige.ch/idndr The Directory for Disaster Reduction Institutions was created by the United Nations and the University of Geneva. It contains information on collaboration, research support and training at the local and regional levels. http://www.disaster.info.desastres.net/crid/eng/index.htm The Regional Disaster Information Center (Centro Regional de Informacion Sobre Desastres - CRID) website for Latin America and the Caribbean facilitate access to technical and scientific information on disaster prevention. http://www.epc-pcc.gc.ca Emergency Preparedness Canada (EPC) offers emergency management and preparedness information in English or en francais. http://www.ema.gov.au The redesigned Emergency Management Australia (EMA) website includes sections on personal safety, school resources, general and current emergency management issues and others. http://www.adpc.ait.ac.th/Default.html The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), Bangkok, website focuses on Asia and the Pacific. http://incede.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/intro/glodisnet_subject.html International Center for Disaster-Mitigation Engineering (INCEDE) at the Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo contains websites and documents on all disasters focusing in the Asian region. It is a good source of alternative WWW on disasters. These represents only the tip-of-the-iceburg for informative websites. Most any of the above sites will link to numerous other excellent sites.

Available on the Worldwide Web

INTERNATIONAL NEWSLETTER OF COASTAL MANAGEMENT http://crc.uri.edu/comm/htmlpubs/ic/index.html

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 33 The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards: Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment Published by Island Press. Price: Paper: $30.00. 210 pp. ISBN: Paper: 1-55963-756-0 Society has limited dollars to invest in hazard mitigation. The question is:Which actions will be most cost effective, considering all impacts and costs? In 1997, the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment began a two-year study to develop new strategies to identify and reduce the costs of weather-related hazards associated with rapidly increasing coastal development.The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards offers the first in-depth study that considers the costs of hazards to: natural resources, social institutions, business and the environment. Hurricane Hugo, which struck South Carolina, USA, in 1989, provides information on the full range of economic costs caused by a major coastal hazard event.Using Hurricane Hugo, the authors looked at pre- and post-hazard information and recommend ways to improve assessments and to form a comprehensive framework for developing and implementing mitigation strategies.To do this, the book: • Describes and examines unreported, undocumented and hidden costs such as losses due to business interruption, reduction in property values, interruption of social services, psychological trauma, damage to natural systems and others • Examines the concepts of risk and vulnerability and discusses conventional approaches to risk assessment and the emerging area of vulnerability assessment • Documents the impact of Hurricane Hugo and provides insight from some of the survivors The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards takes a structured approach to the problem, suggesting a new framework for community-based hazard mitigation, and offering specific recommendations. Decisionmakers–both policymakers and planners–who are interested in learning about the categories of costs and risk associated with coastal hazards will find the book a unique source of new information and insight, as will private-sector decisionmakers, including lenders, investors, developers and insurers of coastal property. The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment is a nonprofit institution dedicated to improving the scientific and economic foundation for environmental policy by fostering collaboration among industry, environmental organizations, government, and academia. Available from: Island Press, Box 7, Dept 2NET, Covelo, CA 95428 USA.Tel: 800-828-

The Global Trade in Coral Green and Shirley, 1999 Published by World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK, 70 pp, ISBN: 1-899628-13-4 In the last decade there has been a large increase in the global trade of live coral for aquaria.The World Conservation Monitoring Centre looked at trade in live coral from the ecological and economic perspectives.The study identified the taxonomic composition of the trade and the quantities of coral passing between nations.This illustrates the links between major exporters and importers. Data is presented on the practicalities of monitoring international trade in coral at the global scale. Export and retail prices are used to estimate the revenue to exporting nations. Size and growth-rate data used to assess the sustainability of the trade in live coral is also presented. Available from:World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0DL, United Kingdom.Tel: 44 1223 277314. Fax: 44 1223 277136. E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/

34 InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 Complacency or Action? partnerships in planning and however, it is possible to take (continued from page 1) implementation and to proactively measures to reduce their impacts Hurricane predicting, as explained explore hazard mitigation as a key by building partnerships among a by Ginis (page 2), has improved tool in regulatory and non- broad group of constituencies for significantly over the last decade regulatory program elements. both pre-disaster and recovery and will continue to improve with In El Salvador, poverty, phases. Both programs recognize the use of new technologies. population expansion and civil how crucial the business com- Mashriqui and Pine (page 6) conflict have driven many munity is for the recovery of discuss the use of real-time, three- households to the coast, resulting services and supplies, thus making dimensional flood models to in increased pressure on the natural public/private partnerships key for provide input to decisions resources and coastal areas. both mitigation and disaster regarding evacuation routes, Gammage, Machado and Benitez management. shelters, and the impacts to public (page 14) report on the challenges Despite the great technological utilities. Appendini and Lizárraga- faced when introducing advances in forecasting and Arciniega (page 11) used pre-and appropriate technology to decrease modeling, natural hazards still take post-El Niño data in Mexico to utilization of limited resources a huge toll in human life and, often advocate pre-hazard modeling and (fuelwood from mangroves) that as devastating, loss of property and planning to minimize shoreline protect coastal communities from economic collapse.The enormous erosion. Gelfenbaum, Jaffe, Neal flooding and erosion. Similarly, in economic losses are sobering and and Davies (page 7) discuss how Brazil the mangrove environment is should provide great incentive to the analysis of a single hazard event being placed under great pressure change the status quo.Vogel (page can be used to plan for future by communities. Glaser and Grasso 22) explains the short- and long- events, as well as decipher past (page 27) discuss the economic term economic effects of a natural events worldwide. value of the mangrove ecosystem in disaster (e.g., employment shifts, As population grows and terms of what is and is not tallied housing sales, etc.). Using recent demand for new development in an economic evaluation.This is hurricanes affecting the Florida increases, so does the risk of important because before coast, he looks at the type of developing in marginal lands, such management decisions are made, it property damaged as a factor in as beaches and wetland areas, that is necessary to look at the value determining economic impacts. are vulnerable to hazards,. Pethick (not in monetary terms) of the Though not news to anyone, he and Lowe (page 21) illustrate the resource to a community. notes that the human population, ill effects of long-term land use Complacency can be blamed for though well aware of the inevitable choices which led to altered increased risk in many regions of occurrence of a disaster, continues estuarine systems and increased the world. Ramsey’s observations to rebuild in those areas hardest vulnerability to flooding and sea- in Micronesia target the absence of hit. level rise. Here, mitigation and a significant destructive event in While disaster brings much “recovery” efforts will not be a recent memory. He notes that since despair and loss, it does offer an one-time intervention, but will the last major disaster in 1905, opportunity to rebuild with more require long-term restoration and virtually the entire population base consciousness and thought. In political will to affect such change. and most of its infrastructure has 1998, Hurricane Mitch’s merciless Burrill, Burbridge and Humphrey been built on the coast, leaving the destruction of Central America (page 16) furthered this point people or residence extremely received worldwide attention.The noting that again human activities, vulnerable. impacts were even more not Mother Nature, have seriously Triggered by the partial collapse devastating due to poverty and altered the European coast leaving of the insurance industry in Florida social and environmental factors. inhabitants battling evolving after Hurricane Bob, the United Franklin (page 4) discusses the role hazards and significantly increasing States has enhanced its efforts in the Inter-American Development their vulnerability to individual hazard mitigation research and Bank took through mitigation hazards. Gibson (page 24) outlines implementation.The two during reconstruction; this Belize’s new coastal management articles–East (page 18) and prompts one to imagine the impact program that was enacted last year. Steinberg (page 19)–agree that it is of donor agencies in promoting Integrated programs such as this not possible to control the mitigation as a key development provide excellent opportunities for occurrence of natural disasters; tool. (continued page 36)

InterCoast Network • Winter 2000 35 Complacency or Action structure and physical ability evacuation. As important, when (continued from page 35) often negate any action. rebuilding is initiated, we must Outreach is essential when The concept of hazard balance the needs of getting the developing strategies for hazard mitigation is age old. Fishers community back to working mitigation. In Indonesia, the worldwide have been building order and rebuilding in a wise Coastal Resources Management their huts on stilts and finding fashion.The goal is to minimize Project is developing a program safe havens for their boats during the loss next time, because it will to strengthen local capacity to a storm.What is new is the happen again, if not in our address natural resource apparent increased rate at which lifetime in our children’s. management, including erosion natural events are occurring Pamela Rubinoff is the and flooding. Gosal (page 10) and/or the attention that they Mexican program manager (Tel: discusses the introduction of raise, perhaps due to enhanced 401 874 6135. E-mail: community monitoring of coastal worldwide communication or [email protected]) and Noelle F. processes as a first step to increased economic value of Lewis is the managing editor of developing and implementing a losses and recovery.What is InterCoast at the Coastal local management plan. needed now is to take the Resources Center, University of An area not addressed in this opportunity to plan for the Rhode Island, Narragansett, RI issue, yet still important, is pre- inevitable in every way to save 02882 USA.Tel: 401 874 6870. hazard safety preparation lives and reduce severe economic Fax: 401 789 4670. E-mail: (shelters, evacuation routes, distress.We need to learn from [email protected] . helicopter or boat rescue, etc.). experience, be proactive through People management, particularly prediction and modeling, in distress situations, is not easy undertake proactive planning and often not well organized. initiatives, ensure proper policy Progress in this area has improved development and significantly; however, as coastal implementation, provide populations grow the problem education and outreach, and only grows.The United States and cultivate partnerships and some other developed countries incentives. Having done this, are addressing evacuation when “that” event occurs, we strategies for many types of need to ensure that our efforts in hazards; however, the challenges prediction, outreach and disaster are greater in developing planning have resulted in countries where poverty, social increased success for safety and

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