Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Eisenstadt, 13 – 15 June 2008 | 13

International Conference Internationale konferenz Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Eisenstadt, 13 – 15 June 2008 | 13. – 15. Juni 2008

Conference Report Tagungsband

Impressum

Organised by | Veranstaltet von: Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur (BMUKK) Contact | Kontakt: Christine Stromberger A-1014 Wien, Minoritenplatz 5 www.bmukk.gv.at

Austrian Commission for UNESCO International Conference Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission Internationale konferenz Contact | Kontakt: Maria Walcher, Bettina Rossbacher A-1010 Wien, Universitätsstraße 5 www.unesco.at

In cooperation with | In Zusammenarbeit mit: Government of Burgenland Burgenländische Landesregierung Everyday A-7000 Eisenstadt, Europaplatz 1 www.burgenland.at Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Supported by | Unterstützt von: Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research Eisenstadt, 13 – 15 June 2008 | 13. – 15. Juni 2008 Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung (BMWF) A-1014 Wien, Minoritenplatz 5 www.bmwf.gv.at

Venue | Tagungsort: University of Applied Sciences University of Applied Sciences Burgenland Fachhochschulstudiengänge Burgenland GesmbH Fachhochschulstudiengänge Burgenland Gesmbh Campus 1, 7000 Eisenstadt, Burgenland A-7000 Eisenstadt, Campus 1 www.fh-burgenland.at

“Languages are among the most precious, and at the same time the most fragile treasures of mankind.” Content and coordination | Inhaltliche Konzeption und Koordination: Vigdis Finnbogadottir, UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador of Languages Andrea Dorner Organisation and logistics | Organisation: Margit Niederhuber Ruch & Baltres Kulturmanagement OG – Sonja Baltres Editorial Office | Lektorat: Martina Paul Graphic Design | Grafik: Marion Dorner Fotos | Fotos: Foto Tschank, Eisenstadt

4 5 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit content | inhalt

Content | inhalt 62 WS 1.3 linguistic otherness in education – linguistic behaviour and ethnic identity across students. Csilla Bartha 63 WS 1.4 Forum: Multilingualism in diverse contexts. 10 Foreword | Vorwort Maria Walcher, Anton Dobart Hanna Komorowska, Shrishail Sasalatti 14 Foreword | Vorwort Damir Dijakovic 23 Words of welcome in the languages of the Burgenland Begrüßung in den Sprachen des Burgenlandes 67 2. Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities 24 German | Deutsch Renata Schmidtkunz lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und 25 Croatian | Kroatisch Viktorija Palatin mInderheiten 26 Romany | Romani Emmerich Gärtner-Horvath 27 hungarian | Ungarisch Zsófia Sommer-Palágyi 69 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Defining ‘Everyday Multilingualism’. Yaron Matras

28 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag 76 WS 2.1 Romani language, public life and education. Street and standard: Managing language in contemporary Africa. Dieter W. Halwachs, Yaron Matras Neville Alexander 78 WS 2.2 languages of minorities and lifelong learning – language transmission outside formal educational settings. 38 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Georg Gombos From monolingualism to bilingualism: Changing identity and 80 WS 2.3 Understanding sign languages as minority languages. linguistic intuition. Anna Verschik Verena Krausneker, Günter Roiss 83 WS 2.4 The Burgenland as an exemplary border region. 42 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Edith Mühlgaszner language, Culture and Identity among Migrants. Elizabeth Lanza

87 3. Economy and Management of Diversity 49 1. Languages of Education and Everyday Wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement multilingualism | Unterrichtssprache(n) und lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit 89 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Is there a linguistic melting pot? Who needs it? Who cares? 51 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Michèle Kaiser-Cooke The Council of Europe and language education policies: Plurilingualism as a key issue. David Little 91 Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Economy of culture, culture of economy. Mauro Rosi 55 WS 1.1 Towards an European framework document for languages of, in and for school education. 94 WS 3.1 linguistic and cultural diversity within the concept of Waldemar Martyniuk, Klaus-Börge Boeckmann managing diversity. Gabriele Sauberer 58 WS 1.2 Using the European Language Portfolio to promote and 97 WS 3.2 Multilingual terminology & structured content. Christian Galinski validate plurilingualism. David Little, Wolfgang Moser 100 WS 3.3 The Dylan project. Marko Stabej, Jordi Magrinyà i Domingo 103 WS 3.4 Markets and everyday multilingualism. Helen Kelly Holmes

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105 4. Everyday Multilingualism in Media and 176 WS 2.4 Minority public education in Burgenland. Edith Mühlgaszner cyberspace | Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit In Medien und im Cyberspace 181 WS 3.2 Formulating and Implementing Arabic Terminology Policy: Towards a Systematic Approach to the Creation and Use 107 Panel discussion | Podiumsdiskussion of Terminology. Moh’d Tawfiq Bataineh Multilingualism in the media. 185 WS 3.2 Terminology policies and minority language planning. Jannis Androutsopoulos, Brigitta Busch, Tom Moring, Helmut Peissl Anja Drame 189 WS 3.2 Terminology in the web (accessibility), via the web 112 WS 4.1 Media for linguistic minorities: the challenge of new media. (distribution) and through the web (creation) – Tom Moring Considerations in conjunction with standardization activities. 115 WS 4.2 languages and media politics. Christian Galinski Brigitta Busch, Judith Purkarthofer, Petra Pfisterer 118 WS 4.3 The multilingual internet: spotlight on migrant | diasporic 208 WS 3.3 The Dylan Project communities. Jannis Androutsopoulos Dylan‘s transversal research task (RT): ’Emergent varieties‘. 121 WS 4.4 Multilingualism and Cyberspace – how multilingual Heike Böhringer, Cornelia Hülmbauer children can grow up in the media society. Petra Herczeg 211 WS 3.3 The Dylan Project. The Ljubljana team’s research task. Marko Stabej, Jordi Magrinyà i Domingo

127 Presentations | Präsentationen 214 Panel discussion | Podiumsdiskussion 128 WS 1.3 Arbëreshë (Albanians) in Italy – Identity profile among It is easy enough to say … Die Konfrontation von Theorie, Ideologie university students with some other data. Giovanni Belluscio und Alltagsrealität ist eine Herausforderung 142 WS 1.3 Best success through language loss? Open questions Klaus-Börge Boeckmann, Susanna Buttaroni, Anton Dobart, and possible answers concerning language, school and hanna Komorowska, David Little, Susanne Pirstinger, Mauro Rosi, immigration. Katharina Brizic Shrishail Sasalatti 144 WS 1.3 Sorbian youth: bilingualism, language attitudes and ethnic identity. Leoš Šatava 222 conference Programme | Tagungsprogramm

150 WS 1.4 South Tyrol’s institutionalized linguistic diversity – status quo 227 List of Participants | Teilnehmerliste and challenges. Elisabeth Alber 154 WS 1.4 Promoting plurilingualism and multilingualism – the polish perspective. Hanna Komorowska 157 WS 1.4 Multilingualism in the Baltic States. Mart Rannut, Inese Vasiljeva, Jolanta Zabarskaite 166 WS 1.4 Multilingualism in Slovakia. Martin Sarvaš 169 WS 1.4 Die indische MANTHRA für Mehrsprachigkeit und Sprach- politik in Europa. Shrishail Sasalatti

8 9 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Preface | vorwort

In organising the conference on “Everyday Multilingualism” we intended to foreword send out a signal within the context of the International Year of Languages 2008 and to encourage concrete action in educational policy. We wanted to point out the insufficient acceptance and use of everyday multilingualism in all focus Responding to an Austrian initiative, the United Nations have proclaimed 2008 areas. Further, the exchange of opinions between experts from theory and prac- to be the International Year of Languages. UNESCO, the United Nations’ specia- tice aimed to contribute to elucidating the clear benefits to be derived from lised organisation for education, science, culture, communication and informati- encouraging linguistic diversity as well as the need, from a social policy aspect, on, was called upon to act as the coordinator for the International Year. Its motto to promote it in all sectors. is: “Languages matter” – or as Koichiro Matsuura, Director General of UNESCO, The quality contributions and discussions at the conference have demons- explained, strengthening respect, promotion and protection of all languages, trated the knowledge and experience in the field; now the responsible levels, particularly endangered languages, in all individual and collective contexts. The especially in education, need to act on those. No country can face the complex aim is to ensure that the importance of linguistic diversity and multilingualism tasks of an adequate linguistic policy on its own – national activities must be in educational, administrative and legal systems, cultural expressions and the supplemented by the cooperation with European and international institutions, media, cyberspace and trade, is recognised at the national, regional and inter- as was convincingly evidenced by the conference in Eisenstadt. national levels. We would like to express our appreciation of the success of this meeting Reflecting these goals, the Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, Arts and to the State Government of Burgenland for their various and generous support Culture jointly with the Austrian Commission for UNESCO organised an interna- in organising the conference and in particular for their cultural programme; to tional conference on “Everyday Multilingualism”. The purpose of this meeting is the “Languages” expert panel at the Austrian Commission for UNESCO for their to highlight the role of multilingualism in an everyday context with all its facets scientific input; to the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research for its and dimensions and to explore all the opportunities and challenges associated financial support; and to Fachhochschulstudiengänge Burgenland GesmbH, for with it. Some 120 experts of various specialisations from 15 countries discussed providing facilities that offered an ideal frame for the conference. the close links between multilingualism and cultural diversity, the central impor- We hope that this in-depth coverage of the conference will find many in- tance of multilingualism for the economy, social integration, education and the terested readers who will disseminate and circulate the concept of “everyday media, minorities and migration. multilingualism” in their respective spheres of action. Language is a fundamental dimension of the individual, a central tool for communication, information and interaction, and a strategic factor for the sustainable development of our societies. All this is to be encompassed by the “Everyday” part of the title for the conference in Eisenstadt. Everyday multilingualism is a reality that needs to be taken into consideration when we face up to the current changes in Europe and world-wide. UNESCO is calling upon all states to ensure that they give due merit to the importance of linguistic diversity by appropriate activities. All states are requested to Dr. Anton Dobart Mag. Maria Walcher develop and pursue a language policy that allows all linguistic communities to use Department Head Secretary General their respective mother tongue(s) as often as possible, while enabling all people to Federal Ministry for Austrian Commission have the additional use of a national as well as international language. Education, Arts and Culture for UNESCO

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Mit der Konferenz „Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit“ wollten wir im In- vorwort ternationalen Jahr der Sprachen 2008 ein Zeichen setzen und zu konkreten bildungspolitischen Handlungsschritten anregen. Es sollte damit auf die mangelnde Akzeptanz und Anwendung lebensweltlicher Mehrsprachigkeit in allen Schwer- Die Vereinten Nationen haben auf Initiative Österreichs das Jahr 2008 zum Inter- punktbereichen aufmerksam gemacht werden. Der Austausch von ExpertInnen nationalen Jahr der Sprachen ausgerufen. Die UNESCO, UN-Sonderorganisation aus Theorie und Praxis sollte aber auch einen Beitrag dazu leisten, die überzeu- für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Kultur und Kommunikation, wurde zur „federführenden genden Vorteile wie auch die gesellschaftspolitische Notwendigkeit der Förderung Organisation“ erklärt. Das Motto dieses Jahres lautet ‚Languages matter’ – mit von sprachlicher Vielfalt in allen Bereichen darzulegen. den Worten des Generaldirektors der UNESCO, Koichiro Matsuura, bedeutet dies Die qualifizierten Beiträge und Diskussionen im Rahmen dieser Konferenz ha- die Stärkung von Respekt, Förderung und Schutz aller Sprachen, insbesondere der ben Wissen und Erfahrung auf den Tisch gelegt; es ist Sache der Verantwortlichen, gefährdeten, im privaten wie im öffentlichen Kontext. Es soll sichergestellt werden, insbesondere im Bildungsbereich, dies in konkrete Aktivitäten umzusetzen. Kein dass die Bedeutung von sprachlicher Vielfalt und Multilingualismus im Bildungssy- Land kann sich den komplexen Aufgaben einer adäquaten Sprachpolitik allein stel- stem ebenso wie in der Verwaltung und im Rechtssystem anerkannt wird; in den len; neben entsprechenden nationalen Aktivitäten ist die Kooperation mit europä- kulturellen Äußerungen ebenso wie in den Medien, im Cyberspace wie im Handel, ischen wie internationalen Institutionen unabdingbar. Die Konferenz in Eisenstadt und zwar im nationalen, regionalen und internationalen Bereich. In Übereinstim- hat auch dafür ein hervorragendes Beispiel gegeben. mung mit diesen Zielen hat das Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Kunst und Kul- Unser Dank für das gute Gelingen dieser Tagung gilt der Landesregierung Bur- tur gemeinsam mit der Österreichischen UNESCO-Kommission eine internationale genland für die vielfältige und großzügige Unterstützung bei der Durchführung, ins- Konferenz zum Thema „Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit“ organisiert. besondere für das kulturelle Rahmenprogramm; der ExpertInnen-Gruppe „Spra- Ziel der Konferenz war es, die Rolle von Mehrsprachigkeit im Alltag in all ihren chen“ bei der Österreichischen UNESCO-Kommission für die wissenschaftliche Facetten und Dimensionen aufzuzeigen und die damit verbundenen vielfältigen Beratung; ebenso danken wir dem Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und For- Chancen und Herausforderungen auszuloten. Rund 120 ExpertInnen verschie- schung für die finanzielle Unterstützung sowie den Fachhochschulstudiengängen denster Fachrichtungen aus fünfzehn Ländern diskutierten den engen Zusammen- Burgenland GesmbH, deren Räumlichkeiten einen idealen Rahmen für die Konfe- hang zwischen Mehrsprachigkeit und kultureller Vielfalt, die zentrale Bedeutung renz darstellten. von Mehrsprachigkeit für die Wirtschaft, für soziale Integration, Bildung und Medi- Wir hoffen, dass diese ausführliche Dokumentation der Konferenz viele inte- en, Minderheiten und Migration. ressierte LeserInnen findet, die das Konzept der ‚lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachig- Sprache ist eine fundamentale Dimension des menschlichen Individuums, ein keit’ in ihre jeweiligen Betätigungsfelder hineintragen. zentrales Mittel für Kommunikation, Information und Interaktion und ein strate- gischer Faktor für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung unserer Gesellschaften. Der Be- griff „lebensweltlich“ im Titel der Konferenz will dies zum Ausdruck bringen. Le- bensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit ist eine Realität, der Rechnung getragen werden muss, will man den aktuellen Veränderungen in Europa und in der gesamten Welt begegnen. Die UNESCO ruft alle Staaten auf, sicherzustellen, dass dieser Bedeutung sprachlicher Vielfalt entsprochen wird. Alle Staaten sind aufgefordert, eine Sprach- Dr. Anton Dobart Mag. Maria Walcher politik zu betreiben und zu entwickeln, die es jeder sprachlichen Gemeinschaft Sektionschef BMUKK Generalsekretärin ÖUK ermöglicht, die Erst- oder Muttersprache(n) so häufig wie möglich anzuwenden. Gleichzeitig sollen alle Menschen befähigt werden, eine nationale sowie eine internationale Sprache zu beherrschen.

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To honor its coordinating commitment, UNESCO immediately launched an foreword information and sensitization campaign among its main partners, and inviting governments, United Nations organizations, civil society organizations, educational institutions, professional associations and all other stakeholders to en- Allow me, first of all, to say how much I feel honoured to be with you, today, and courage their own activities to foster promotion and protection of all languages, by representing the Director-General Mr. Koichiro Matsuura, to participate in the particularly endangered languages, in all individual and collective contexts. opening of one of the most important events carried our in the field of scientific The conference we are launching today presents an important piece of the debate during the International Year of Languages. I would like to congratulate the mosaic composed of some 200 initiatives developed worldwide until now to Austrian government for taking this excellent initiative that is being implemented react positively to this appeal. in a very smooth and collaborative way. UNESCO is happy to be a partner of this One of the tools we created to animate and substantiate our campaign was international conference on Everyday Multilingualism, Lebensweltliche Mehrspra- the slogan of the year. This slogan says: “Languages matter!” Why this slogan? chigkeit, and to participate directly throughout its realization. Why we did not prefer to say, for instance, “Languages are identity”, or “Langu- An essential dimension of human existence featuring human emotions, ages are dialogue”, or “Languages are culture”, or “Languages are education”? views and values, language has always been at the heart of UNESCO’s mission The answer is somehow embodied in the title that you chose for our today’s and main interests. Some of you certainly remember that language is mentioned conference: because languages are a dimension of our daily life, and are, as in the very first article of the UNESCO Constitution and in its first paragraph, such, simultaneously, identity, difference, dialogue, culture, education, commu- that says that the Organization’s purpose is ”to contribute to peace and security nication, amusement and more, quite more than all this. by promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science and UNESCO is indeed convinced of the crucial importance of languages when culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of laws and seen against the many challenges that humanity will have to face over the next for the human rights and fundamental freedoms (…) without distinction of race, few decades. sex, language or religion”. And paragraph 2 of the same article considers langu- Languages are indeed essential to the identity of groups and individuals age (literally refereed to as the “word”) as the natural dimension of knowledge and to their peaceful coexistence. They constitute a strategic factor of progress and understanding, and says that UNESCO will “to that end recommend such towards sustainable development and a harmonious relationship between the international agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of ideas global and the local context. by word and image”. They are of utmost importance in achieving the six goals of Education for These articles have been reflected in the Organization’s various programmes all (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on which the United throughout its existence, both at operational and standard-setting level. For in- Nations agreed in 2000. stance, normative tools also addressing language issues include the Conven- They are factors of social integration, so playing a role in the eradication tion against Discrimination in Education of 1960, the Convention for the Sa- of extreme poverty and hunger (MDG 1); they convey literacy, learning and life feguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of 2003 and the Convention on skills, and are essential to achieving universal primary education (MDG 2) as the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions of 2005 well as education on HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6). In addi- whereas UNESCO adopted the term “multilingual education” in 1999 in a Gene- tion, languages embody local and indigenous knowledge and know-how with a ral Conference resolution, referring to the use of at least three languages – the view to ensuring, in accordance with MDG 7, environmental sustainability. And mother tongue, a regional or national language, and an international language, of course, what I should have mentioned at the very beginning, linguistic diver- in education. sity is intrinsic to cultural diversity. In this context, when the year 2008 was proclaimed International Year of The challenge we have in front of us is not easy, if we consider that within Languages by the United Nations General Assembly, in May 2007, it was not a the space of a few generations, more than 50% of the 7.000 languages spoken surprise, though it was indeed an honour for us that UNESCO was entrusted with in the world may disappear. So we must act now as a matter of urgency, and to the task of coordinating activities for the Year. promote measures at all levels in favor of multilingualism, that is of balanced,

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harmonious, pacific and fruitful co-existence of different languages in all social and individual situations of daily, of human life. vorwort It was certainly with these elements in mind that the UNESCO National Com- missions of Europe and North America at the DG consultation meeting that ended just few days ago (4 June) in The Hague and Antwerp highlighted the impor- Gestatten Sie mir zunächst darzulegen, wie sehr ich mich geehrt fühle, heu- tance of promotion of linguistic diversity and ensuring that there is a coherent te bei Ihnen zu sein und in Vertretung von Generaldirektor Koichiro Matsuura policy for languages in place. This would imply both preservation and promotion an der Eröffnung einer Veranstaltung teilzunehmen, die zu den wichtigsten of languages with emphasis on languages less spoken, endangered languages im Bereich der wissenschaftlichen Debatte im Rahmen des Internationalen and the languages of indigenous populations. Jahrs der Sprachen zählt. Ich darf der österreichischen Regierung dazu gra- Thanks to the political awareness, pro-active attitude and good will of the tulieren, dass sie diese ausgezeichnete Initiative ergriffen hat und sie auf international community and in particular of the UNESCO family, the Internati- so ruhige und kooperative Weise umsetzt. Die UNESCO freut sich, als Part- onal Year of Languages 2008 is providing indeed a unique opportunity to make ner an dieser internationalen Konferenz über „Lebensweltliche Mehrspra- decisive progress towards achieving these goals. chigkeit“ während der Gesamtheit der Durchführung direkt beteiligt zu sein. As said the Director-General in his message for the launching of 2008 as the Als wesentliche Dimension der menschlichen Existenz und als Mittel der Dar- International Year of Languages, our common goal is to ensure “that the impor- stellung der menschlichen Emotionen, Ansichten und Werte stand die Sprache tance of linguistic diversity and multilingualism in educational, administrative schon immer im Zentrum der Mission und der Hauptinteressen der UNESCO. and legal systems, cultural expressions and the media, cyberspace and trade, is Einige von Ihnen werden sich sicherlich noch erinnern, dass die Sprache im aller- recognized at the national, regional and international levels”. ersten Artikel der UNESCO-Verfassung erwähnt wird, im ersten Absatz, in dem als In this sense, the Austrian government deserves a particular acknowledg- Ziel der UNESCO festgelegt ist, „durch Förderung der Zusammenarbeit zwischen ment, for its efforts and reactivity to our call for action. den Völkern in Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kultur zur Wahrung des Friedens und In conclusion, I would like to express my wish to the organizers and to all the der Sicherheit beizutragen, um in der ganzen Welt die Achtung vor Recht und Ge- participants in this congress a great success. By working hard, harmoniously rechtigkeit, vor den Menschenrechten und Grundfreiheiten zu stärken, (...) ohne and productively, I am sure we will demonstrate, once again, that languages do Unterschied der Rasse, des Geschlechts, der Sprache oder Religion“. matter! Der zweite Absatz des gleichen Artikels betrachtet die Sprache (wörtlich als „Wort“ bezeichnet) als die natürliche Dimension des Wissens und Verständnisses und führt aus, dass die UNESCO zu diesem Zwecke „internationale Vereinba- rungen empfehlen (wird), die den freien Austausch von Ideen durch Wort und Bild erleichtern“. Diese Artikel haben in den diversen Programmen der Organisation während des gesamten Bestehens der UNESCO ihren Niederschlag gefunden, sowohl auf operativer als auch auf normativer Ebene. So gehören zu den normativen Instru- Damir Dijakovic menten, die sich u.a. mit sprachlichen Fragen befassen, auch das Übereinkom- UNESCO BRESCE, Vienna men gegen Diskriminierung im Unterrichtswesen (1960), das Übereinkommen zur Bewahrung des immateriellen Kulturerbes (2003) und das Übereinkommen zum Schutz und zur Förderung der Vielfalt kultureller Ausdrucksformen (2005), wobei die UNESCO 1999 in einer Resolution der Generalversammlung den Begriff „mehrsprachiges Bildungswesen“ übernahm und sich dabei auf die Verwendung von mindestens drei Sprachen im Unterricht bezog: Muttersprache, eine regionale oder nationale Sprache sowie eine internationale Sprache.

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Eine Bemerkung in diesem Zusammenhang: Als im Mai 2007 das Jahr 2008 Die Herausforderung, vor der wir stehen, ist nicht einfach, wenn wir beden- von der Generalversammlung der Vereinten Nationen zum Internationalen Jahr ken, dass möglicherweise innerhalb von wenigen Generationen mehr als fünfzig der Sprachen ausgerufen wurde, war es keine Überraschung, wohl aber eine Ehre Prozent der weltweit 7000 gesprochenen Sprachen verschwinden werden. Wir für uns, dass die UNESCO mit der Aufgabe der Koordinierung der Aktivitäten für müssen also dringend handeln und Maßnahmen zugunsten der Mehrsprachigkeit dieses Jahr betraut wurde. Um ihren Koordinationsaufgaben nachzukommen, er- auf allen Ebenen setzen – für ein ausgewogenes, harmonisches, friedliches und öffnete die UNESCO unverzüglich eine Informations- und Bewusstseinskampagne fruchtbares Miteinander der verschiedenen Sprachen in allen sozialen und indivi- unter ihren hauptsächlichen Partnern und lud die Regierungen, die Organisationen duellen Situationen des menschlichen Alltagslebens. der Vereinten Nationen, Organisationen der Zivilgesellschaft, Bildungsstellen, Be- Wohl auch im Hinblick auf diese Elemente betonten die UNESCO-National- rufsvereinigungen und alle weiteren Stakeholder ein, eigene Aktivitäten zu ermu- kommissionen von Europa und Nordamerika bei der Konferenz zur Beratung des tigen, um die Förderung und den Schutz aller Sprachen und insbesondere der UNESCO-Generaldirektors vom 4. Juni in Den Haag und Antwerpen die Bedeutung gefährdeten Sprachen im privaten wie im öffentlichen Kontext zu stärken. der Förderung der sprachlichen Vielfalt, um sicherzustellen, dass eine kohärente Die Konferenz, welche wir heute eröffnen, stellt ein wichtiges Steinchen in Sprachenpolitik verfolgt wird. Dazu gehört die Erhaltung und Förderung von Spra- dem Mosaik dar, das sich aus zweihundert Initiativen zusammensetzt, die weltweit chen, wobei die Betonung auf seltener gesprochenen Sprachen, gefährdeten Spra- bisher als positive Reaktion auf diesen Aufruf entstanden sind. Eines der Instru- chen und indigenen Sprachen liegt. mente, das wir zu Belebung und Vertiefung unserer Kampagne geschaffen haben, Dank eines politischen Bewusstseins, einer proaktiven Einstellung und dem war der Slogan des Jahres: „Languages matter!“ Warum haben wir diesen Slogan guten Willen der internationalen Gemeinschaft und der UNESCO-Familie bietet gewählt? Warum nicht beispielsweise „Sprachen sind Identität“ oder „Sprachen das Internationale Jahr der Sprachen 2008 eine einzigartige Gelegenheit, einen sind Dialog“ oder „Sprachen sind Kultur“ oder „Sprachen sind Bildung“? entscheidenden Fortschritt zur Erlangung dieser Ziele zu machen. Die Antwort steckt im Titel, den Sie der heutigen Konferenz gegeben haben: Wie der Generaldirektor in seiner Botschaft anläßlich der Eröffnung des In- Sprachen sind eine Dimension unseres täglichen Lebens und als solche gleichzei- ternationalen Jahres der Sprachen 2008 ausführte, liegt unser gemeinsames tig Identität, Unterschied, Dialog, Kultur, Bildung, Kommunikation, Unterhaltung Ziel darin, zu gewährleisten, „dass die Bedeutung der sprachlichen Vielfalt und und noch sehr viel mehr als all das zusammen. Angesicht der zahlreichen Heraus- Mehrsprachigkeit in Bildungs-, Verwaltungs- und Rechtssystemen, kulturellen Aus- forderungen, denen die Menschheit im Laufe der nächsten Jahrzehnte gegenüber- drucksformen sowie in den Medien, im Cyberspace und im Handel auf nationaler, steht, ist die UNESCO von der entscheidenden Bedeutung der Sprache überzeugt. regionaler und internationaler Ebene anerkannt wird“. In diesem Sinne verdient Sprachen sind für die Identität von Gruppen und Individuen und für ihr friedliches die österreichische Regierung besondere Anerkennung für ihre Bemühungen und Zusammenleben von wesentlicher Bedeutung. Sie stellen einen strategischen Fak- ihre Empfänglichkeit für unseren Aufruf zum Handeln. tor des Fortschrittes in Richtung einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung und einer harmo- Abschließend möchte ich den Veranstaltern und allen TeilnehmerInnen viel Er- nischen Beziehung zwischen globalem und lokalem Kontext dar. folg wünschen. Durch unsere harte, harmonische und produktive Arbeit werden Sprachen sind von großer Bedeutung, um die sechs Ziele der Initiative „Bildung wir sicherlich einmal mehr beweisen: Languages matter! für alle“ und die Millenniums-Entwicklungsziele, auf die sich die Vereinten Natio- nen im Jahr 2000 einigten, zu erreichen. Sie sind Faktoren der sozialen Integration und spielen damit eine bedeutende Rolle in der Bekämpfung der extremen Armut und des Hungers (Ziel 1); sie vermitteln Alphabetisierung, Lern- und Lebensfertig- keiten und sind essenziell für die Erreichung der universalen Primarschulbildung (Ziel 2) wie auch für die Wissensvermittlung über HIV/AIDS, Malaria und andere schwere Krankheiten (Ziel 6). Hinzu kommt, dass Sprachen lokales und indigenes Wissen und Know-how in Hinblick auf die Sicherstellung der ökologischen Nach- haltigkeit entsprechend Ziel 7 verkörpern. Und natürlich ist sprachliche Vielfalt ein Damir Dijakovic untrennbarer Bestandteil der kulturellen Vielfalt. UNESCO BRESCE, Wien

18 19 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit fotos | Fotos

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Words of welcome in the languages of the Burgenland

We are here in the Burgenland, which is the most eastern state of the Austrian republic. Contingent on the specifically geographic location the Burgenland is an animate multilingualism European border-region in which German, Hungari- an, Croatian and Romanes is spoken. Referred to this case the Burgenland is a representative model for Europe. So, which location could be a better one for this kind of meeting than the Burgenland? Therefore the welcome words of our meeting should not be missed in those three minority languages.

BegrüSSung in den Sprachen des Burgenlandes

Wir sind hier im Burgenland, dem östlichsten Bundesland Österreichs. Das Bur- genland ist durch seine geografische Lage eine vitale, mehrsprachige europäische Grenzregion. Hier wird Deutsch, Ungarisch, Kroatisch und Romani gesprochen, und diese Tatsache macht das Burgenland in puncto Mehrsprachigkeit zu einem Vorzeigemodell für Europa. Welcher Ort wäre daher besser geeignet für diese Ta- gung als das Burgenland? Daher sollen die Begrüßungsworte der Tagung in den drei Minderheitensprachen des Tagungsortes auch hier nicht fehlen.

22 23 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit reception | Begrüssung

Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren, Poštovane dame i gospodo, dobro jutro, guten Morgen, herzlich willkommen! dobrodošli ovde u Željeznu!

Im Namen des Bundesministeriums für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur und der Uime saveznoga ministarstva za podučavanje, umjetnost i kulturu i Austrijanske Österreichischen UNESCO Kommission darf ich Sie alle sehr herzlich begrüßen. komisije UNESCO-a Vas sve najsrdačnije pozdravljam. Odgovarajući temi dopu- Dem Thema entsprechend sind hochrangige VertreterInnen aus vielen Ländern tovali su visoke zastupnice i zastupniki iz mnogih zemalj svita. Prosim za razumi- der Welt angereist. Ich bitte um Verständnis, dass ich nicht jede und jeden von vanje, da ne morem svaku i svakoga od Vas pojedinačno pozdraviti. I naravno nas Ihnen einzeln nennen kann, aber es freut uns ganz besonders, dass alle von osebujno veseli, da Vi svi držite temu tako jako važnom, da ste u ovako velikom Ihnen das Thema für so wichtig halten, um so zahlreich nach Eisenstadt anzu- broju došli u Željezno. reisen. 2008 ist das „Internationale Jahr der Sprachen“ – Grund genug, diese 2008. ljeto je „Medjunarodno ljeto jezikov“. Dobar je to uzrok da priredjujemo Konferenz auszurichten und sich in den kommenden drei Tagen mit den Heraus- ovu konferenciju i da se u dojdući tri dani bavimo izazovi većjezićnosti. Ne samo forderungen der Mehrsprachigkeit zu beschäftigen. u Europi, nego širom svita je većjezičnost unutar razičnih družtav i držav životna Nicht nur in Europa, sondern weltweit ist Mehrsprachigkeit innerhalb der stvarnost, kom se moramo konfrontirati i se sve već kanimo konfrontirati. verschiedenen Gesellschaften und Staaten eine Lebenswirklichkeit, der man Pojam „životnosvitski“, koga hasnujemo za ovu konferenciju, naliže osebujno sich stellen muss und zunehmend auch stellen möchte. Der von uns für diese većjezičnost u migracijski društvi i društvi s jezičnimi manjinami. Konferenz verwendete Begriff „lebensweltlich“ betrifft insbesondere die Mehr- Cilj ovoga sastanka, koga organiziraju Savezno ministarstvo za podučavanje, sprachigkeit in Migrationsgesellschaften und Gesellschaften mit sprachlichen umjetnost i kulturu i Austrijanska komisija UNESCO-a je, da spojimo stručnjakinje Minderheiten. Ziel dieser Tagung ist es, Expertinnen und Experten wie Sie aus i stručnjake iz znanosti i iz prakse, i to iz različnih krajev Europe i izvan Europe kot Wissenschaft und Praxis aus den verschiedenen Teilen Europas und außereu- ste Vi- i tim potaknemo i omogućimo razmjenu na područji istraživanja, iskustva i ropäischen Ländern zusammenzuführen und dadurch einen Austausch in For- ostvarenja . Željimo Vam i nam, da budemo uspješni u našoj namjeri i da u dojdući schung, Erfahrung und Umsetzung anzuregen und zu ermöglichen. Ich wünsche tri dani dostanete poticaje i inspiracije, ke morete zeti sobom u Vašu domovinu. Ihnen und uns, dass dieses Anliegen gelingen wird und Sie in den nächsten drei Nahadjamo se ovde u najistočnijoj saveznoj zemlji republike Austrije, u Tagen Anregungen und Inspirationen erhalten werden, die Sie mit nach Hause Gradišću. Gradišće je po svojem geografskom položaju vitalna, većjezična, eu- nehmen können. ropska granična regija. Ovde se govori nimški, ugarski, hrvatski i roman. Tim je Wir sind hier im Burgenland, dem östlichsten Bundesland der Republik Ös- Gradišće s pogledom na većjezičnost uzor i model za Europu. Ko mjesto bi bilo terreich, das durch seine geografische Lage eine vitale, mehrsprachige euro- povoljnije za ovakovo spravišće nego Gradišće? päische Grenzregion darstellt. Hier wird Deutsch, Kroatisch, Romani und Un- Osebujna hvala gradišćanskoj zemaljskoj vladi i direktorici Stručne visoke garisch gesprochen, wodurch das Burgenland in puncto Mehrsprachigkeit zu škole Željezno, gospodji magistri Schwab-Matković za veliko financijelno i infra- einem Vorzeigemodell für Europa geworden ist. Welcher Ort wäre daher für eine strukturno podupiranje. Tagung wie diese besser geeignet als das Burgenland? Preostaje mi samo još, da Vam željim uzbudljive i inspirativne tri dane i lip Besonderer Dank gilt der burgenländischen Landesregierung und der Direk- boravak ovde u Željeznu. torin der Fachhochschule Eisenstadt, Ingrid Schwab-Matkovits, für die großar- tige finanzielle und infarstrukturelle Unterstützung. Viktorija Palatin, urednica Hrvatske redakcije Zemaljskoga Nun bleibt mir nur noch, Ihnen spannende und inspirierende Tage und einen študija ORF-a Gradišće schönen Aufenthalt hier in Eisenstadt zu wünschen.

Renata Schmidtkunz, Moderatorin

24 25 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit reception | Begrüssung

Kedveschene ranja taj raji, latscho Tisztelt Hölgyeim és Uraim, ratschaha, schukar kaj adaj san andi Jó reggelt és üdvözlöm Önöket Tikni Martona! Eisenstadtban!

Ando anav le ministerijumistar le sikadipeske, kunstake taj kuluturake taj la Aus- Az Oktatási, Művészeti és Kulturális Minisztérium, valamint az Osztrák UNESCO tritika UNESCO komisijonatar kama tumen adaj schukar te akarel. Vaschoda tema Bizottság nevében engedjék meg, hogy köszöntsem Önöket. Az érdekes témának but fatreterkiji taj fatrtetertscha andar but vilagi use amende ale. Me molinav tu- köszönhetően a világ minden pontjáról érkeztek ma magasrangú szakértők a men vasch hajojipe, kaj tumen na sakone jeke adaj naschtig akarav. Taj igen amen rendezvényre. Remélem megbocsájtják nekem, ha most nem tudok mindenkit loschanel, kaj tumen sa ada tema asaj barikane likeren taj kaj asaj but nipo andi egyenként bemutatni. Rendkívül megtisztel bennünket, hogy Önök is ennyire fon- Tikni Martona ale. tosnak tarják azt amiről szó esik a következő napokban, és hogy ilyen szépszám- 2008 hi o „Internacijonali bersch le tschibtschendar“. Koja vaschoda hi, aja ban eljöttek Eisenstadtba. konferenca ando aveskere trin divesa le ari mangipestar le but tschibtschenca ar 2008 „a nyelvek nemzetközi éve“. Ez elegendő ok, hogy megrendezzük ezt a pe te bescharel. Na tschak andi Europa, ham upro cilo them hi o but tschibtschen- konferenciát és, hogy az elkövetkezendő három napban a többnyelvűség kihívá- gero andrutnon le mindenfelitike khetanipendar taj schtotendar jek dschivipeskero sairól tanácskozzunk. A többnyelvűség nem csak Európában, hanem világszerte tschatschipe, saveska pe iste tertschado ol taj use lim pe te tertscharel kamla. a különböző társadalmakban és országokban egy tény, amit el kell fogadni és Amendar o limo alav adala konferencake “dschivipeskero themeskero” resel amit egyre többen el is fogadnak. le but tschibtschengeren ando migracijonakere khetaniptscha taj khetaniptscha Az általunk a konferenciához választott „életvilág“ „lebensweltlich“ fogalom ande vakeripeskere tschuliptscha. elsősorban a migrációs társadalmakat és a nyelvi népcsoportokkal rendelkező O cil adala konferencatar, kerdo le ministerijumistar le sikadipeske, kunstake társadalmakat érinti. taj kuluturake taj la Austritika UNESCO komisijonatar hi, ekspertkiji taj ekspert- Az Oktatási, Művészeti és Kulturális Minisztérium, valamint az Osztrák UN- scha sar le andar i visenschoft taj praksis andar o mindenfelitike falati europatar ESCO Bizottság által rendezett konferencia célja, hogy lehetőséget nyújtson az taj avral le europajengere vilagendar khetan te vodinel taj afka jek ar parujipe andi Európából és más kontinensekről érkezett gyakorlati- és tudományos szakem- forschung, terdschivipe taj prik bescharipe jek aun definipe te del. bereknek a kutatási eredmények, a tapasztalatok és a megvalósítás módjainak Me kivaninav tumenge taj amenge, kaj ada aun paschlaripe resto te ol taj tu- megvitatására. Kívánom mindannyiunknak, hogy tervünk sikerrel járjon, és a men ando arti trin divesa aun definipe taj inspiracijon te uschtiden, savi tumen következő három napban olyan észrévetelekhez és benyomásokhoz jussanak, schaj kher tumenca len. melyeket ezután útravalóul adhatunk Önöknek. Amen sam ando ostitiko bundakero than la republika Austrijatar, ando Burgen- Ausztria legkeletibb tartományában, Burgenlandban vagyunk. Burgenland fö- land. O Burgenland duach pro geografischi than jek barikani, but tschibtschengeri ldrajzi fekvésének köszönhetően egy élettel teli, többnyelvű európai határrégió. Né- europitiki granicakeri regijona hi. Adaj nimtschko, ungriko, horvacko taj roman va- metül, magyarul és horvátul beszélnek itt, és emiatt Burgenland, a többnyelvűség kerdo ol taj aja koja kerel o Burgenland ando punkto but tschibtschengero use jek szempontjából mintaértékű modellként szolgál Európában. Tehát, lehetne-e angle sikajipeskero model la Europake. Saj than lek feder ovlahi adala konferencake megfelelőbb helyszín egy ilyen eszmecsere megrendezéséhez, mint Burgenland? sar o Burgenland. Te palikerel kamaha la burgenlanditika thaneskera regirungake Külön köszönet illeti a burgenlandi tartományi kormányt, valamint az Eisen- taj la direktorkijake andar i fochiskeri utschi ischkola Tikni Martona, la magistrake stadti Főiskola igazgatónőjét, Mag.a Schwab-Matkovits asszonyt a nagyvonalú Schwab-Matkovits vascho barikano lojengero taj infrastruktujeli pomoschago. anyagi és infrastrukturális támogatásért. Akan kama tumenge meg, interesanti taj inspirirendi trin divesa taj jek schukar Számomra, nem maradt más hátra, minthogy három érdekfeszítő és inspiráló atschipe adaj andi tikni Martona te kivaninel. napot , továbbá kellemes ittartózkodást kívánjak Önöknek Eisenstadtban.

Emmerich Gärtner-Horvath, Verein Roma Service Burgenland Sommer-Palágyi Zsófia, ORF Burgenland magyar népcsoportszerkesztőségének munkatársa

26 27 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Keynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

Keynote Speech king which South Africa’s people inherited from the colonial and apartheid era. The relevance of these events in the present context concerns the ways in which shibboleths have been, and are being, used in order to “identify”, i.e., trap, Street and standard: Managing language so-called foreigners and “aliens”. This phenomenon is well known across the in contemporary Africa world and in other historical times in similar circumstances, but when one prepares an address that, among other things, sets out to analyse the relationship Neville Alexander, University of Cape Town, South Africa between the everyday language behaviour of people and the use of the standard languages that serve as the official languages of the state, it is a salutary corrective to realize that our theories and assumptions about such matters are at best very fuzzy, at worst totally off target. So, for example, when criminally- ABSTRACT minded “citizens” of South Africa demand of someone they suspect of being a One of the pillars on which the modern development of Africa has to be based “foreigner” to give them the Zulu word for a human elbow or a pinky, i.e., little is the optimal language policy. Given the linguistic diversity of the continent and finger, or for “toes”, and the latter can only tell them the street version, i.e., the the conventional attitudes of most African elites, how can language be managed words in common use rather than the more archaic “standard” versions that still so that the hundreds of millions of marginalised and disempowered urban and appear in the dictionaries, and they are ipso facto condemned to the category rural poor can come out of the shadows. This question is the key issue explo- of amakwerekwere, i.e., “alien”, with all the dire consequences of such classifi- red in this essay. Recent polemics concerning the invention of languages are cation at this time1. engaged with in order to demonstrate how both the communicative activities of the street and the needs of the chancellories have to be taken into account The languages of Africa: a numerological perspective. According if we are to arrive at national and regional language policies that make possible to the latest information on the Ethnologue website, there are some 2092 “lan- the empowerment of poor and marginalised people. In developing this position, guages” in Africa, accounting for some 30,3% of all the languages of the world. If the paper demonstrates the relevance of language planning and the immense we take this figure – for what it is worth, since it does not include “dialects” and challenges that face the African Academy of Languages (ACALAN) as it sets out other varieties – as an indication of what people actually use in their day-to-day- on its task of helping post-colonial African states to manage language in Africa activities, it is significant to note what the position is with respect to “official” in the 21st century. languages on the continent.

The following is a list of the official languages in the Introductory remarks. I complete the writing of this address at a mo- 53 independent states: ment when democratic post-apartheid South Africa is in the grip of an almost English 23 Chichewa 1 Seychellois 1 inconceivable bout of social madness, characterized by the spectacle of peo- French 21 Comorian 1 Spanish 1 ple of other African origin being expelled from their meagre shelters, houses Arabic 11 IsiNdebele 1 Tigrinya 1 and other properties, robbed of their goods and documents and, in the extreme Portuguese 6 IsiXhosa 1 Tshivenda 1 case, burnt alive in the full glare of reckless media reporting. Ethnic cleansing, Kiswahili 3 Italian 1 Xitsonga 1 xenophobia, indeed negrophobia, racial pogrom, “IMF riot”, call it what you will, IsiZulu 2 Kinyarwanda 1 the fact remains that all the noble aspirations of the so-called rainbow nation Sesotho 2 Kirundi 1 and the Simon pure principles of the 1996 constitution have been turned into a Siswati 2 Malagasy 1 mockery. Some of us are not surprised, it must be said, since we have been war- Somali 1 Sango 1 ning for years against the genocidal dangers inherent in social policies which in Afrikaans 1 Sepedi 1 effect, if not in intention, are perpetuating the racial identities and the race thin- Amharic 1 Setswana 1

28 29 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Keynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

In addition to these official (and co-official) languages, the constitutions of some Asian land mass, the second most linguistically diverse of the continents. To states name certain, usually numerically significant or dominant, languages as begin with, we need to state clearly that there is no problem in speaking about “national”, i.e., iconic or symbolically significant, languages. If we assume that “a language”, in spite of the propositions advanced by Makoni and Pennycook the availability of a written variety is some indicator of a measure of standardiza- (2007) and earlier by Makoni (2003). Actually, there is a definite slippage in the tion, it is clear that there is an increasing number of “standard” languages on the terminological consistency of this group of scholars, a sure indication that their continent, not least because of the missionary activity of the Summer Institute positions have not yet found a stable equilibrium. In 2003, for example, Makoni of Linguistics (SIL). As against this numerical postulate, we might cite that of (2003:148) opined that “the major objective of disinvention is to undo history, Professor Kwesi Prah, the well-known sociologist, who avers that contrary to or at the very least, to contain it by disinventing languages so that when they appearances, there are some 15 “core languages” on the continent. Like many are reconstructed they correspond more closely to actual linguistic boundaries. of us, he states clearly that the proliferation of “languages” in Africa is the result Ultimately, the disinvention project seeks not to do away with the concept of of colonialist political and cultural activities (Prah 1995:83) and adds tongue- separate languages, but to recognize that languages are socially constructed in-cheek the view of a Dutch anthropologist, Simon Simonse, that “if the same and so can be socially deconstructed and reconstituted”. criteria for classifying languages as was (sic) used in Africa was (sic) applied to Given the prevalent theories in the social sciences, this is an unremarkable the Netherlands, there may be as many as 20” (Prah 1995:83). project. However, compare this statement with Makoni’s (later) position as arti- “What the Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society’s (CASAS) work culated in Makoni and Pennycook (2007:20) where the authors with reference to has so far revealed is that as first, second or third language speakers (we need the linguistic anthropological postulates of P.V. Kroskrity and J. Irvine, summari- to remember that most Africans are multilingual), over 75% of Africans speak se the position approvingly: “Put together, the internal and external challenges no more than twelve core languages these being, Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, Swahili, to notions of language embedded in the language sciences suggest on the one Amharic, Fulful, Bambara, Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Luo, Eastern Inter-lacustrine and hand that there are no grounds to postulate the existence of languages as sepa- Western Inter-lacustrine (Kitara). Fifteen core languages will take us up to about rate entities and on the other that in order to understand language use, we need 85% of the African population of the continent; the three additions being the to incorporate local knowledge.” Somali/Oromo/Rendille/Borana cluster, the Akan cluster and the Gur group. Their quarrel is in fact with the discipline of (Saussurean, structuralist) lingu- For a population of 600 to 700 million people, these languages cannot be descri- istics as we have come to know it rather than with the insights of modern social bed as small speech communities. There are some of us who have come to the science that takes as its point of departure the constructedness of all social conclusion that this idea of an “African Tower of Babel“ has, intentionally or unin- phenomena. They want language scholars to approach language use in terms of tentionally, become a useful tool in the hands of those who want to see Africans semiotic theory rather than in terms of the abstractions and schemata of linguis- work permanently in the languages introduced by the colonials.” (Prah 2002) tics. This is, in my view, all well and good up to a certain point. However, because More recently, Makoni and Pennycook (2007) have suggested that there is they do not concede the essential duality of all such phenomena, i.e., the fact no such thing as “languages” in Africa, or anywhere else for that matter. In ef- that under certain circumstances (which have to be studied in detail) they are fect, they claim that there is only one “language”, a semiotic system of networks perceived and lived as “things” (nouns), under others as “activities” (verbs), they of communication that is arbitrarily fractured in accordance with outdated 19th restrict the strategic flexibility that is required in order to bring about the kind century European views about the nation state and about monolingualism. of changes that will make it possible for most, if not all, people in most, if not In my view, none of these three approaches can lead us to a feasible langu- all, societies, to empower themselves by means of the linguistic repertoires they age policy for the continent. All of them albeit unintentionally suffer from what command. My view is analogous to the wave-particle duality of matter postula- has been called “the census strategies of colonialism” (Makoni and Pennycook ted by Werner Heisenberg, which had such fundamental consequences in the 2007:16). In this paper, I do not intend to engage with any of these three ap- discipline of theoretical physics. proaches in detail. However, it is necessary to ensure that their respective ar- The position I take is that for certain functions, we have to treat language as guments be borne in mind as we consider the rationale and the most appropri- a process, for others as a (temporarily) stable category. If we do not take this ate modalities of language planning and policy formulation in what is, after the approach, we end up inexorably reinforcing the dominance and the hegemony

30 31 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Keynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

of the established international and national standard varieties of language. Af- individual, classroom, community, or society) in relation to the contexts, media, ter all, the language used by authors such as Makoni and Pennycook in order and content in and through which it develops (i.e. language environment); and it to inveigh against the notion of “separate languages” is a version of some no- provides a heuristic for addressing the unequal balance of power across langu- tional international standard written English. They would not, I assume, have ages and literacies (i.e. for both studying and counteracting language endanger- used some local variety or speech form such as “cockney” or “Yorkshire” English ment).” (Hornberger 2003:xv-xvi. Emphasis in original) unless they wanted to address individuals who have a command of only those By way of a concrete example of the kind and the extent of contestation and particular varieties. compromise involved, I refer to the manner in which a group of language plan- What is essential, in my view, is to be non-prescriptive even when a stan- ners and policy advisors managed in 2000-2002 to persuade the South African dard form of the particular language is deemed essential. If, for example, a draft government to exploit the mutual intelligibility of the Nguni cluster2 of languages law (in South African usage, a “Bill”) has to be written, depending on the target and the Sotho cluster respectively for purposes of written communication with audience such as lawyers, doctors, shopkeepers, taxi drivers, etc., the drafters the citizenry. By getting Parliament to adopt a principle of rotation of varieties ought to be able and willing to “let in” terms or phrases that might not be “stan- that are mutually intelligible to a high degree, we not only saved much money dard” but are an accepted and understood element of the respective register. but also insinuated the view that there is an overarching “language”, i.e., *Nguni Or, to put it differently: the continuum between street and standard versions and *Sotho respectively and, in so doing, enhanced the process of social inte- has to be used creatively in order to enhance the utility of the particular com- gration. We managed to do this, however, at the cost of conceding to the other munication for all concerned. No standard is, or ought to be, rigidly stable. The four official languages of the country (Afrikaans, English, Tshivenda and XiTson- range of flexibility is precisely what ought to be contested in the ideological ga), an independent, stand-alone status on the grounds, allegedly, that they are struggles around the language issue. These are unavoidable political, indeed not mutually comprehensible. In fact, though, at the time, most, if not all, the usually class, struggles. While the standardising requirements of the chancel- speakers of these languages had adequate competence in two official languages lories in government, academia, big business and some branches of the media of the country and would not have been excluded had the suggested rotational have to be taken into account, this should not have the effect of excluding any couplings (Afrikaans-English and Tsonga-Venda respectively) been adopted by of the citizens from access to vital information or from participation in demo- the Ministry of Arts and Culture. A related example is that of the South African cratic decision-making processes, if they wish to do so. One of the most useful Broadcasting Corporation’s de facto Nguni and Sotho TV channels, where the approaches that captures this dynamic is that of the continua of biliteracy as news and other programmes are presented in the different “languages” at dif- described by Nancy Hornberger (2003:xiv): “… (The) continua model depicts the ferent times because it is correctly assumed that people who know any of the development of biliteracy along intersecting first language – second language, relevant varieties will be able to follow any of the programmes should they miss receptive – productive, and oral – written language skills continua; through the “their” particular news slot for any reason. As against this practice, the news is medium of two or more languages and literacies whose linguistic structures vary always presented in English on the SABC’s English channel. from similar to dissimilar, whose scripts range from convergent to divergent, and In order to get a better idea of the relationship between the speech forms to which the developing biliterate individual’s exposure varies from simultaneous in actual daily use by the peoples of Africa and the relatively small number of to successive; in contexts that encompass micro to macro levels and are cha- printed varieties, we would have to undertake a detailed and careful study of racterised by varying mixes along the monolingual – bilingual and oral – literate publishing and print media on the continent. I have not been able to do this, continua; and with content that ranges from majority to minority perspectives but we can get some idea of the range of variation by comparing the practices and experiences, literary to vernacular styles and genres, and decontextualized in a country such as South Africa where very little is published in local African to contextualized language texts”. languages besides textbooks, with those in countries such as Tanzania, Ethio- She clinches her argument for the usefulness of the model with the following pia, Nigeria and others where there is active promotion of print media and/or insight: “The very notion of bi- (or multi-)literacy assumes that one language and publications in African languages. South Africa, on the other hand, is the leading literacy is developing in relation to one or more other languages and literacies country in Africa when it comes to the electronic media and to the use of African (language evolution); the model situates biliteracy development (whether in the languages in cyberspace.

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The African Academy of Languages. This brings us to the daunting tasks In the run-up to the conceptualisation and establishment of these core pro- confronting the African Academy of Languages (ACALAN). On 26 January 2001, jects of ACALAN, numerous conferences, seminars, symposia, workshops and President Konare of the Republic of Mali established the Mission for an African bilateral discussions took place, where African linguists and other language pro- Academy of Languages under the leadership of his Minister of Basic Education, fessionals, practitioners and activists were the main participants or interlocu- Mr Adama Samassekou. After widespread consultation with numerous political tors. One of the most significant outcomes of all these different levels and kinds authorities, language professionals and other relevant parties, Samassekou and of academic and more practical interactions has been the widespread network his associates achieved the approval of ACALAN by the OAU Heads of State and of linguists and related social scientists, political and cultural agencies as well Government meeting in Lusaka on 9–11 July 20013. At the inauguration of Mr. as university departments, all of which, together, in some sense constitute the Samassekou as the President of ACALAN, President Konare called on him and base of the language planning and language policy development initiatives un- his colleagues to “take up the challenge to put in place a pan-African institution dertaken by ACALAN. capable of helping our States and our peoples to conceive and develop a langua- I believe it is no exaggeration to maintain that ACALAN, through the efforts of ge policy, relevant and efficient enough to quickly contribute to the Renaissance the many scholars, activists and students who have co-operated in its establish- and the Unity of Africa”. (ACALAN 2002:8) ment and growth marks the beginning of the African languages renaissance that Not unexpectedly, though, given the sensitivities around the language issue, we have always envisaged as an essential aspect of the restoration of the dignity it took another five years before the official institutionalisation of ACALAN as a and the equality of the peoples of the continent. The dominance and, worse, special office for language policy of the African Union (AU), the successor body the hegemony, of the languages of the former colonial powers simply means to the OAU, was finalised at the Khartoum Summit on 23-24 January 20064. that the continuity between our traditions and our modernity will continue to be ruptured and that only a relatively few middle class people will, via the Europe- The AU decision gave official sanction to the draft statutes of an languages, continue to be able to experience “modernity” as not alien5. The ACALAN, in which its objectives are described as follows: educational, economic, ecological and cultural consequences of the restoration  promoting African languages, of African languages to their rightful place in the lives and societies of African  promoting cross-border languages, people are incalculable. Those of us who are working within the ACALAN orbit  promoting vehicular cross-border languages, are convinced that they will become manifest sooner rather than later.  strengthening cooperation between African States in the area Consequently, two important issues remain to be addressed, viz., which of of African languages, the 2092 “languages” are involved in this project and, given the putative costs of  promoting African languages in all educational sectors, such a project, how will the political will be mobilised to realise it?  promoting African languages at international level, The first question can be dealt with briefly, since the ACALAN statutes, while  analysing language policies in Africa, committing the organisation to the status and corpus development of all the lan-  promoting a scientific and democratic culture based on the use of guages of the continent, is specific about the prioritisation – for the foreseeable African languages, future – of the cross-border languages. At the original launching of the activities  contributing to the harmonisation of the economic, social and cultural of the then “Mission” of the African Academy of Languages on 8 September development of Member States based on African languages, and in relation 2001, Professor Ayo Bamgbose (2002:25) stressed, among other things, that with partner languages, “widely spoken cross-border languages have the potential of serving as a model  promoting the use of African languages as factors of integration, solidarity, for empowerment, for they have a large population to back them and materials respect of values and mutual understanding in order to promote peace and prepared in one country can be circulated and used in another. Hence to extend prevent conflicts, their use to a wider range of domains should not be problematic once the neces-  promoting African languages organizations on the continent. sary language development work has been done”. He goes on to cite the example of the as yet unrealised potential of Kiswahili in East Africa and states that “(one) of the major objectives of ACALAN is to

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Footnotes empower some of the more dominant vehicular languages in Africa to the extent 1 “For example, people generally speak of their fingers as iminwe rather than ucikicane, the more that they can serve as working languages in the African Union and its institu- formal word for the pinky finger. South Africans are still familiar with these more archaic words, ho- tions”. (Bamgbose 2002:25) wever, foreigners would probably not know them. … The formal Zulu word for elbow, indlolwane, has also become extinct; most people now refer only to arms and hands. Another test is to ask people to It remains to be said that, in practice, the presence and commitment of give the Zulu word for toes – inzonzwane”. (Ndlovu 2008:7) groups of scholars and activists who are focused on the development of specific 2 The Nguni cluster comprises isiZulu, isiXhosa, Siswati and isNdebele; the Sotho cluster includes African languages for reasons of local dynamics in fact are determining which Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho and Setswana. 3 For a detailed account of the establishment of ACALAN, see ACALAN 2002. languages are actually being promoted most vigorously. ACALAN has, however, 4 The official resolutions are posted on the ACALAN website www.acalan.org. See Assembly/AU/ initiated a process for determining which of the vehicular languages should be Dec.95 (VI) decision on the statutes of the african academy of languages (ACALAN) given priority, for example, for the purposes of translating the major documents 5 It has to be noted that ACALAN has proposed an amended version of the original Language Plan of Action for Africa, one of whose goals was the displacement of European languages by African of the African Union into the languages of the continent. languages. Professors Maurice Tadadjeu (University of Yaoundé 1) and Salam Diakité (University of Bamako) have drafted a revised version of that famous document, in which the co-existence of the Concluding remarks. There is, today, a programme of action and a very clear African languages and the languages of European provenance is taken as the point of departure in the light of the new global realities (see Tadadjeu and Diakité 2005, pages 41-50). set of time frames the overall effect of which is to create a frame of reference from which all language-related activities on the continent can get perspective References and within which each such project, no matter how big or small, whether it is ACALAN 2002. Special Bulletin. ACALAN. African Academy of Languages. Bamako: African Academy driven by government or by civil society, can become meaningful. The sense of of Languages. ACALAN 2005. Linguistic Atlas Project for Africa. Bamako: Unpublished mimeo. isolation and desperation that has often characterised such projects, especially ACALAN 2006. Academie Africaine Des Langues. Bulletin d’Information No. 001. Bamako: African at the local level, can be, and is being, dispelled as those involved begin to reali- Academy of Languages. Alexander, Neville 2005. The African renaissance and the African Academy of Languages. In Alexan- se that they are part of a larger, continental cultural movement. der, Neville (ed.). The Intellectualisation of African Languages. Cape Town: PRAESA. In a sentence, we are proposing a comprehensive, large-scale, long-term, Bamgbose, A. 2002. Mission and vision of the African Academy of Languages. In ACALAN, Special and systematic intervention on the part of NGOs, CBOs, language professionals’ Bulletin, 2002. Batibo, Herbert 2007 Proposal for the Lexicography Project. Gaberone: Unpublished mimeo. associations (especially in the domain of education) with government support at Economic Commission of Africa 2005. Cultural diversity and multilingualism in the cyberspace.Accra the national, sub-regional, and continental levels, to create the conditions and WSIS Conference. Pre-event. Addis Ababa. Unpublished mimeo. the capacity which will enable the realisation of the common goal of using as Hornberger, Nancy. (ed.). 2003. Continua of Biliteracy. An Ecological Framework for Educational Policy, Research, and Practice in Multilingual Settings. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. many African languages as possible in all the controlling domains (e.g. govern- Makoni, Sinfree and Pennycook, Alastair (eds). 2007. Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages. ment administration, lawmaking, big business, education, etc.) within the next Cleveland: Multilingual Matters Ltd. two to three generations. ACALAN itself is in the process of collating all the rele- Prah, Kwesi. 1995. African Languages for the Mass Education of Africans. Bonn: Education, Science and Documentation Centre. vant data and the many different proposals and outlines of plans that are being Prah, Kwesi. 2002. Language, neo-colonialism, and the African development challenge. put forward or executed by individual and clusters of projects. The official status http://www.casas.co.za/papers_language.htm (downloaded 1 June 2008). accorded it by the Khartoum Summit of the Heads of State and of Government at Ndlovu, Nosimilo. 2008. The 21st century pencil test. Apartheid-era practice raises its head in Gaut- eng. Mail & Guardian May 23 to 29 2008, page 7. the end of January 2006 means that it has the necessary authority and, possibly, Tadadjeu, Maurice and Diakité, Salam 2005. Understanding the Language Plan of Action for Africa the leverage to accelerate the tempo of change in this fundamental area. within the language policy of the African Union. In Alexander, Neville (ed.). The Intellectualisation of African Languages. Cape Town: PRAESA

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Keynote Speech ous assemblage of people with different interests, political views and sociocultural profile, united only by the fact that they all are Russian-speakers (Vihalemm and Masso 2002:185). In what follows, I argue that a more subtle qualitative approach From monolingualism to bilingualism: is needed in order to account for the emergence of new sociolinguistic profiles and Changing identity and linguistic intuition diversification of linguistic repertoire of bilingual Russian-speakers. The linguistic repertoire cannot be adequately described in the terms of ‘Russian’, ‘Estonian’, Anna Verschik, Tallinn University ‘mixed speech’ because the language labels do not refer to the contact-induced language change.

On the nature of linguistic and other borders. Recently numerous ABSTRACT scholars in various fields of linguistics have pointed out that our theorizing about lan- I will base my discussion on the case of Estonia‘s Russian. The Russian-popula- guage as such is inaccurate because the language is considered as a self-contained, tion of Estonia is, in fact, a largely heterogenous group of population that arrived discrete entity with clear borders, and, in the same vein, speech communities are during the Soviet occupation. In a sense, this was a priveledged colonizing po- understood as homogenous groups of people with the same kind of linguistic reper- pulation who had a right to remain absolutely monolingual. After the regain of toire, identities etc. Hence, monolingual bias, often underlying linguistic theory, has independence in 1991, the situation changed. Some are trying to preserve their to be analyzed and dealt with (Auer 2007, Backus 1999, Cook 1997). All objections monolingualism, yet Russian-speakers are increasingly becoming bilingual. Their against monolingual bias are all based on the empirical research and understanding degree of proficiency in Estonian varies, as well as an amount of time spent in that, first, contact with more than one variety do not result in cognitive or linguistic an Estonian-speaking environment. So far the situation has attracted attention of problems (Jessner 2008:16-17 on SLA approaches before the 1990s); second, neit- sociologists and political scientists, but more qualitative studies and more subtle her varieties nor speech communities have clear borders and remain static. categories than “language X”, “language Y”, “Russian identity” etc are required. Similarly, Pavlenko and Blackledge (2004), Pavlenko (2002) criticise socio-psy- Many registers/varieties of Russian in Estonia exhibit contact-induced language chological approach to multilingualism, arguing that notions of ‘language’, ‘identi- change, which is an indirect evidence of a changing linguistic intuition, because ty’, ‘in-group’ that are employed for description and theorizing on language dyna- bilingualism is cognitively more complex than monolingualism. Young Russians mics are themselves in need of a definition. Here a dynamic approach developed acknowledge differences between their Russian and the variety spoken in Rus- by Le Page and Tabouret-Keller (1985) may be helpful: language and community sian. It is instructive to investigate how they describe and conceptualize the dif- borders are neither clear-cut nor static: if a community has a strong perception of ferences. its borders, it is more focused, but this may change over time and a community may become more diffused. Applied to the case of Russian-speakers in Estonia, this means that what can Introduction. The concern of the current paper is the changing identity and lin- be loosely labelled as a Russian community (recall the introduction) is becoming guistic intuition among a segment of Russian-speaking population in Tallinn. This increasingly diffused and heterogeneous. From the point of view of contact lin- population group may be characterized as ‘young city dwellers’ (Vihalemm 2002), guistics, as the result of contact-induced change, many varieties of Russian have upwardly mobile young Russian-speakers who identify with Estonia and, while their moved from the monolingual standard. Linguistically aware bilingual speakers con- proficiency in Estonian varies, acknowledge the importance of the language as a ceptualize the growing differences between their own language, culture and self- symbol of the independent state. The emergence of the group in question dates to perception and those of Russians in Russia (Fein 2005; more details in Verschik, the decade following the end of the Soviet occupation that, among other things, forthcoming, Chapter 2). is responsible for the systematic russification policy (creation of a privileged colonizing monolingual migrant minority) (Rannut 2004, 2007). The Russian-speaking Changing language awareness. In contrast to early assumptions (Bloom- population is a whole does not form a single community; rather, it is a heterogene- field 1933:56, Weinreich 1953), it is not clear whether an ‘ideal bilingual’ (in the

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sense of equal native proficiency in both languages) exists. Contacts between Students have brought up the following differences. Differences several language systems occur in the cognition of a bilingual; interaction occurs in lexicon: ‘we use a lot of Estonian words’, ‘sometimes it is easier to use an Esto- between people, not varieties. This implies that we should expect bidirectional nian term’. This refers to more or less conventionalized insertional Code-switching. effect of L1 and L2 on each other (Pavlenko and Jarvis 2002). Having this in mind, Differences in prosody and pronunciation: ‘in Russia they say we have an accent’; I assume that becoming bilingual may bring about changes in linguistic intuition ‘we have a different, Estonian-like intonation’. These claims call for a further re- and in the perception of grammaticality. It should be also noted that a bilingual search because ‘foreign accent’ may be a sociocultural construct (Campbell-Kibler speaker acquires additional resources for variation, whereas the choice is not limi- 2007) and it is possible that one will not find any objective support to the claims. ted to two (near) monolingual varieties. This process is reflected in the following Differences in morphosyntax: ‘I often use Estonian-like sentence structure.’ This is descriptive model (Verschik, forthcoming, Chapter 3). a rather refined comment because non-linguists lack a metalanguage for descrip- a. Speakers of A1 intensively use B2. tion of restructuring in morphosyntax. Stereotype of ‘slow, phlegmatic Estonians’ b. This results in copying B2 >A1. internalized: ‘we speak slower than they do in Russia.’ c. Types of A different from monolingual A emerge (non-monolingual speech). d. Gradually, the speakers’ linguistic intuition changes. References Auer, P. 2007 Monolingual bias in bilingualism research – or: Why bilingual talk is (still) a challenge for e. The perception of acceptability and grammaticality changes. linguistics. In M. Heller (ed.) Bilignualism: a Social Approach. Houndmills: Palgrave, 319-339 f. Previous strategies of adaptation of the foreign origin items are modified. Backus, A. 1999 Mixed native languages: A challenge to the monolithic view of language. Topics in g. linguistically aware speakers can choose between various degrees of adapta- Language Disorders 19(4), 11 – 22 Bloomfield, L. 1933 Language. London: Allen & Unwin. tion, depending on their pragmatic goals. Campbell-Kibler, K. 2007 Accent, (ing), and the social logics of listener perception. American Speech 82 (1), 32-64 Changes in the perception and grammaticality assessment among Russian- Cook, V. 1997 Monolingual bias in second language acquisition research. Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses 34, 35-50 speakers were empirically attested in an experiment where the respondents had Fein, L. 2005 Symbolic boundaries and national borders: the construction of an Estonian Russian been asked to assess sentences with a certain verbal construction that is a copy identity. Nationalities Papers 33 (3), 333-344 from Estonian (Verschik 2006). In addition to that, opinions expressed and meta- Jessner, U. 2008 Teaching third languages: findings, trends and challenges. Language Teaching 41 (1), 15-56 Le Page, R. and Tabouret-Keller, A. 1985 Acts of Identity: Creole-based Approaches to Language and linguistic comments by young Estonia’s Russians (students at Tallinn University) Ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. serve as a window into the conceptualization of contact-induced changes in Russi- Pavlenko, A. 2002 Poststructuralist approaches to the study of social factors in second language lear- an as well as of their self-identification. ning and use. In V. Cook (ed.) Portraits of the L2 User. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 277-302 Pavlenko, A. and Blackledge, A. 2004 New theoretical approaches to the study of negotiation of identity in multilingual contexts. In A. Pavlenko and A. Blackledge (eds.) Negotiation of identities in Conceptualizing the changes. Fein (2005) has dedicated some space to multilingual contexts. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 1-33 the notion ‘Estonian Russians’. However, the linguistic aspect of it was not con- Pavlenko, A. and Jarvis, S. 2002 Bidirectional transfer. Applied Linguistics 23, 190-214 Rannut, M. 2004 Language Policy in Estonia. Noves SL. Revista de Sociolinguistica. Spring-Summer sidered. ‘Estonian Russians’ is a broadly defined category of people who feel and 2004 http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/noves/hm04primavera-estiu/docs/rannut.pdf. describe themselves as different from Russia’s Russians (in any aspect). Note that Rannut, M. 2007 The linguistic consequences of EU enlargement for Estonia. In U. Ammon, K. J. Matt- heier, and P. H. Nelde (eds.) Sociolinguistica 21. Tübingen: Niemeyer Verlag, 22-35 ‘Estonian Russians’ is a label coined by laypeople. The segment of Russian-spea- Verschik, A. 2006 Convergence in Estonia’s Russian: directional vs. static. vs. separative verb. Interna- king population labelled as young city dwellers by Vihalem’s (2002) is defined tional Journal of Bilingualism 8 (4), 383-404 precisely by the scholar (see introduction). Young city dwellers would count as Verschik, A. forthcoming. Emergent Bilingual Speech: from Monolingualism to Code-copying. London: Continuum Publishers Estonian Russians but the reverse is not necessarily true. Vihalemm, T. 2002 Theoretical perspectives on the formation of new civic identity in Estonia. In M. While Fein and Vihalemm are both sociologists, a sociolinguistic research into Lauristin and M. Heidmets (eds.), The Challenge of the Russian Minority. Emerging Multicultural Demo- young city dwellers’ perception of differences, self-description and metalinguistic cracy in Estonia. Tartu: Tartu University Press, 165-173 Vihalemm, T. and Masso, A. 2002 Patterns of self-identification among the younger generation of Esto- information provided by them is needed. Russian-speaking students of Tallinn Uni- nian Russians. In M. Lauristin and M. Heidmets (eds), The Challenge of the Russian Minority. Emerging versity would definitely qualify as young city dwellers that have a reasonable and Multicultural Democracy in Estonia. Tartu: Tartu University Press, 185-198. sometimes rather high proficiency in Estonian. Weinreich, U. 1953 Languages in Contacts. The Hague: Mouton

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Keynote Speech the country, while this percentage increases to 23% in Oslo – a picture that is similar in other European countries today. An excellent means for investigating issues of language, culture and identity is the narrative. Narratives structure our Language, Culture and Identity experience, our knowledge and our thoughts. I will base my presentation on a among Migrants newly funded interdisciplinary project Language, culture and identity in migrant narratives (2008–2011, financed by the Research Council of Norway) that investi- Elizabeth Lanza, University of Oslo gates the ways in which narratives of migrant life present new understandings of cultural diversity, including language and identity.

ABSTRACT Theoretical background for my presentation. Wherever multilingualism Migration is an important part of the equation in European society and econo- and multiculturalism are present, questions of identity are at stake. The issue of my with the freedom of movement in the internal market being a key founding identity, or rather identities, has figured prominently in recent years in various dis- principle of the European Union. Multiculturalism and multilingualism are inevi- ciplines in poststructuralist approaches to the discussion of the self and the other. table consequences of migration. Contact between different cultural and linguis- Issues of identity were particularly made salient through Said’s (1978) seminal book tic groups contributes to an increased need to develop symbolic expressions of Orientalism that focused on the pervasiveness of the Western perspective of viewing identities and to the formation of identities that are hybrid and complex. Identity “the other” in a culturally imperialistic way. Literary scholarship has turned towards is ever-present in practices of multilingualism and multiculturalism, hence a phe- investigating how multicultural authors in their search for identity, or negotiation and nomenon of everyday multilingualism. Identities both shape and are shaped by formation of identity, “rewrite” national identities and move towards a transnational language and cultural expressions, thus an inherently reflexive relationship. Multi- identity. Several museums of cultural history are nowadays engaged in matters per- culturalism and multilingualism, although often seen as problematic, are actually taining to cultural diversity and the representation of others, and thus reassess ideas resources for society. They are resources for identity construction at the personal of uniform national identities and of boundaries that function as defenses of cultural and group level, as well as resources for participating in society. The importance integrity and authenticity (MacDonald 2003, Naguib 2004a, b). As for linguistics, the of the construction and perception of individual and group identities in contact is recent strong interest in identity may also be due to the success of this “recontructi- becoming increasingly salient, particularly as evidenced in current political dis- vist turn” (supplanting “essentialist approaches”) in the debate in the social sciences course. In today’s multilingual and plural cultural Europe, the notion of identity is about collective identities (Mendoza-Denton 2002). central for understanding matters concerning the integration and socialization of Multilinguals negotiate monolingual and bilingual identities in conversation and migrants. New knowledge of identity among multilinguals in a plural society is truly orchestrate their “multiplicity of selves”. The social constructionist approach to iden- necessary for political and educational decision-making. A common identity is of- tity rejects the essentialist view that proposes essential or core categories as defi- ten perceived as essential for providing social cohesion in European societies, yet ning the collective’s members. For example, in discussions of ethnic minority groups, respect for diversity is at the core of the European ideal. This is a challenge for a there has been a tendency to regard a “we-code” and a “they-code” as defining new understanding of identity, one that takes into account the diversity, hybridity, the minority and the majority culture respectively. However, as Sebba and Wootton dynamics and change in identities in contact in the Europe of today. (1998) clearly illustrate in their study of London Jamaicans, both London English In this paper I will address the notion of language, culture and identity in and London Jamaican are used communicatively in interaction to negotiate identity contact through a presentation of more recent theoretical approaches to this is- through Code-switching, the use of two or more languages in the same discourse. sue. Although these issues are relevant in any multilingual context, I will specifi- Postcolonial theorist Homi Bhabha’s (1994) notion of a “third space” serves as a me- cally take as a point of departure the situation in Norway. Immigration to Norway taphor for capturing the dynamics of identity negotiation. The temporal constitution has increased dramatically the past 30 years with migrants coming from every of a liminal “third space” defies the fixed identities of traditional social order, and in continent. Approximately 8,3% of the total population is counted as immigrant in this space, so-called hybrid identities can be performed and negotiated. This occurs

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in face-to-face interaction. However, it also occurs in multicultural authors’ “rewri- and our thoughts. Even though there are various models of narratives from various ting” of national identities, and in cultural museums’ conceptions of a “third space” disciplines – literary, anthropological (cultural patternings of customs, beliefs, va- or contact zone, an intermediate zone of coexistence in which people, who originally lues), psychological (cognitive structures and processes used in narration), visual were geographically and historically separated, meet (Clifford 1997). (narratives embodied in material culture), and sociological/sociolinguistic, cross- Postmodernists nonetheless deem the constructionist approaches to identity fertilization has indeed occurred. An excellent example is Bakhtin (1981) whose as insufficient although they support the antiessentialism that lies behind this ap- work on temporality, polyphony, and intertextuality has extended beyond literary proach (cf. Calhoun 1995, Fairclough 1995, Halpern and Ruano-Borbalan 2004). The theory, as well as positioning theory (Harré and Langenhove 1999). dimension of power and the role of power and power relations, according to these Migrants’ narratives provide insight into conceptions of self and the other theorists, have been underemphasized. Furthermore, the implication of individual within a cultural context. The new narratives by and about migrants that we find choices needs to be studied from various perspectives. Bourdieu’s (1991) notion of in multicultural literature and indeed in everyday interactions (De Fina 2003) are symbolic domination draws specifically on language as symbolic capital and provides cultural representations of our changing societies, in which questions concerning a theoretical basis for analyzing discursive categories that are embedded within local identity, nationality or ethnicity, and location are placed at the forefront. In mu- and global relations of power. Notions of power are inevitably found in discussions seums of cultural history, exhibition strategies are nowadays using interactive, about identity among migrants. polyphonic narrative contextual perspectives that acknowledge the constructed In the swing of the pendulum from essentialism to constructionism in studies nature of the knowledge presented. of identity, however, some scholars have issued caveats. Invoking Bourdieu (1991), Joseph (2004:13) points out that a reason for not eschewing essentialism entirely is References Bakhtin, M. 1981. The Dialogic Imagination. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press that “… constructing an identity is in fact constructing an essence”. Bourdieu exami- Bhabha, H. 1994. The Location of Culture. London/New York: Routledge ned the nature of “regional” and “ethnic” identities and critically noted that although Bourdieu, P. 1991. Language and Symbolic Power. Cambridge: Polity Press they are categories or essentializations of divisions among people that in fact are Brockmeier, J./Carbaugh, D. 2001. Narrative and Identity: Studies in Autobiography, Self and Culture. Amsterdam: Benjamins arbitrary and hence not “real”, “… the fact that, once established, they exist as men- Calhoun, C. 1995. Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference. Blackwell tal representations means that they are every bit as real as if they were grounded Clifford, J 1997. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Harvard University Press, in anything ‘natural’” (Joseph 2004: 13). Similarly, Coupland (2001:18) calls for a Cambridge, Mass Coupland, N. 2001. Introduction: Sociolinguistic theory and social theory. In: Coupland, N./Sarangi, resistance in sociolinguistic theorizing of identity to “both essentialising and de-es- S./Candlin C. (eds.). 2001. Sociolinguistics and Social Theory. London: Longman sentialising tendencies in their extreme form”. Social identities are neither static nor De Fina, A. 2003. Identity in Narrative: A Study of Immigrant Discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins given, “but neither are social identities written sociolinguistically on a tabula rasa in Fairclough, N. 1995. Critical Discourse Analysis. The Critical Study of Language. London: Longman Halpern, C./Ruano-Borbalan (eds.). 2004. Identité(s). L’individu, le groupe, la société. a socio-historical vacuum” (Coupland 2001:18). Indeed Lanza and Svendsen (2007) Joseph, J. E. 2004. Language and Identity. National, Ethnic, Religious. London: Palgrave Macmillan noted that among Filipinos in Oslo, regional identities were pointed out as impor- Lanza, E./ Svendsen, B. A. 2007. Tell me who your friends are and I might be able to tell you what tant and hence existed as mental representations. Nonetheless the extent, to which language(s) you speak: Social network analysis, multilingualism and identity. International Journal of Bilingualism 11 (3): 275-300 these identities are actually constructed and negotiated in social interaction or in MacDonald, S. 2003. Museums, national, postnational and transcultural identities. Museum and Society, accounts and portrayals of these interactions, needs to be investigated. 1 (1) 1-16 A discourse unit that provides an excellent locus for investigating issues of Mendoza-Denton, N. 2002. Language and identity. In: Chambers, J.K., P. Trudgill/Schilling-Estes N. (eds.), The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Oxford: Blackwell culture and identity is the narrative. Brockmeier and Carbaugh (2001:1) point out Naguib, S. 2004a. From temple to information centre. New perspectives on the role of museums in the “the importance of narrative as an expressive embodiment of our experience, as a 21st century. In: Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum 1:55-60. 2004b. The aesthetics of Otherness in museums of cultural history. Tidskrift for kulturforskning 3/4: 5-21. mode of communication, and as a form for understanding the world and ultimately Sebba, M./Wootton, T. 1998. We, they and identity: Sequential versus identity-related explanation in ourselves”. And as Turner (1996:4) notes: “Narrative imagining – story – is the Code-switching. In: Auer (ed.). Code-switching in Conversation. Language, Interaction and Identity. fundamental instrument of thought. … It is our chief means of looking into the future, of planning, and of explaining. It is a literary capacity indispensable to human cognition generally.” Hence narratives structure our experience, our knowledge

44 45 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit fotos | Fotos

46 47 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit

Section 1

Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism

School provides important frameworks for the societal promotion of multilingualism. The conference therefore picked up on the central aspect of dealing with languages in the educational sector – namely the correlation of official language as language of instruction and the multilingual reality in education/school - an aspect that has rapidly gained relevance due to migration. How can everyday multilingualism be effectively promoted in schools if it has to take place within the framework of different educational systems (keyword: one-dimensional, formal and institutional language acquisition)? The instrument of the European Language Portfolio (ELP) can form the basis for an analysis, as it specifically deals with individual multilingualism and lifelong language acquisition. Furthermore the linguistic choices and strategies determining identity and integration in school and education were specified. Many languages are still absent from or not sufficiently represented in education (as well as in media and cyberspace, in social environment on the whole). The issue of language, multilingualism and identity is of crucial importance, because “linguistic otherness” has implications on social integration or exclusion. Finally it was of interest how different countries with completely unrelated historical backgrounds and diverse contexts are dealing with multilingualism in general and in the educational sector.

48 49 kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

SeKtion 1 Keynote Speech The Council of Europe and language education policies: Plurilingualism as a key issue

Unterrichtssprache(n) und David Little, Trinity College Dublin lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit

Die Schule schafft wichtige Bedingungen zur gesellschaftlichen Förderung der ABSTRACT Mehrsprachigkeit. Die Konferenz griff daher einen zentralen Aspekt des Umgangs This presentation will begin by explaining the centrality of plurilingualism to the mit Sprachen im Bildungssystem auf – nämlich das Verhältnis von offizieller Spra- Council of Europe’s work on the development of language education policies. che (oft Amtssprache) als Unterrichtssprache und der mehrsprachigen Realität im It will then review the role that plurilingualism plays in the Common European Unterricht, die in den letzten Jahren aufgrund der Migration rasch an Bedeutung Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe 2001) and the contri- gewonnen hat. Wie ist die Förderung der lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachigkeit an bution that the European Language Portfolio (Council of Europe 2006) is inten- Schulen erfolgreich umsetzbar, wenn sie in den Formen der schulischen Systeme ded to make to the promotion and validation of plurilingual competence. It will (Schlagwort: eindimensionaler, formaler und institutioneller Spracherwerb) ge- conclude by summarizing the challenges that everyday plurilingualism poses to schehen muss? educational systems at the levels of policy, curriculum and pedagogy. Das Instrument des Europäischen Sprachenportfolios (ESP) kann die Grund- lage für eine Analyse bilden, da es für die individuelle Mehrsprachigkeit und für lebenslanges Sprachenlernen konstruiert ist. The Council of Europe: objectives, instruments and language Weiters wurden die Sprachenwahl und dahinter liegende Strategien analysiert, education projects. The Council of Europe was established in 1949 to de- die Identität und Integration in Schule und Bildungswesen bedingen. Viele Spra- fend human rights, parliamentary democracy and the rule of law; develop ag- chen sind im Bildungswesen (wie auch in den Medien, dem gesellschaftlichen reements to standardize social and legal practices in the member states; and Umfeld im Ganzen) nicht ausreichend repräsentiert. Die Frage nach Sprache, promote awareness of a European identity based on shared values1. The advan- Mehrsprachigkeit und Identität ist damit von höchster Relevanz, da „sprachliche cement of those values, enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights Andersheit“ nicht zuletzt Implikationen auf soziale Integration oder sozialen Aus- (1950) and the European Cultural Convention (1954), requires a continuous edu- schluss hat. cational effort on the part of the member states and the Council of Europe itself. Schließlich war interessant zu beobachten, wie Länder mit einem jeweils gänz- Language education is central to that effort, and the Council of Europe’s work in lich unterschiedlichen historischen und sprachpolitischen Hintergrund mit Mehr- the policy development and standard-setting dimensions of language education sprachigkeit im Bildungsbereich und im Allgemeinen umgehen. is the responsibility of the Language Policy Division (LPD). The LPD has published two versions of a guide to the development of language education policies (Beacco & Byram 2003, Council of Europe 2007), and it assists member states in the development of language education policy pro- files2. It has also published the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe 2001), which now exists in 35 languages. Designed to provide a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses,

50 51 Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism 1 Unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

curriculum guidelines, textbooks and examinations, the CEFR has been widely monolingualism (or bilingualism) into plurilingualism” (ibid.). discussed and acted upon, especially in the area of language testing. To support The realization of this aim will require us to find ways of exploiting the plurilin- such action the LPD has produced a manual for relating language exams to the gualism that exists in our societies thanks to the presence of linguistic minorities CEFR and published illustrations of the levels of language proficiency defined in and/or recent influxes of immigrants. It will also require that the organization the CEFR. As a companion piece to the CEFR the LPD developed the European and delivery of language education add to society’s linguistic capital by ensu- Language Portfolio (ELP), of which there are now almost 100 validated models ring that children and adolescents really do develop plurilingual proficiency at from nearly 30 countries. The ongoing ELP project is underpinned by a wealth of school. At present languages that form part of “live” plurilingual repertoires are documentation, guides and templates, all available from the ELP website3. too often ignored entirely by educational systems or else viewed as an obstacle The CEFR and the ELP continue a long tradition of Council of Europe support to efficient learning; while languages taught at school, traditionally in isolation for second and foreign language learning. In the past two decades, however, from one another, too often fail to become part of learners’ living identity. The education systems across Europe have been faced with the challenge of integra- plurilingual ideal challenges policy makers at the top of the educational pyramid ting large numbers of children and adolescents who have a first language other and language teachers and learners at the bottom. Between top and bottom it than the language of schooling. The LPD has responded to this by launching a also challenges curriculum developers, textbook authors and materials develo- project on the Languages of School Education, which aims to promote social pers, language testers, and language teacher educators. Successful pursuit of inclusion by elaborating tools to support the development of effective skills in the ideal is likely to depend on a coordinated response to the challenge at each the language(s) of instruction. The LPD is also working on a framework for defi- level of the pyramid; in the short space available to me I want to concentrate in ning adult migrants’ language needs for residence, employment and citizenship, particular on the potential for change offered by the ELP. and it has produced a curriculum framework for Romani that is currently being piloted in ten member states. Finally, its project to develop and pilot an autobi- Promoting plurilingualism: the role of the ELP. The ELP has three ography of intercultural encounters in primary and secondary schools provides obligatory components: a language passport that profiles linguistic identity, educational support for the Council of Europe’s work in the area of intercultural summarizes language learning and intercultural experience, and records the dialogue. All of these projects4 reflect the Council of Europe’s concern to promo- owner’s periodic assessment of his/her L2 proficiency against the levels of te social inclusion and social cohesion as essential characteristics of democratic the CEFR; a language biography that includes goal-setting and self-assessment societies and prerequisites for the exercise of democratic citizenship. The glue checklists and is designed to stimulate reflection on different dimensions of L2 that holds them together is the concept of plurilingualism. learning and use; and a dossier in which the owner collects evidence of his/her L2 proficiency and intercultural experience. There are three ways in which the The centrality of plurilingualism. In Council of Europe documents the ELP explicitly promotes the plurilingual ideal. It accommodates all the languages term plurilingualism is used to denote the ability of individuals to communicate, that the user knows; it gives equal value to all language proficiency, wherever at whatever level of proficiency, in two or more languages. Multilingualism, on it is acquired; and it allows the user to record the partial competences that are the other hand, is used to denote the presence of two or more linguistic varieties to be found in most plurilingual repertoires. By working with the ELP learners in a society. This distinction is important; for plurilingual individuals sometimes cannot help but become aware of their plurilingual identity. live in largely monolingual societies, and multilingual societies are sometimes Of course, the ELP must be mediated to language learners; and whatever made up of largely monolingual speakers. arrangements may be made to bring the different languages of the curriculum Because language rights are part of human rights, a policy of plurilingualism into interaction with one another the development of proficiency depends on is “crucial for social and political inclusion of all Europeans, whatever their lingu- what happens in particular language classrooms. I have argued elsewhere (in istic competences” (Beacco & Byram 2002, p.9); it is also central to the creation an individual capacity and not as a mouthpiece of the Council of Europe) that of a sense of European identity. Language education policies in Europe should success in L2 teaching depends on the operationalization of three mutually re- therefore aim to “enable individuals to be plurilingual either by maintaining and inforcing pedagogical principles, of learner involvement, learner reflection, and developing their existing plurilingualism or by helping them to develop from target language use (see, e.g., Little 2007). Through its twin functions of goal

52 53 Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism 1 Unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 1.1

setting and self-assessment, the ELP necessarily involves learners in planning, Workshop 1.1 monitoring and evaluating their learning. It also stimulates reflection on learning styles, cultural similarities and differences, and other dimensions of language learning and languages use. And when checklists and rubrics are provided in Towards an European framework the learner’s target language(s), these reflective processes can be enacted as document for languages of, in and an integral part of the target language use that is indispensable to effective lear- for school education ning. My pedagogical ideal is an ELP whose multilingual structure and content correspond to learners’ plurilingual goals, support the growth of their plurilingual Chair: waldemar Martyniuk, University of Krakow identity, and make that identity explicit to themselves and others. Klaus-Börge Boeckmann, University of Vienna Rapporteur: Evelyn Thornton, Kirchliche Pädagogische Hochschule A vision for the future. I noted in my introduction that the CEFR and the wien|Krems, Österreich ELP continue the Council of Europe’s support for foreign language learning: the levels of the CEFR say nothing about first language proficiency, which is virtually excluded from the ELP. Yet any plurilingual repertoire is necessarily rooted in the individual’s L1. After a decade of use it is clear that the ELP can support ABSTRACT the kind of L2 learning that contributes to a “live” plurilingual identity. Now we The Council of Europe has launched a new activity with a view to promoting must consider how the concept can be expanded to include the results of the social cohesion in Europe. The project deals with the language(s) of instruction Languages of School Education project; for only thus will it fully reflect a vision in school which is most often the national or official language(s) and also the of language education that embraces national and regional languages, minority mother tongue of the majority of students; in a number of contexts this lan- and migrant languages, neighbouring and foreign languages. The extent to which guage is of course their second language where they have a different mother we attain the Council of Europe’s key objectives of social inclusion and social tongue. Possible contents and approaches to developing a ‘European framework cohesion, democratic participation and active citizenship is likely to depend on of reference for language(s) of school education’ are being examined with the how successful we are in realizing this vision. assistance of an expert group. The aim is to elaborate an instrument to enhance coherence and transparency in reflection and decision making on policies Footnotes and standards, at both national and at European level. It would address aims, 1 For further details and key policy documents, see the Council of Europe’s web site at www.coe.int. 2 To date ten profiles have been published and six more are in progress, including Austria. outcomes, contents, methods and approaches to evaluation of the language of 3 www.coe.int/portfolio schooling, taking into account the needs of all students in compulsory educa- 4 For full details see the LPD’s website, www.coe.int/lang. tion, including disadvantaged learners and migrant children. The project includes

References a focus on (i) the language as a school subject; (ii) the language as a medium Beacco, J.-C. & M. Byram, 2002: Guide for the development of language education policies in Euro- of teaching and learning across the curriculum; (iii) possible convergences bet- pe. Draft 1 revised. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Available at http://www.coe.int/lang, section ween the language(s) of school education and modern (‘foreign’) languages in a policy guide and studies. Council of Europe, 2001: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, holistic approach to language education policy aimed at promoting coherence teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. (The French version, Cadre and synergy in the development of the learner’s plurilingual repertoire. européen commun de référence pour les langues, was published simultaneously by Didier, Paris.) Goal for the workshop is to present and discuss issues related to a new Council of Europe (2006). European Language Portfolio: key reference documents. Available at http://www.coe.int/portfolio, section Procedures for validation. European project coordinated by the Language Policy Division of the Council Council of Europe, 2007: From linguistic diversity to plurilingual education: Guide for the deve- of Europe aiming at producing a reference document for teaching, learning and lopment of language education policies in Europe. Main version. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. assessment in language education beyond the scope of the existing “Common Available at http://www.coe.int/lang, section policy guide and studies. Little, D., 2007: Language learner autonomy: some fundamental considerations revisited, Innovation European Framework of Reference for Languages” which mainly addresses in Language Learning and Teaching 1.1, 14-29. foreign languages.

54 55 Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism 1 Unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 1.1

report Projektziel ist, Strategien und Methoden herauszufinden, zu dokumentieren Waldemar Martyniuk stellt das Projekt „A European framework document for und zu vergleichen, die Lehrende im Muttersprachenunterricht (also Unterrichts- languages in, of, and for school education“ des Council of Europe vor. Im Rah- sprache als Unterrichtsgegenstand) an Sekundarschulen entwickelt haben, um men dieses Projekts arbeiten Working Groups zu den folgenden Themen: mit Multilingualität von SchülerInnen und curricularen Anforderungen an Pluri-  Languages in and of education (LE) lingualität umzugehen.  Language as school subject (LS) MARILLE umfasst – wie das von Waldemar Martyniuk präsentierte Frame-  Language across the school curriculum (LAC) work-Projekt – alle Sprachen in Schule und Unterricht (Mutter-/Herkunfts-  Language in primary education sprachen, Mehrheits-/Minderheitssprachen, Zweit- und Fremdsprachen und  Language and literature betrachtet die offizielle Unterrichtssprache als Sprache als Gegenstand/  Evaluation and assessment Unterrichtsfach (SaG – Language as a subject) und als Sprache als Mittel-/ Unterrichtssprache (SaM – Language across the curriculum: LAC). Diese beiden Das Projekt wurde im Jahr 2005 als work in progress auf der Grundlage we- Funktionen von Unterrichtssprache und ihre Verknüpfungen fokussiert das Pro- sentlicher Meilensteine gestartet (Kraków 2006, Strasbourg 2006, Prag 2007). jekt MARILLE. Sein plurilinguales Konzept umfasst alle Sprachen in der Schule: Die Unter- An die beiden Präsentationen schließt eine engagierte Diskussion der Teil- richtssprache, die für eine Mehrheit der SchülerInnen Muttersprache, für andere nehmerInnen und Vortragenden an. Die DiskutantInnen einigen sich schnell da- Zweitsprache ist; die mitgebrachte Sprache (Herkunftssprache); dazu unterrich- rauf, dass sowohl mit Blick auf LehrerInnen als auch auf das Schulsystem die tete Fremdsprachen, Minderheiten- und Regionalsprachen. Das Projekt sieht die Anerkennung der mitgebrachten Sprache notwendig sei. Hier gebe es immer Einrichtung einer virtuellen Plattform zum professionellen Austausch vor. Diese noch großes Unverständnis vonseiten der EntscheidungsträgerInnen in mehre- Plattform soll Möglichkeiten der Teilhabe an Forschung und Ressourcen eröffnen ren Staaten. TeilnehmerInnen aus Österreich ergänzen, dass etwa im Bereich sowie Gelegenheit für Feedback und erweiternde Beiträge bieten. Im Workshop der Ausbildung von LehrerInnen, aber auch bei der Auswahl von SchulleiterInnen befassen sich die TeilnehmerInnen mit den Möglichkeiten der Beschreibung von dieser Aspekt Berücksichtigung finden müsse. Einige TeilnehmerInnen weisen Sprachkompetenzen (generelle und kommunikative, unter Berücksichtigung von darauf hin, dass Minderheitensprachen einen speziellen Status benötigen. Das Aktivitäten und Strategien, Situationen, Rollen, Textarten usw.). sehe der Europarat vor, es fehle allerdings an der realen Umsetzung. Die Dar- stellung des Prozesses des Entstehens eines Referenzdokuments in Prof. Mar- Klaus-Börge Boeckmann stellt das Projekt MARILLE (Mehrheitssprachenun- tyniuks Präsentation wird von TeilnehmerInnen als konkret hilfreich bezeichnet terricht als Basis für plurilinguale Erziehung) des Europäischen Fremdsprachen- für unterrichtliche und bildungspolitische Entwicklungen im einzelstaatlichen zentrums des Europarats in Graz vor. Das Projekt ist im Jahr 2008 angelaufen. Es Bereich in neuen und künftigen EU-Ländern. macht die Schlüsselrolle des Unterrichtssprachenunterrichts bewusst und auch die Notwendigkeit seiner konzeptionellen Veränderung: von der traditionellen Literatur Fleming, Michael: Languages of schooling within a European framework for languages of education: Orientierung des Unterrichtssprachenunterrichts auf Erstsprach- hin zu Zweit- Learning, teaching, assessment. Intergovernmental Conference. Prague, 8–10 November 2007. sprach- bzw. Mehrsprachenunterricht. Report. Strasbourg 2008 Als wesentlichen Grund führt Boeckmann an, dass SchülerInnen anders als www.coe.int/lang; www.coe.int/portfolio; www.ecml.at früher verschiedene (Herkunfts-)Sprachen in den Unterricht mitbringen, sodass kaum von einer gemeinsamen sprachlichen Basis ausgegangen werden könne. Das Projekt MARILLE widmet sich zu Beginn u. a. dem Problem der bisher unein- heitlichen und teils unzutreffenden Terminologie (Nationalsprache, Amtssprache, Unterrichtssprache, Schulsprache, Bildungssprache) und führt zunächst den Ar- beitsbegriff Mehrheitssprache ein (als Bezeichnung für die Unterrichtssprache als Muttersprache der Mehrheit der SchülerInnen in einem Land).

56 57 Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism 1 Unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 1.2

Workshop 1.2 language learning. According to Beacco and Byram all language policies should focus on enabling “individuals to be plurilingual either by maintaining and developing their existing plurilingualism or by helping them to develop from monolin- Using the European language portfolio gualism (or bilingualism) into plurilingualism” (Beacco-Byram, 2002). to promote and validate plurilingualism All above mentioned aims of the European language policy meet in one document – the European Language Portfolio (ELP). The aims are approached through Chair: david Little, Trinity College, Dublin education, together with supporting the functions of the educational process its- wolfgang Moser, Austrian Centre for Language elf. As Rolf Schärer says in the European Language Portfolio: Interim report 2007 Competence, Graz the ELP “is a tool based on a set of principles: plurilingualism, learner ownership, Rapporteur: denisa Duranová, National Institue for Education, Bratislava learner autonomy and self-assessment, an understanding that all learning counts and that learning is a life-long process“ (Rolf Schärer, 2007). The workshop focused on the way how the aims of the European language policy, especially promoting and validating plurilingualism, are reflected in the ABSTRACT ELP. The main aim of the workshop was through the work with various versions David Little will introduce this workshop by briefly summarizing some of the ways of the ELP to demonstrate how plurilingualism is promoted. in which European Language Portfolio developers have sought to accommodate plurilingualism in their models. Working in groups, participants will then consi- Stages of the workshop. The first part of the workshop chaired byDa- der how the ELP can be used by (i) educational systems, (ii) school management, vid Little focused on one of the ELP’s roles which is promoting plurilingualism and (iii) teachers working in classrooms to promote and validate languages spo- and intercultural competences. David Little summarized the Council of Europe’s ken in the community but not taught at school. views on language education that enabled the participants while working with Wolfgang Moser will show the participants how the topics of plurilingualism, the Austrian versions of the ELP in the second part of the workshop to see how multilingualism and intercultural learning are integrative parts of the national the Council of Europe’s policy is reflected in the European Language Portfolio. versions of the Austrian ELPs (age groups 6–10, 10–15 and 15+) and of the David Little also focused on what the challenge of the plurilingual ideal is; that international (Austrian-Italian-Slovenian) ELP supplement CROMO (Intercultural means policy makers, curriculum developers, authors of textbooks etc. are chal- Cross Border Module). The participants will work in groups in order to work out lenged by the plurilingual ideal. Concretely we discussed that plurilingualism was the underlying principles (like using checklists, introspection and self-assess- validated in the ELP by accommodating all the languages known by the ELP user, ment, observation of cultural differences and similarities, …) and the possibilities the ELP gave its user the possibility to record partial competences and an equal and perspectives of using an ELP. value was given to all language proficiency as well. The second part of the workshop chaired by Wolfgang Moser focused on Austrian versions of the European Language Portfolio and the ways how plu- report rilingualism, multilingualism and intercultural learning are involved. Wolfgang Twenty-seven countries of the European Union with its twenty-three official lan- Moser introduced all Austrian versions of the European Language Portfolio: ELP guages and forty-seven member states of the Council of Europe undoubtedly for primary school, ELP for age group from 10 to 15, ELP for age group 15+ as make a multicultural Europe that is supposed to be based on the principles of re- well as its supplement Intercultural Crossborder Module. The followed up work specting cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. A crucial position in creating with mentioned versions of ELPs pointed at and emphasized other objectives of the European identity has been especially put on plurilingualism that should stop the ELP as well, such as supporting the transparency of language learning and the exclusion, both in a social and political field. In present times the European improving the mutual understanding. We explicitly focused on the development language policy is focused on plurilingualism, intercultural competences, dee- of cultural and linguistic diversity and how the structure of the ELP promotes the pening mutual understanding, and supporting transparency and coherence in concepts of multilingualism, plurilingualism as well as intercultural learning.

58 59 Languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism 1 Unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 1.2

Conclusion from the work at the workshop. The ELP itself occupies a and intercultural experience reflects a way how a foreign language achievement big variety of roles. It is considered to be a personal tool used for development of is reported in a transparent way. The ELP promotes the ability of its owner to plurilingualism and intercultural competences as well as mutual understanding. communicate in foreign language and it contributes to the dissemination of plu- Nevertheless, the ELP also supports other aims of the European language policy rilingualism. and their successful implementation into the practice by helping to fulfil functions of an educational process, because the ELP involves monitoring, planning, References Beacco, J.-C./Byram, M., 2002: Guide for the Development of Language Education Policies in motivation aspects, evaluation, reporting as well. The involvement of functions Europe. Draft 1 revised. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ of the educational process promotes the effective learning of languages. Shortly, Source/FullGuide_EN.pdf. the promotion and validation of plurilingualism is achieved by the ELP’s two main Little, D./Perclová, R., 2002: Európske jazykové portfólio. Príručka pre učiteľov a školiteľov. B ratislava: Štátny pedagogický ústav functions: pedagogical and reporting. Schärer, R., 2007: European Language Portfolio: Interim report 2007. Strasbourg: Language Policy The structure of the ELP itself reflects the above mentioned aims. Its three Division. http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Portfolio/documents/DGIV-EDU LANG%20(2008)%201%2 main components: a Language Biography, a Language Passport and a Dossier, Eng%20Interim%20Report%20ELP.doc. compose a tool enabling its owner to document his/her plurilingualism, intercultural competences, the process of language learning, contacts with other languages as well as intercultural experience in various languages including a concrete evidence of examples of owner’s works. The ELP with all three components represents the role of a reference tool documenting linguistic competences of the owner and his/her plurilingualism. The first part of the ELP – the Language Passport points at a list of owner’s individual skills in foreign languages. The level of competences is defined by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. It reflects both partial and specific owner’s competences. The other component of the ELP – the Language Biography fulfils the role of promoting plurilingualism by documenting the whole process of language learning. The Dossier – the third component of the ELP, as the other parts of the ELP, focuses on plurilingualism and documents linguistic competences in various languages of its owner, but in a slightly different way in comparison to other components. It represents a collection of most interesting works illustrating the level of language competences as well as intercultural, and reflects the records in the Language Biography and the Language Passport. The ELP records competencies in all languages known by its owner. This opportunity to accommodate all languages which its owner has competences in while an equal value is given to all language proficiency and recording both partial and specific competencies represent the ways of validating and promoting plurilingualism. In practice the European Language Portfolio makes a difference in the educational process. The ELP owner can use it as a tool for documenting his plurilingualism, language competences, learning process and intercultural experience in various foreign languages. The concrete evidence of foreign language proficiency

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Workshop 1.3 Workshop 1.4

Linguistic Otherness in education – Multilingualism in diverse contexts linguistic behaviour and ethnic identity across students Chair: hanna Komorowska, University of Warsaw shrishail Sasalatti, Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi Csilla Bartha, Hungarian Academy of Science Rapporteur: Maria-Elzbieta Sajenczuk, University of Lodz

ABSTRACT ABSTRACT The workshop deals with the question of identity within the context of lan- This forum presents multilingualism in diverse countries/regions, including dif- guage shift concerning the situation of minorities or migrants. Nationalism, ferent experiences, challenges and perspectives – to gain insight into other cir- stereotyping, multiple identities or overlapping cultural and plural identi- cumstances and to facilitate networking between centres of excellence in the ties are some of the major issues to be under consideration. The discussion field of multilingualism. Contributions from India, Poland, the Baltic States, Italy focuses on the (empirically) examined situation among pupils and students. Pre- and Slovakia will illuminate different requirements everyday multilingualism is sentations from different perspectives (e.g. language and identity in Albanian faced with. The following set of questions serves as a guideline for the presen- communities in Calabria; bilingualism, language attitudes and ethnic identity of tations: Sorbian youth or a linguistic model to understand the relation between identity  What are the needs and the requirements for everyday multilingualism in and success in school performance of migrant children in Vienna) will illuminate your country/region? What are their historical preconditions? the diverse connections between language and identity.  What are the goals of the language policy in your context? Who influences today‘s language market and policies?  How are mother-tongues/minority languages/migrant languages/ promo- Further more see page 127 ted in the educational system? Which actions are being implemented for the integration of minorities and immigrants?  How are foreign languages promoted in the educational system (the early start? CLIL? the lowering of the starting age for the second FL? motivational strategies?)  What are the strengths, difficulties and challenges for the near future?

report The aim of this above mentioned forum was to present the actual scenario of the multilingualism in countries of different historical backgrounds and discussing diverse contexts with references to multilingualism. The papers as mentioned below and presented during the Forum, allowed to have a new look with fresh perspectives and analytical insights.

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“Everyday Multilingualism” appears as a topic in the following Professor Sasalattis explorations and experience of multlilingual and mul- countries: ticultural India made him to creation of a neologism “Glocalisation” resulting  Multilingualism in Baltic States from two terms: Globalisation and Localization. Monolingual solution (fe. only  Multilingualism in Slovakia English) can’t fit the aspiration of multicultural and multiethnic world. The im-  Institutional Linguistic diversity – the case study on South Tyrol embedded in portance of maintaining the richness of diversified cultures and languages have the Italian situation to be strongly understood by the whole world and its educational institutions.  Promoting plurilingualism and multilingualism in Polish perspective The experience of India’s different cultures and languages, their coexistence  “Glocalisation”: Explorations from multilingual India and cooperation can be for newly united Europe the field of useful exploration in search of looking for facilitating and validating the European multilingualism The readers depicted the prevailing given situations as faced by this multi- and plurilingualism. lingualism in their countries and their diverse experiences as well. The attention was drawn to the historical conditions (fe. Baltic States, Slovakia, India) as histo- Conclusive remarks. Linguistic and minority rights are respected in the ry played a significant role – at first in marginalizing the importance of national countries participating in the Forum. The phenomenon of everyday multilingua- languages, and then – helped in their successful come back as languages of the lism appears in these countries. Plurilingualism seems to be a new challenge in national identification. the time of transformation for the post communist countries. The changes in post communist countries resulted in political explosion of multilingualism. And yet the language policies don’t marginalized minority languages or less popular languages; the approach to learning them depends on learner’s needs. Linguistic and minority rights are respected in the Baltic States, Slovakia, Italy and India. Education is provided by the mentioned countries in several languages; in the Indian subcontinent education is multilingual. The case of South Tyrol embedded in Italy as a result of WW I brought an interesting information on how linguistic diversity is institutionalized and how it led to plurilingualism: German and Italian are official languages of the state; the public employers are bilingual and trilingual, even educational system is based on seperation in order to preserve plurilingual integration. It’s difficult to talk on multilingualism in Poland, as it is, considered as the country with a monolithic language tradition. That’s why Komorowskas paper was on promoting multilingualism and plurilingualism in Poland, and on Polish educational policy connected with European Union and the Council of Europe recommendations. They were introduced in school system from the age 10 to 7 – two languages. English is the most popular as 83% students learn that language. Legislation for the ethnic minority languages was implemented. Some languages are not on the top of Polish students choice, but the market forces will inspire and motivate learners to learn them. The role of media is significant in making foreign languages more visible and attractive to learners in providing support in the promotion of multilingualism and plurilingualism.

64 65 Section 2

Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities

Everyday multilingualism has complex implications in terms of social integration or social exclusion of minorities. Language is essential to achieve primary education and life skills. Many languages are still absent from or not sufficiently represented in education, media and cyberspace, in the social environment on the whole, nationwide and across national boundaries. Spea- kers of those languages are often disadvantaged and marginalized in their access to education and information. This section includes a presentation of regional and minority languages, their documentation and linguistic rights (e.g. the Romani language and education or sign languages as minority languages). This leaded to a discussion about the conditions which facilitate the active use of and access to those languages, or their loss and of specific programmes for the safeguarding of local knowledge and know-how like intergenerational language transmission outside formal education settings. To give consideration to the venue of our conference a special glance was taken at the Burgenland as an exemplary multilingual border-region.

66 67 kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

SeKtion 2 Keynote Speech Defining ‘Everyday Multilingualism’

Yaron Matras, University of Manchester lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und Minderheiten ABSTRACT The reality of global mobility, ease of communication and movement of ideas, Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit hat komplexe Auswirkungen auf die so- the blurring of distinctions between written and oral styles, as well as regionali- ziale Integration bzw. den sozialen Ausschluss von Minderheiten. Sprache sation trends – all these impact on the practical aspects of maintaining multilin- ist für die Erreichung von Bildungszielen und die Erlernung lebenswichtiger gual repertoires, and call for a review of conventional descriptive paradigms of Fertigkeiten essenziell. Viele Sprachen sind in der Bildung, den Medien und im multilingual reality. While traditional models have tended to define languages as Internet, im sozialen Umfeld insgesamt, auf nationaler Ebene und über die nati- static systems as well as coherent emblems that help rally loyalty, contempora- onalen Grenzen hinweg nicht oder nur ungenügend vertreten. Die SprecherInnen ry research into language use and changes in practices now place us in a much dieser Sprache sind häufig in ihrem Zugang zu Bildung und Information benachtei- more confident position to assert the dynamism of linguistic repertoires as ad- ligt und ausgegrenzt. justable and adaptable instruments of communication, in the first instance, and Dieser Abschnitt der Tagung enthält eine Präsentation von regionalen und as such as the property of individuals and the social networks that they form, Minderheitensprachen, ihrer Dokumentation und ihrer linguistischen Rechte rather than of institutions or states. Ownership over the shape of language and (z. B. Sprache und Bildungssituation der Roma oder Gebärdensprachen als linguistic practices is therefore best transferred back to the users of language, Minderheitensprache). Dies führte zur Diskussion über Bedingungen, die den ak- who should be given the skills and the opportunities to manage their own mul- tiven Gebrauch dieser Sprachen und den Zugang zu ihnen erleichtern bzw. ihr tilingual repertoires in a manner that is de-coupled from debates about loyalty, drohendes Verschwinden verhindern kann (z. B. spezielle Programme für die Be- control and power. wahrung des lokalen Wissens und Know-hows, Weitergabe der Sprache zwischen den Generationen außerhalb des formellen Schulsystems, etc.). Um dem Tagungs- ort Rechnung zu tragen, wurde auch ein spezieller Blick auf das Burgenland als I have chosen to devote my talk to the challenge of defining the key theme of this beispielhafte mehrsprachige Grenzregion geworfen. meeting – Everyday Multilingualism. The principal point that I wish to make is this: lobbyists, practitioners and many theorists have called for state institutions to embrace multilingualism through a set of constitutional acts and provision of state-backed resources. As an alternative direction I propose that we should transfer ownership of language back to the communities of speakers, making sure that no obstacles stand in their way when they set out to make use of these opportunities. We should expect institutions to be responsive to the local needs of speakers, but otherwise to avoid the use of language as a token of loyalty to a centralised collective.

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Before I return to this agenda, let me revisit the very basic definition of our in state media, and requirement of language skills within the civil service and shared area of interest, and ask: What is multilingualism? For many generations the military. Models of this kind appear to view multilingualism as a cumulative educators and policymakers alike have regarded multilingualism as an intellectu- multiplication of the status and roles given to each individual language. al skill, acquired and sustained at an expense through formal education. At this The view of multilingualism as cumulative monolingualism has its tradition level, it can be an asset to the individual, and so potentially also to the society within descriptive linguistics, too. Early debates surrounding child bilingualism, that is served by this individual. This is not to say that policymakers’ commit- for example, were pre-occupied with the age at which bilingual infants are able ment to academic multilingualism is necessarily stable and secure. Just a few to distinguish between their linguistic systems, a question that dominated the years ago, the Labour government in England decided to abolish the compulsory discussion for a considerable period of time after it was launched in the late instruction of foreign languages at lower-secondary school level – not because 1970’s by Volterra & Teaschner (1978; see also Redlinger & Park 1980, Vih- the target of producing individuals skilled in languages was no longer appre- man 1985, and many more). Practice-oriented attempts to describe the pro- ciated, but because it was downgraded to second priority, lagging behind the cess of second language acquisition had viewed it as a sequence of events on need to present convincing statistics of improving school results, which in turn the learner’s path toward the ultimate goal of acquiring native-like competence motivated the removal from the curriculum of those subjects in which student in navigating the rules of the target language (see Klein 1986). Early sociolingu- performance tended to be lower. istic research into bilingualism focused on how extra-linguistic factors such as The worries traditionally associated with multilingualism are thus obvious: context and setting could trigger specific and predictable choices of language The effort required to learn another language through formal instruction is (Fishman 1965). Models of contact-induced language change have taken the seen as a potential distraction from other academic domains. Where bilingua- position that languages are self-contained systems that influence one another lism comes naturally, it is seen as a potential disturbance to loyalty and control. either as a result of the greater social prestige that one language enjoys over Hence the words of the former UK Home Secretary David Blunket, who encoura- another, or else in an attempt by speakers to fill so-called ‘gaps’ in the lexical and ged immigrants to speak English to their children. grammatical representation of the recipient language, by extending it to cover As a consequence, governing institutions that do engage in the promotion functions that are present in the donor language (for an overview of hypotheses of smaller languages make sure they adopt a clear hierarchy of roles and sta- see Thomason 2001, Winford 2003). And in psycholinguistics, intrigued by the tus, distinguishing between official and non-official languages, between national fact that bilinguals suffering from language impairment may show differentiated and regional languages, and between majority and minority languages. States loss or recovery patterns for their individual languages, researchers had until appear to feel safer within such highly regulated division of roles and responsi- recently hypothesised about differentiated storage or accessibility of languages bilities among languages. in the brain (e.g. Albert & Obler 1978). Many academics and practitioners have consequently considered the Contact linguistics has in the past generation or so been experiencing a shift anchoring of linguistic human rights to be a key toward the abolition of linguistic in some of its descriptive paradigms through a combination of new empirical discrimination (e.g. Skutnabb-Kangas & Phillipson 1995). The European Charter research, the infiltration of new theoretical models and growing interface with for Minority and Regional Languages, widely acknowledged as one of the most discussions in cultural theory and other academic disciplines. The results can far-reaching mechanisms of language policy reform, appeals to governments to be detected in almost all the aforementioned domains of study. In the study of formally designate languages for protection. It is felt that languages are better bilingual language acquisition among infants, for instance, Lanza’s (1997) off if they enjoy a symbolic status enshrined by legislation. groundbreaking research has shown that the ability to separate languages is It is perhaps not entirely obvious what the ingredients are of a success- a direct response on the part of the child to the consistency of context-bound ful model of multilingualism following such parameters. Countries like Cana- language use within the parental model; multilingualism is thus a form of social da, Belgium, Switzerland or Ireland f.e. have for many years practised policies behaviour that is acquired in interaction with behavioural role models. Similarly, based on what Nelde (1993) had called ‘the territoriality principle’, coupled with we are beginning to understand second-language acquisition as a process by tight regulation of the symbolic presence of languages in state institutions: flag- which learners acquire communicative skills, in the first instance, whether or not ging of state languages on official documents, allocation of broadcasting time they conform to the native-language target model (see Goglia 2006). Following

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Auer (1984) we now understand language choice in conversation as a strategic choices in concrete settings and situations. We must of course address the interplay of factors involving the metaphorical use of language boundaries in or- question whether today’s society is equipped to handle a shift in the para- der to emphasise emotions and subjective evaluations. We now also accept that digm of managing multilingualism at the societal level. I will mention a number not all environments trigger consistent use of either one language or another, of factors that lend support to a more dynamic, bottom-up and user-oriented and that monolingualism is not at all the prevalent norm in any given conversati- approach to language management in multilingual settings: Globalisation is onal context; rather, bilinguals will find themselves interacting in a continuum of gradually leading to a shift in the balance of powers and responsibilities bet- contexts, many of which are likely to trigger what Grosjean (2001) has described ween national governments, and trans-national as well as regionally-based as the ‘bilingual mode’, where language mixing is itself the default choice. forms of governance. Both create windows of opportunity for smaller langu- Recent work by the Manchester Working Group on Language Contact has ages, which are no longer dependent on a complex, ideological negotiation highlighted the role of individual speakers’ creativity in discourse as a major of roles and powers within a national system. In Scotland, for instance, it is trigger for long-term language change. This view of contact-induced language in the context of the protection of the environment and the promotion of lo- change regards innovations not as ‘gaps’ or as mere accommodation to social cal heritage, as well as in pre-school education run by local councils, that pressure, but as an attempt by speakers to make optimal use of the full range of use of Scottish Gaelic is flourishing. The inclusion of a Romani delegation in expressive structures within the linguistic repertoire that is at their disposal, whi- deliberations of transnational organisations such as the Council of Euro- le still maintaining the option to distinguish contexts by assigning to them spe- pe has created a practical opportunity to introduce Romani as one of the ad cific linguistic choices (cf. Matras 2007, Matras & Sakel 2007, Matras forthc.). hoc working languages, without the need for extensive statutory reform. In In some cases, speakers have been shown to consciously manipulate structural Turkey, the partial relaxation of control and restrictions on the use of Kurdish choices within their bilingual linguistic repertoire, leading to the emergence of in the public domain was a direct response to the opportunities created by the stable codes, now referred to in the linguistic discussion as ‘Mixed Languages’ country’s EU candidacy. (see Matras & Bakker 2003). Indeed, in some instances the deliberate construc- A further feature of globalisation is of course greater mobility and increa- tion of a mixed language is the speaker community’s own informal, non-institu- sed transposition of identity to the level of networking, or in Appadurai’s (1992) tionalised answer to language death, ensuring that an old community language words, the ‘de-territorialisation’ of identity. Transnational and super-regional net- that is in the process of being abandoned altogether maintains some form of working is of course further facilitated through communication technology. Our an afterlife (Matras et al. forthc; McConvell & Meakins 2005). Finally, pycholin- own world is thus very different from the one in which Fishman (1964) predicted guistic models of bilingual language processing are gradually developing a con- the step-by-step retreat of ethnic languages in urban immigrant communities. sensus according to which bilinguals have their full set of linguistic structures Today’s linguistic diasporas are able to support one another not just through available to them at all times, and that the selection of individual lexical items physical contact, facilitated by more frequent mobility, but also through the ex- and constructions proceeds in much the same way as the selection of appropri- change of media – films, websites, and satellite broadcasting. ate stylistic variants in a monolingual repertoire – namely by reviewing context Immigrants speaking their ethnic language are no longer isolated and are no appropriateness, and inhibiting inappropriate choices (see Paradis 2004). longer necessarily pressured by a choice between languages. In fact, they often Put together, these new approaches to language contact and bilingualism see their choices expand: I am thinking of an Arabic-speaking family from Khu- challenge the view of multilingualism as the cumulative addition of static, self- zistan province in Iran, who settled in Manchester a decade ago. In Iran, under contained linguistic systems. Instead, they tend to view multilingualism as an pressure to accommodate to mainstream urban norms, the younger generation individual speaker’s dynamic, goal-oriented and often creative use of a complex is abandoning Arabic and shifting to Persian. In immigration, English is of course repertoire of linguistic structures. Multilingualism is thus an individual’s diverse the most natural dominant language. But contacts with Arabic speakers form and differentiated network of communicative choices made during interaction Iraq and other countries and the sharing of facilities such as Sunday schools, with other individuals. mosques and social gatherings reinforce Arabic, leading to a situation where This new understanding of multilingualism equips us from a theoreti- three children, aged 5–15, are more fluent in their family ethnic language than cal angle to entrust individuals with defining and shaping their own language their cousins of the same age group back at home in Iran. But what about the

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chances of these youngsters to visit or perhaps even return to Iran? Regular None of these might serve as the ultimate model of multilingual management; exposure to Iranian television through satellite broadcasts and regular visits in but they provide some examples of the dynamic, responsive system that we Iran, enabled through cheap flights and, in historical terms an objectively high need. Everyday multilingualism cannot be a to-down process of constitutional albeit entirely average standard of living, have enabled the children to acquire debate, legislation, and finally practice. It must, instead, empower non-state in- fluency in Persian as well. itiatives to compile and share language resources for practical communicative Closely associated with the increasing reliance on communication technolo- needs. This in turn relies on our understanding of multilingualism as a dynamic gy is users’ flexibility in communication, and the blurring of distinctions between use of a complex repertoire of structures for practical use in pursuit of commu- oral and written mediums. Text messaging and chatrooms provide real-time, al- nicative goals. most face-to-face interaction opportunities via a written medium, while e-mails and blogs are private documents with a wide dissemination potential. Such References Albert, M. L. & Obler, L. K. 1978. The bilingual brain. New York: Academic Press media allow for and even encourage the use of non-standard forms of written Appadurai, A. 1992. Global ethnoscapes: Notes and queries for a transnational anthropology. In: Fox, language and of linguistic creativity and improvisation. R. G. ed. Interventions: Anthropologies of the Present. Santa Fe: School of American Research. 191-210 We are thus in an age in which the link between identity and ideology is Auer, P. 1984. Bilingual conversation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Fishman, J. 1965. Who speaks what language to whom and when? La Linguistique 2, 67-87 weakening, and multiple identities are more and more acceptable; an age in Fishman, J. A. 1964. Language maintenance and language shift as a field of inquiry. Linguistics 9, 32-70 which responsibilities for culture and communication are devolved and no longer Goglia, F. 2006. Communicative strategies in the Italian of Igbo-Nigerian immigrants in Padova (Italy): centralised; in which mobility and communication technology facilitate langua- a contact linguistic approach. PhD dissertation, University of Manchester Grosjean, F. 2001. The bilingual’s language modes. In: Nicol, J. L. ed. One mind, two languages. Bilingu- ge maintenance and communicative creativity; in which speakers and users of al language processing. Oxford: Blackwell. 1-22 language are accustomed to exploring new channels of communication and to Klein, W. 1986. Second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press sharing the responsibility for shaping key aspects of their communicative vehi- Lanza, E. 1997. Language mixing in infant bilingualism. A sociolinguistic perspective. Oxford: Clarendon Matras, Y. & Bakker, P. eds. 2003. The mixed language debate. Theoretical and empirical advances. cles through mutual accommodation; and it is an age in which linguistic theory Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter emphasises the pluralistic and dynamic nature of multilingualism itself as the Matras, Y. & Sakel, J. 2007. Investigating the mechanisms of pattern-replication in language conver- creative use, by individuals, of a broad repertoire of communicative structures. gence. Studies in Language 31, 829-865 Matras, Y. 2007. Contact, connectivity and language evolution. In: Rehbein, J., Hohenstein, C. & Pietsch, L. In this age, we can rely on users’ creativity and aptitude and call for a trans- eds; Connectivity in grammar and discourse, Amsterdam: Benjamins Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 51-74. fer of ownership over language and language management from state institu- Matras, Y. Forthc. Language contact. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press tions to user communities. This means in practice de-regulation of language Matras, Y., Gardner, H., Jones, C. & Schulman, V. Forthc.. Angloromani: A different kind of language? Anthropological Linguistics use, de-coupling of language support measures from constitutional issues, and McConvell, P. & Meakins, F. 2005. Gurindji Kriol: A mixed language emerges from code-switching. flexible responsiveness to community needs and initiatives. Australian Journal of Linguistics 25, 9-30 Nelde, Peter Hans. 1993. Contact or conflict? Observations on the dynamics and vitality of European Some of the more successful models of language management in multilingual languages. In: Jahr, Ernst Håkon. ed. Language conflict and language planning. Berlin: Mouton de settings are considered to be those in which aspects of this approach have alrea- Gruyter. 165-177 dy been practised. In Melbourne, for example, SBS Television is a state-backed Paradis, M. 2004. A neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Redlinger, W. & Park, T.-Z. 1980. Language mixing in young bilingual children. Journal of Child Language company that broadcasts community-level productions. In Manchester, commu- 7, 337-352 nity libraries respond to acquisition requests from users, and have recently re- Skutnabb-Kangas, T. & Phillipson, R. 1995. Linguistic human rights, past and present. In: Skutnabb- corded a rise in purchases of books in Polish. Russian immigration to Israel in Kangas, T. & Phillipson, R. eds. 71-110 Skutnabb-Kangas, T. & Phillipson, R. eds. 1995. Linguistic human rights. Overcoming linguistic discrimi- the early 1990s resulted not only in the proliferation of Russian-language private nation. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter radio broadcasting, newspapers, and bookshops, but in response to demand, and Thomason, S. G. 2001. Language contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Vihman, M. 1985. drawing on the availability of qualified personnel, significant parts of the secon- Language differentiation by the bilingual child. Journal of Child Language 12, 297-324 dary school curriculum were translated into Russian and an entire generation of immigrants was allowed to take their school examinations in their native language, which otherwise lacks any regulated or legal status whatsoever in the country.

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Workshop 2.1 guage that has mostly been limited to informal domains. The workshop opened with the background talk by Halwachs on “The Diversity of Romani in Austria”. He discussed the great heterogeneity of Austria’s Romani population on several Romani Language, public life parameters: First, there are several Romani groups that differ in their sociocul- and education tural and historical background, as well as in their traditional linguistic in-group codes, i.e. different varieties of Romani. Second, there is a great heterogeneity Chair: dieter W. Halwachs, University of Graz of competence in Romani, both across and within the different groups. Halwachs yaron Matras, University of Manchester distinguished 18 different patterns of individual plurilingualism, formulating the Rapporteur: viktor Elšík, Charles University, Prague following generalization: the younger the speaker and the longer his or her group Ulli Pawlata, University of Graz has been present in Austria, the greater the tendency towards monolingualism in German. Finally, there are also salient differences in language attitudes towards Romani between the different groups, ranging from loyalty through disinterest to language denial, and from revitalization attempts to conscious strategies of pu- ABSTRACT blic invisibility. It is thus obvious that the demands and objectives of the different Romani is the largest stateless language of the EU by numbers and the only speech communities of Roma are widely disparate. European language which is spoken in all countries of Europe. From a linguistic Halwachs closed his talk with a rather provocative thesis: The preferential point of view it is a heterogeneous cluster of varieties with a common structural treatment of one particular variety of Austrian Romani, viz. Burgenland Romani, nucleus and no accepted homogenising standard. From a sociolinguistic point is used as a cover-up for what basically is an ideology of uniformity and monolin- of view it is a dominated language which functionally has been and still is redu- gual orientation of Austrian education and administration. In this situation, both ced to informal domains. Both, the linguistic and the sociolinguistic situation of authorities and some representatives of the minority speech communities are Romani result from the socio economic marginalisation and the ethnopolitical content with ethnolinguistic and plurilinguistic symbolism, i.e. with such public stigmatisation of Romani speakers. In the course of self organisation to eman- use of Romani that is merely emblematic. Halwachs further suggested that the cipate themselves from the majority populations Romani became the primary European ideology of nation state in fact results in the marginal status of Romani identity marker and functionally expanded into formal domains. The more Roma within public multilingual settings. have achieved recognition and their situation has gained attention the more their The chairs of the workshop elicited comparative observations from work- language has developed official functions. But Romani still is seen as a problem shop participants from the following countries: Bulgaria (Rumyan Russinov), the regarding its use and functions in public life and education. This is due to its Czech Republic (Peter Wagner, Margita Wagner, Viktor Elšík), Hungary (Csilla heterogeneity, the huge differences in language competence among its spea- Bartha), Macedonia (Eben Friedman), Serbia (Svenka Savic, Jelena Filipovic) and kers and the disparate, to some extent contradicting demands and objectives of the United Kingdom (Yaron Matras). It became clear that the Romani commu- speech communities, representatives and administrative bodies. The workshop nities in the different countries exhibit very diverse patterns of everyday and aims for a serious discussion of the situation of Romani, tries to find solutions for public multilingualism, and so that the multi-dimensional heterogeneity as this alleged problem and, furthermore, wants to network efforts and initiatives. outlined by Halwachs for Austrian Romani needs to be multiplied on a Euro- pean scale. The workshop closed with a summary by Yaron Matras. He concluded that, perhaps with the exception of the recent activities of the Council report of Europe, there are no centralized efforts or central agency for Romani lan- The workshop aimed for a discussion of the situation of Romani with regard to guage planning, which is thus de-centralized and polycentric. Consequently, everyday and public multilingualism, and the role of Romani in education. Roma- linguistic and educational initiatives concerning Romani remain to be local, ni is the largest stateless language of the EU by numbers and the only language to some extent experimental, and part of general pro-Roma activism. that is spoken in all countries of Europe. Sociolinguistically, it is a dominated lan-

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Workshop 2.2 Only a certain amount of language attitudes is part of our consciousness. Gombos told us about the case of “Nora”, a woman of Carinthian-Slovenian background who was puzzled to find she got aggressive when she heard the Languages of minorities and lifelong Slovenian language, which used to be the language of her ancestors. In several learning – language transmission counceling sessions (both in a so-called “Babylon”-seminar and in individual outside formal educational settings sessions) it turned out that her feelings were due to a difficult relationship with her grandfather. In these sessions she learned to differentiate between her per- Chair: georg Gombos, University of Klagenfurt sonal experience and the language with the effect that she now has an open and Rapporteur: Michael Moser, University of Vienna positive attitude to the language of her ancestors. Language attitudes are always the result of our personal biographies, and this is the moment from which the “Babylon”-approach starts.

ABSTRACT In particular, the “Babylon”-model is based on six levels: There are a number of reasons why language loss occurs and why langua- 1) biography ge transmission is often difficult. This workshop will focus on some of these 2) context aspects: which experience do people have with the language in questi- 3) vision on? Which aspects are helpful, which ones hamper the use, acquisition and 4) values transmission of it? Which influence does the attitude of others (individuals, 5) communication skills institutions, society) exert? On the other hand we will ask how we can sup- 6) aims port people in regaining the language in question by focusing on their resources. The “Babylon”-approach (see www.babylon-gls.com in German only) will “Babylon” has two major target groups: be presented as one way of improving people’s learning strategies and their 1. People who have learned a language but feel inhibited or even blocked to use it. approach towards their target language. 2. People who want to learn a certain language but have inexplicable inhibitions (e.g. “I am not talented”).

report The well-attended workshop (32 participants) was characterized by a re- The focus of this workshop was on language attitudes and their role for a laxed atmosphere and at the same time by a well-structured outline. Interactivi- language maintenance in the minority context and b) language acquisition in ty played a significant role and was perfectly embedded in the general outline: general. Based on the important notion that ethnic and linguistic identities are The participants were invited to form small groups and to tell one another epi- quite often fuzzy primarily in the minority context, Gombos emphasized that it sodes of their linguistic biographies and their emotional attitudes towards vari- is crucial to transmit positive attitudes towards minority languages to the next ous languages. For instance, they told one another stories about their first two generation. Only if the individual members of the new generation are still ready languages or about their personal experience with linguistic discrimination. to communicate in that language, minority groups and their languages can per- sist. On the other hand we witness a process of language loss in a number of References www.babylon-gls.com minority communities that can be seen as a proof of changing attitudes because of negative biographical experience. Gombos argued that one could intervene in this process if one could get in touch with the respective language community members.

78 79 Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities 2 lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und Minderheiten Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 2.3

Workshop 2.3 languages are acquired and neurologically processed by deaf users exactly the same way as any spoken languages are by hearing users. Deaf children of deaf parents acquire sign language competence at home during their infancy. Deaf Understanding sign languages children of hearing parents usually acquire sign language at later age informally as minority languages from their deaf peers while attending segregated schools for deaf students. The education system is where different perceptions of sign languages come Chair: verena Krausneker, University of Vienna into collision. Some educators regard sign language as a threat to the normal de- günter Roiss, Austria National Association of the Deaf velopment of deaf children. Others think that the sign language is the best possi- Rapporteur: istvan Muzsnai, Greater Grace International School, Hungary ble guarantee for normal development. Since the Swedish government adopted the second view, the sign language was recognized in Sweden as the medium of instruction. The choice of the language of instruction is a key issue everywhere in a multilingual world. All things must be considered in order to come ABSTRACT to an informed decision at any individual case. But decisions must be based The fascinating world of signed languages is still very foreign to many peo- on relevant facts and careful research but not on vague opinions or emotions. ple including multilingualism experts and linguists. We will take a look on the Manipulating the language choice of parents by outside finances is grossly unfair everyday multilingualism of sign language users (in Austria/in Europe) and ba- and violating the human rights of the affected deaf individuals. The long-term sed on the understanding of sign language users as members of linguistic mino- effect of an early language and educational choice determines adult literacy and rity communities we will discuss language policies. cannot be easily reversed later. The presenters‘ experience and professional background enable a balanced Where the language of instruction is not the mother tongue of the learner presentation of academic facts and practical realities, including their own long it is most likely that the initial learning of the student will be slower and academic lasting cooperation as a multilingual Deaf-hearing team. achievement will be lower. Mother tongue cannot be arbitrarily chosen because it must be accessible from the beginning. After reaching a certain academic level by mother tongue, education continues bilingually. The educational planning report should provide training of sufficient numbers of fully competent and qualified The aim of the workshop was to promote better understanding of the fascina- teachers who are aware of the positive value of the sign language user minority ting world of signed languages. Those who were interested about this topic were group. These teachers must show respect toward their students and families and experts in multilingualism and linguistics. Most of them had already been in have to be willing to identify with them. The paternalistic professional attitude contact with some sign language users, but still were surprised by learning many did much harm for the normal development of signed languages in the past. new details about these languages and user communities. Seeking and appreciating deaf cultural values that are stemming from the visual The complementary presentation of the multilingual Deaf-Hearing team was perception of sign language users could be very encouraging and stimulating in an impressive, harmonic demonstration of what a mutually respected language the educational development process of deaf students. can create between human beings. Sign languages can build bridges between It is important to know the fact that not all hearing impaired people identify the different worlds of deafness and hearing and can break down boundaries with the sign language user group. Those who were able to acquire the spo- that are spontaneously or voluntarily built up between individuals. Signed langu- ken language of the society prefer not relying on sign language. Some hard of ages are fully fledged independent languages and are not organically related to hearing students e.g. may benefit tremendously from the improved technical the locally spoken national languages. In different societies usually one person hearing aid devices. But these devices are not good for all. Although for hard out of one thousand is a sign language user. Within the sign language user com- of hearing students early exposure of sign language would be just as beneficial munity not the medical condition of deafness or the status of hearing is what as for any prelingually deaf students, many of them still ignore it because of its counts, but the use of sign language creates the sense of belonging. Signed low prestige.

80 81 Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities 2 lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und Minderheiten Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 2.4

The choice of first language in education is a Linguistic Human Rights issue Workshop 2.4 since the first language or mother tongue provides the best chance for initial personality development. Wherever it is appropriate additional language learning should be introduced for language enrichment purposes during the process of The Burgenland as an exemplary education. border region An individual cannot use a spoken and a signed language simultaneously Das Burgenland als Beispiel einer Grenzregion without compromising the correctness of one of the languages involved. This is one of the reasons why sign language interpreters have to be trained, and their Chair: Edith Mühlgaszner, State Education Authority, Austria quality service is essential for those sign language users that are not bilingual. Rapporteur: grasilda Blaziene, Institut für litauische Sprache, Vilnius So far approximately 42 countries recognized their national sign languages, but only the Swedish government prescribes Swedish and Swedish sign language as a medium of instruction for deaf pupils. Recognition is only the first step, but successful education for most deaf students has to rely on using their sign ABSTRACT language while learning. The minority public education in Burgenland with the natural bilingualness has tradition for many decades. The legal regulation makes possible that today each pupil living here can learn the Croatian and Hungarian language beside the Ger- man. In practice however the system is not yet in such a way developed that this takes place everywhere. In Burgenland there live three recognized minorities: Croatian, Hungarian and Roma/Gypsies. The situation in the autochthonous area shows that children’s mother tongue can be German, the minority language or both of them and at school they learn two languages from the beginning – speaking, reading and writing.

report Ziel des Workshops war, burgenländische Identität zu zeigen. Elf Teilnehmer aus Österreich, Polen, Jordanien, der Slowakei und Litauen haben mit großem In- teresse den Bericht von Edith Mühlgaszner verfolgt und sehr engagiert an der Diskussion teilgenommen. Die Teilnehmer hatten die Gelegenheit, die Situation in einer Grenzregion eines EU-Staates kennenzulernen. Im Burgenland sind drei von sechs in Österreich anerkannte Minderheiten zu Hause: Kroaten (7%), Ungarn (2%) und Roma und Sinti (0,36%). Nach dem Ge- hörten ist die Situation harmonisch, ohne Spannungen und sehr demokratisch. So kann das Burgenland als hervorragendes Beispiel des Konferenzthemas betrachtet werden, da dieses österreichische Bundesland seit Jahrhunderten mehrsprachig und multikulturell ausgerichtet ist. Im Workshop kam das Thema der Konferenz, „Everyday Multilingualism“, deutlich zum Vorschein und wurde anschaulich präsentiert. Das Schulwesen –

82 83 Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities 2 lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und Minderheiten Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 2.4

vom Kindergarten bis zur Reifeprüfung – ist zweisprachig aufgebaut, wodurch sprechen, deren Eltern jedoch daran interessiert sind, dass die Kinder beide den Kindern die Möglichkeit geboten wird, bilingual aufzuwachsen. Ihre Wün- Sprachen lernen. Der Zusammenarbeit mit den Eltern wird eine große Aufmerk- sche und jene der Eltern werden ebenso berücksichtigt wie die Bedürfnisse und samkeit geschenkt und als besonderes Anliegen betrachtet. Hinzu kommt eine Vorkenntnisse der Kinder. Betont werden u. a. rechtliche Aspekte wie die Allge- Vielzahl an aus anderen Staaten stammenden Kindern, die in Österreich zur meine Menschenrechtserklärung oder die Europäische Menschenrechtskonven- Schule gehen. Auch in diesen Fällen sollen Integrationsprozesse stattfinden, weil tion sowie gesetzliche Regelung und Absicherung. An allen Standorten finden eben durch die Globalisierung Mehrsprachigkeit als Schlüsselbegriff zum Ver- SchülerInnen offenen Zugang zu ihrer gewünschten Ausbildung. Andererseits ständnis vieler gesellschaftlicher Veränderungen betrachtet werden kann. Der fordert diese Situation viel von den Lehrern ab, da sie eben nicht nur mit ein-, Unterricht in zwei Sprachen und die Mehrsprachigkeit der SchülerInnen verlangt sondern auch mit zweisprachigen Kindern kommunizieren müssen. den Lehrern sehr viel ab, weshalb sie ständig fort- und weitergebildet werden. Im Workshop wurde auch das Problem der Lehrbücher für Roma und Sinti Sie sind an verschiedenen Projekten beteiligt, welche ihre Motivation und Krea- betont. 1993, im Jahr der Anerkennung als Volksgruppe, begannen die burgen- tivität fördern sollen. ländischen Roma, ihrer bis dato nur mündlich weitergegebenen Sprache einen Noch einmal sei darauf hingewiesen, dass das Burgenland eine Grenzre- Buchstabenkodex zuzuordnen, dessen Verschriftlichung an die deutsche Ortho- gion ist, deren Bevölkerung großteils in kleinen Dörfern lebt. Sprachen früher grafie angepasst wurde. Vereine der nationalen Minderheiten unterstützen die die Einwohner deutsch, kroatisch und ungarisch, entsteht heute die Frage, ob Herausgabe von Büchern, Zeitungen und Lehrmitteln. die Kinder, die schon einige Jahre lang eine Sprache lernen, diese auch wirklich Die Zweisprachigkeit bzw. die Mehrsprachigkeit werden im Burgenland ak- sprechen können, da manche Fächer – wie z. B. Mathematik – in deutscher zeptiert und angenommen. In zweisprachigen Klassen ist als Fremdsprache Sprache unterrichtet, jedoch auf Kroatisch wiederholt werden. LehrerInnen, die Englisch obligatorisch. Die Mehrsprachigkeit wird als Fähigkeit eines Menschen z. B. Chemie unterrichten, haben Chemie und Kroatisch studiert. Viel mehr Auf- angesehen, mehr als in einer Sprache zu sprechen und sich in ihr ausdrücken merksamkeit sollte den Geschichtsbüchern geschenkt werden, da in österrei- zu können. Die Begriffe wurden im Workshop nicht definiert, das war nicht das chischen Lehrbüchern die Historie Österreichs anders interpretiert wird als in Ziel des Workshops, obwohl die theoretische Auswertung geholfen hätte, die ungarischen, was in bestimmten Regionen zu Problemen führen kann. Position der Moderatorin besser zu verstehen. Im Burgenland gelten mehrere Im Workshop wurde deutlich gezeigt, dass man im Burgenland mit mehre- Sprachen, und sie haben allem Anschein nach verbreitete Anwendung gefunden ren Sprachen aufwächst und die Mehrsprachigkeit zum Leben gehört. Die Teil- Es wurde mehr der multilinguale Spracherwerb unterstrichen. Es wäre interes- nehmerInnen haben viel erfahren und festgestellt, dass man in zweisprachigen sant zu erfahren, wie sich die multilingualen Sprecher je nach Erfordernissen der Schulen nicht nur miteinander, sondern vor allem voneinander lernt. Kommunikationssituation verhalten. Im Grunde genommen wurden unterschied- liche Auffassungen von Multilinguismus und von der Situation in einer Grenz- region nicht vorgestellt. Die Diskussion hat anhand von Fragen verschiedene Meinungen gezeigt. Es wurde deutlich, dass die Mehrsprachigkeit mit gesell- schafts- und bildungspolitischen Herausforderungen aufs Engste verbunden ist. Im Workshop haben die Teilnehmer Antworten auf die gestellten Fragen gefunden und neue Sichtweisen entdeckt. Im Burgenland lernen die jungen Menschen, sprachlich-kulturelle Unter- schiede zu würdigen und zu nützen. Die Moderatorin unterstrich auch die Pro- bleme, die in dieser Grenzregion entstehen. Das sind in erster Linie rückgängige Schülerzahlen, veränderte Klassenzusammensetzungen, wenn in einer Klasse zweisprachige und einsprachige Kinder lernen, deren Sprachkompetenz unter- schiedlich ist. Solche Situationen sind Herausforderungen für die Lehrer und das Bildungssystem überhaupt. Es gibt Kinder, die z. B. nur kroatisch oder deutsch

84 85 Section 3

Economy and Management of Diversity

Educational measures alone do not suffice to sustainably promote and establish multilingualism. If you want to promote individual and life-long language acquisition, it might make sense to take a deeper look into various surrounding aspects - e.g. how is everyday multilingualism catered for or dealt with in economics and the media. In contrast to one-dimensional, formal language education (and hence the traditional view on language acquisition of a monolingual society) there are other forms of language acquisition the mainly have their root in migrational movement/diversity. (The situation in the respective countries was of particular interest here). In the following sections was discussed in more detail, which developments with respect to changed communication situations (economic issues, reception in the media, the internet …) can be observed and how this influences everyday multilingualism – i.e. in what way it can be incorpo- rated into daily life and in what way it is hampered. Economy and industry have already started to come to grips with some of the challenges of multilingualism in everyday expert communication, technical documentation and management. These and the related standardization, legal, R&D and other pertinent aspects were covered by this part of the conference. A limited command of foreign languages can have serious repercussions on economic success. This poses the question which foreign languages are in demand on the job market? How are less dominant languages or neighbouring languages dealt with? What are the developments regarding English as a universal language (lingua franca)? Language plays a major role in social equality/inequality, but who influences the current language market and policies? To what extent is everyday multilingualism economically viable or how can it be utilised?

86 87 kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

SeKtion 3 Keynote Speech Is there a linguistic melting pot? Who needs it? Who cares? Wirtschaft und Michèle Kaiser-Cooke, University of Vienna Diversitätsmanagement ABSTRACT Schulische Maßnahmen allein reichen nicht, um Mehrsprachigkeit nachhaltig Multilingualism is a fact for most people in the world – an obvious part of their zu fördern und sicherzustellen. Will man individuellen und lebenslangen Spracher- lives, and of their identity. Accepting multilingualism means accepting diversity werb fördern, so wird es sinnvoll sein, die Bedingungen für lebensweltliche Mehr- of cultures, identities, world views. Who decides which languages are “accepta- sprachigkeit in wichtigen gesellschaftlichen Bereichen wie der Wirtschaft oder ble”, which are thrown into the melting pot, and which are left out? den Medien näher zu beleuchten. Im Gegensatz zum eindimensionalen formellen Accepting multilingualism, accepting linguistic diversity means accepting Spracherwerb an Institutionen (und damit den bisher tradierten Vorstellungen vom the integration of cultures, identities, world views. Is this possible? Desirable? Spracherwerb einer monolingualen Gesellschaft) treten andere Spracherwerbs- Who gains what – and who loses what – from recognising, and accepting, the formen in Erscheinung, die hauptsächlich in den Migrationsbewegungen ihre Ur- socio-political implications of real-life, everyday multilingualism? Is there a lingu- sache haben. (Die Situation in den jeweiligen Ländern war hier von besonderem istic melting pot? Do we need one? Do we really want one? Interesse.) In den folgenden Sektionen wurde im Detail diskutiert, welche Entwick- lungen bezüglich geänderter Kommunikationssituationen (wirtschaftlicher Natur, Darstellung in den Medien und mediale Rezeption, Internet, usw.) zu beobachten The concept of linguistic diversity, while pursuing the laudable goal of furthering sind und wie diese Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit beeinflusst, wie sie gelebt the linguistic rights of minorities and other suppressed groups, nevertheless re- bzw. behindert wird. quires further differentiation to take into account the political and social reality of Wirtschaft und Industrie haben schon damit begonnen, sich den Herausforde- everyday multilingualism. This paper proposes some conceptual means by which rungen der Mehrsprachigkeit bei der tagtäglichen Kommunikation zwischen Exper- this differentiation could be attained. To say that language reflects cultural norms tInnen, bei technischen Dokumentationen und im Management zu stellen. Diese wie and group specific constructions of reality is nothing new. Similarly, the role of auch die damit einhergehenden Normierungs-, Rechts-, F&E- und ähnlichen Aspekte language in establishing and promoting both individual and group identity has wurden in dieser Sektion der Konferenz behandelt. Im Bereich der Wirtschaft wird long been recognised by various disciplines and political bodies. Since multilin- ganz klar deutlich, dass fehlende Fremdsprachenkenntnisse schwerwiegende Aus- gualism is both an individual and collective phenomenon, the question of identity wirkungen auf den wirtschaftlichen Erfolg haben. Damit stellt sich die Frage, welche and cultural definitions of what is “real” affects both society as a whole and the Fremdsprachen am Arbeitsmarkt gefragt sind. Wie werden weniger dominante Spra- individuals who constitute that society. chen oder Sprachen der Nachbarländer behandelt? Welche Entwicklungen zeigen Present socio-political conditions have created multilingual societies consisting sich bezüglich Englisch als Lingua franca? of groups speaking “non-minority” languages but which are nevertheless margina- Die Sprache spielt eine wesentliche Rolle bezüglich sozialer Gleichheit bzw. lised and thus de facto bereft of the power to define these groups’ reality and Ungleichheit, aber wer beeinflusst den bestehenden Sprachenmarkt und die Spra- strengthen their identity. The “host” language and culture sees itself “invaded” by chenpolitik? In welchem Ausmaß ist eine Mehrsprachigkeit im Alltag wirtschaftlich foreign languages and cultures that “infiltrate” its cultural norms and thus threaten sinnvoll und lebensfähig und kann ökonomisch genutzt werden? its cohesion. This results in a power struggle in which the dominant language/

88 89 Economy and management of Diversity 3 Wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

culture inevitably succeeds (at least in the short to medium term) in stamping the Keynote Speech “invading” languages as undesirable – whether in the workplace, in education or at the political level. Far from being treated as a valuable social and economic resource, multilingu- Economy of culture, culture of economy alism thus becomes something to be feared and, if possible, eradicated. Present immigration policies in several EU member states, for example, require “aliens” Mauro Rosi, UNESCO, Intersectoral Platform for Languages to show “sufficient” linguistic (and cultural!) competence in the host language and Multilingualism before they are granted resident permits. Similarly, education policies still tend to treat the presence of bi- or multilingual children in classrooms as an indication of poor quality education and as fundamentally problematic. In order for multilingualism to become a real cultural and economic resource, ABSTRACT conceptual and practical tools must be developed which address the de facto low Economy is often considered as a tool or a medium that can facilitate or limit status of languages that would not otherwise qualify as “minority” languages. cultural diversity. The role of production and distribution to convey and circu- The definition of discrimination based on actual linguistic status needs to late diverse products, namely cultural goods and services, in a diversified mar- be flexible enough to take into account the changing economic and politi- ket, is indeed an important matter that is at the heart of important debates cal conditions that engender such discrimination while at the same time being and actions of the international community. It is in this context that the Uni- robust enough to capture the realities of everyday discrimination. versal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001) states for instance that par- Waiting for the discrimination which has arisen from economic/political con- ticular attention must be paid to the diversity of the supply of creative work, ditions to also disappear by the influence of “market forces” is at best an ex- to due recognition of the rights of authors and artists and to the specificity tremely long-term resort. It makes neither ethical nor economic sense to hope of cultural goods and services which, as vectors of identity, values and mea- that “the market” will solve these social ills: multilingualism is not just a cultu- ning, must not be treated as mere commodities or consumer goods (art. 8). ral resource, but also an economic one. Positive policies (in education, immi- However, cultural goods and services do not only constitute culture. The gration, the workplace) can positively influence “the market” in the short-term report of the World Commission on Culture and Development (“Our Creative as well as furthering the long-term goal of promoting true linguistic and social Diversity” 1997) stated in the chapter entitled ‘Rethinking Cultural Policies’ integration. One step towards this goal would, for example, be to define actu- that “any policy for development (…) implies promoting creativity in politics and al linguistic status as a core dimension of diversity management. However, it is governance, in technology, industry and business, in education and in social important to remember that the concept of diversity itself focuses on diffe- and community development – as well as in the arts”. And the Universal De- rence. While the aim of diversity management is to prevent discrimination on the claration on Cultural Diversity reaffirms that “culture encompasses, in addition basis of perceived difference, the ultimate long-term goal of anti-discrimination to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions is surely to eliminate the perception of (or even the concept) of difference, to fo- and beliefs”. This means that our discussion should focus on one side on the cus on the common ground and shared characteristics unifying all human beings question of the diversity of goods and services on sale, and on the other also and in this way to promote true integration. Integration can ultimately only be on the diversity of all practices – parts of lifestyle and living together – related achieved when people cease to be regarded as different on the basis of socially to production and distribution. The problem, in other words, is also the diversity constructed or highlighted characteristics. in (and of) economy, because human beings do not have necessarily or a priori We have as yet no linguistic melting pot in which languages (and cultures) the same way to produce and the trade. This complex vision of cultural diversity can co-exist in the spirit and practice of true equality. This state of affairs serves is reflected by the complexity and variety of standard setting tools relating to the interests of those who profit from the prevailing inequality. Real commitment cultural diversity, including the above universal declaration and seven different to linguistic equality requires first and foremost recognising and addressing the conventions. When examined in this wider context, languages constitute a key fact of everyday inequality and the ways in which it is perpetuated. domain for innovative strategies and actions.

90 91 Economy and management of Diversity 3 Wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement kEynote Speech | Plenarvortrag

1. Development has been for a long time considered as a mere economic mat- politics and governance, in technology, industry and business, in education and ter. As a result, economy has been for some time, to some extent, identified with in social and community development – as well as in the arts”. There is not only development and considered as a tool or a medium that can facilitate or limit an economy of culture (cultural industry), but also a culture of economy (social, culture and cultural diversity. cultural attitudes that also determine behaviors within business contexts). 2. Then it became progressively clear that, based on a wider Anschauung of 5. In this sense, the problem is also the diversity in (and of) economy, what culture was, things were not so easily separate. It is in this context that because human beings do not have necessarily or a priori the same way to pro- the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001) states for instance that duce and to trade nor the same reasons to produce and trade. particular attention must be paid to the diversity of the supply of creative work, 6. When examined in this wider context, languages – as part of culture in to due recognition of the rights of authors and artists and to the specificity of all the above presented conceptions – constitute a key domain for innovative cultural goods and services which, as vectors of identity, values and meaning, strategies and actions. must not be treated as mere commodities or consumer goods (art. 8). Since the 7. Interpretation, translation, languages schools, and related software Johannesburg Summit (2002), culture is admittedly one of the pillars of sustai- and technologies: business languages or language as business opportunity, nable development and a domain that is both linked to market and to spiritual business good. Language(s) are or support, cultural goods and services. values, to commerce and to identity, to trade and to dialogue. This more open 8. On the other hand, languages are indeed essential to the identity of groups concept of culture subsumes indeed a variety of realities, objects and practices and individuals and to their peaceful coexistence. As an essential dimension of including tangible and intangible heritage, on sale products and services, tradi- human life, language are also, or may be first of all, linked to cultural diversity tional practices, movable and immovable or monumental objects. This factual is closely linked to linguistic diversity, as we can see if we analyze the relevant complexity is mirrored by a great complexity of standard-setting instruments all passages in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity and its ac- devoted to safeguard culture and cultural diversity. tion plan (2001), the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural 3. The role of production and distribution to convey and circulate diverse Heritage (2003) and the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the products, namely cultural goods and services, in a diversified market, is indeed Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). an important matter that is at the heart of important debates and actions of the 9. Besides, as tools for interaction and integration, languages constitute a international community. The creative economy is generally accepted as a noti- strategic factor of progress towards sustainable development and a harmonious on for an increasingly important part of economic activities worldwide. The busi- relationship between the global and the local context. They are of utmost im- nesses and industries that make up this new creative economy have given rise portance in achieving the six goals of education for all (EFA) and the Millennium to differing or overlapping definitions: creative industries, content, knowledge Development Goals (MDGs) on which the United Nations agreed in 2000, in or copyright–based industries, and cultural industries. The cultural diversity- particular (MDG 1, 2, 6 and 7). related industries can be captured through statistics relative to the creative and 10. To sum up, languages are constitutive of human dimension and identity; audiovisual sector. In fact, it conveys cultural diversity through contents and languages are goods or support for goods; languages are strategic tools for sus products to be consumed. Recent statistics analysis confirmed that this sector tainable development. This is why, as we say in our slogan for the International is far from being negligible in terms of employment (stats presentation). Year of Languages, “Languages matter!”, because languages are strategic to 4. However, as we said, culture has not constituted only by tradable cultural sustainable development and to the future of human kind. And this transversal, goods and services. The aim of development seems to be not economic growth, plural nature of language opens up endless strategies and practical opportuni- expansion of production, productivity and income per head but human better- ties for the promotion of multilingualism. ment, which can be expressed in terms of values, and values are a core part of culture, this is a consequent point of view. The report of the World Commission on Culture and Development (“Our Creative Diversity“, 1997), a milestone in the modern vision of this item, stated in the chapter entitled ‘Rethinking Cultural Policies’ that “any policy for development (…) implies promoting creativity in

92 93 Economy and management of Diversity 3 Wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 3.1

Workshop 3.1 trepreneurship group in your opinion?), which were a starting platform for a general discussion on the role of linguistic and cultural diversity within the concept of managing Diversity; afterwards the participants split up into three groups with Linguistic and cultural diversity within the task to come up with 3-5 key statements about the role and function of lingu- the concept of managing diversity istic and cultural diversity within the concept of Diversity Management. Diversity management (DiM) and its core dimensions age, gender, disabilities, ethnical Chair: gabriele Sauberer, International Network for Terminology, background, religion and sexual orientation involve a large range of issues. University of Vienna Gabriele Sauberer (University of Vienna and TermNet) offered the partici- Rapporteur: Elisabeth Alber, European Academy Bolzano/Bozen pants some food for thoughts by presenting the Austrian Standard “Diversity Management”, which states: “DiM is a strategic management approach aimed at the targeted consideration and deliberate utilization of the diversity of persons and relevant organizational environments or stakeholders in or- ABSTRACT der to create structural and social conditions under which all employees can Diversity management is becoming a new approach to deal with the everyday develop their abilities and reach their full performance to the benefit of all par- challenges of managing heterogeneous, multicultural teams in a globalized eco- ties involved and for raising the organization’s success.” (ÖNORM S 2501:2008, nomy. Going far beyond the anti-discrimination legislation – and often mixed with page 5, Clause 2: Terms and definitions) DiM as a proactive management ap- it – managing diversity means managing the so-called core dimensions of di- proach is implemented on a voluntary basis and supports all antidiscrimina- versity (age, gender, disabilities, ethnical background, religion and sexual orien- tion legal frameworks. DiM is a surplus, an added value that in management tation) in a professional, human resource and business related context. Within and cannot be seen as being a substitute for legal bindings. Thus, we must this concept, linguistic and cultural diversity so far have been subsumed under distinguish the legal paradigm (anti-discrimination) from the economical „ethnical background“ and often reduced to language barriers and translation paradigm (DiM). Everybody can introduce the concept of DiM within its manage- problems in the communication with refugees and immigrants. The workshop ment approach and declare its core dimensions as a guideline for business de- deals with the role and function of linguistic and cultural diversity as horizontal velopment and, especially, within the human resources sector DiM should find aspect of all dimensions of diversity management – not limited to nationality and its application. DiM has the task to make people aware about the advantages of ethnicity. Participants are invited to discuss joint methodologies of translation diversity in management (for example languages, different cultural backgrounds, studies (trans-cultural approach) and the diversity management communities, as all kinds of implications resulting from inter-, trans- and multicultural relations well as the importance of a clear distinction between diversity management (as between cultures, but also gender, age and disability); it focuses on differences economic paradigm) and anti-discrimination (as legal and political paradigm) to- and similarities, on openness, knowledge and esteem. gether with a clear definition of the respective basic concepts, such as “culture Multiculturalism often provokes fear, but nevertheless it is a distinguis and cross-cultural” – in order to avoid misunderstandings and to find a common hing feature of all modern societies. Multilingualism and internationalization language. also open new social and political dimensions that necessarily require the application of DiM. Linguistic and cultural diversity are fundamental aspects of it, building one entity; for example, at European level all citizenship edu- report cation implies intercultural and plurilingual education! DiM in such a context After a general presentation round of the workshop participants (academics and represents a new core competence of cross-cultural professional curricula and practitioners from universities, education colleges, NPOs, language and inte- job profiles. gration networks, government administration and international organizations), Linguistic and cultural diversity are relatively unknown so far within the the participants were asked to brainstorm on two questions (What do you think DiM, often seen as problems and subsumed under “ethnical background”, Diversity Management is? How is Diversity Management interpreted by the en- reduced to language barriers and translation problems in the communica-

94 95 Economy and management of Diversity 3 Wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement Workshop summary | workshop zusammenfassung 3.2

tion with refugees and immigrants. In reality, linguistic and cultural diversi- Workshop 3.2 ty are complex horizontal aspects of DiM and overlapping core dimensions of DiM. At European and international level, DiM is currently dominated by migration and integration issues; this has a considerable impact on the visibili- Multilingual terminology ty and relevance of DiM (“Managing (im)migration means Menaging Diversity”), and structured content on the need for cooperation between stakeholders of DiM (“Anti-discrimination meets management”) and on the need to clarify all terminology-related issues. In Chair: christian Galinski, International Information Centre these contexts, DiM contributes to and supports the implementation of common for Terminology, Vienna immigration policies and the respective legislation. So the workshop participants Rapporteur: Márta Fischer, University of Budapest were particularly asked to discuss and elaborate key statements about the role and function of linguistic and cultural diversity within the concept of managing diversity and its core dimensions (age, gender, disabilities, ethnical background, religion and sexual orientation). ABSTRACT Group 1 discussed about the relationship of legal bindings in force aiming at Terminology does not only cover verbal terms (abbreviations, letter symbols, etc.), the protection of human rights standards and the standard on DiM, pointing out but all kinds of other designations (incl. non-verbal ones, such as graphical sym- that linguistic and cultural diversity are key aspects to be taken care of. Legal bols), which can also be defined or described in a terminology database. Since a bindings can be seen as a preamble for the development of DiM policies. number of years efforts are undertaken to make terminological data and lexicogra- Group 2 acted on the assumption that diversity management is done on a phical data which usually are processed according to incompatible data models, daily basis, may it be positive or negative, subconsciously or with purpose. The mutually interoperable. These efforts have resulted in standardized meta-models linguistic and cultural background of persons is to be considered an additional designed for this purpose. Terminological and lexicographical data are not the only source for the day-to-day management. All DiM dimensions are transversally kinds of “structured content” at the level of lexical semantics. Databases for hand- connected and cannot be reduced to a single aspect or level. ling addresses, names, factual data of all kinds and sorts abound in e-Learning, Language and culture are of equal and utmost importance for all core di- e-Health, traffic telematics, e-Business, e-Tourism, and others. In many cases, the mensions considered in DiM for the discussants of Group 3; what matters is the respective content entities are of a higher degree of complexity – however, still at interaction of linguistic and cultural diversity applied in specific social and pro- the level of lexical semantics. Usually they contain lots of terminological and lexico- fessional contexts; DiM has to take into account and implement different codes, graphical data. Therefore, efforts are undertaken to combine methods for content contents and communication channels relevant for the specific target groups, integration and interoperability in order to avoid duplication of efforts and facilitate involving their different perspectives and attitudes. The main purpose of DiM the creation of content (at the level of lexical semantics) for an array of purposes, is to convey information and knowledge and to administrate human resources. such as language and terminology planning, traditional teaching and e-Learning in Summing up, one has to acknowledge that linguistic and cultural diversity play language minorities, health education in rural areas and poor communities, etc. an essential role in DiM. Linguistic and cultural diversity as fundamental parts Many of these purposes directly support aims and goals stated in UNESCO’s Medi- of DiM must be expressed through appropriate codes, perspectives and themes, um-Term Strategy 2008–2013. They are also in line with the rational underlying the and find application in an appropriate way to the multifaceted and intertwined International Year of Languages 2008. Participants will be invited – among others contexts. DiM has to be creative, democratic and voluntary in order to encoura- – to look at latest developments in the technical committee ISO/TC 37 “Termino- ge continuous communication and interaction among its stakeholders. logy and other language and content resources” of ISO (International Organiza- tion for Standardization), which is formulating the basic methodology standards for content integration and content interoperability. Latest results of pertinent European and international research projects will be presented for discussion.

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report guages. On the other hand terminology planning may well go beyond language The aim of the workshop “Multilingual terminology and structured content” planning since it may affect not only the linguistic level but every field where was to discuss multilingual terminology at both policy and practical level, and to domain-specific information and knowledge is created. As a result, terminology identify the difficulties terminology is facing today. Taking into account the par- planning may be regarded in a much wider perspective than only a part of lan- ticipants’ various backgrounds, basic questions of terminology were discussed guage planning. first. It was underlined that the term ‘terminology’ may relate to different con- Drame then presented the main developments in this field. Taking into cepts. Apart from the collection of terms in a specific subject field – the concept account the importance of terminology policy, an International Standard most commonly known by the general public –, the term relates to terminology (ISO 29383 Terminology policies – Development and Implementations) is cur- as a science and methodology as well. Terminology is, hence, closely related to rently being developed giving guidelines for terminology policy. The Standard “everyday multilingualism” playing a crucial part in professional communication. is based on the UNESCO document Guidelines for Terminology Policies and With increasing specialized communication, terminology becomes more and is to be published by 2010. In the presentation another aspect was discussed more important, since the number of concepts to be designated and systemati- as well, namely the various demands of sectors concerning terminology poli- cally organised increase as well. Participants also had the opportunity to listen cy. Civil society and private sector organizations have their own demand for to two presentations. systematic terminology policies to support their operations and business in a The first lecturer, Christian Galinski, discussed accessibility, distribution sustainable and cost-efficient way. These demands may differ from those of and creation of terminology in, via and through the Web. He first presented a nation or a language community and serve different goals. the state of the art of present terminology work and the impacts of globali- Following the presentation, Mohammad Bataineh contributed to the work- zation (G11N), localization (L10N) and internationalization (I18N) on terminolo- shop with an insight into the work of the Jordan Academy for Arabic. gy theory and application. He highlighted the main requirements today’s data On the basis of the workshop presentations the participants identified modelling must be able to meet. First of all, terminology is now usually combined difficulties and future challenges in terminology. Firstly, it was pointed out there with other kind of contents so that it may be regarded as a kind of structured is still lack of available high-quality resources. One reason for this may lie in content. In this context a new approach, a generic datamodel is emerging which the fact that producing these resources is generally labour-intensive and costly. can be applied to all kinds of structured content as it extends the mainly verbal- Another problem – especially in view of Galinski’s presentation – is that the linguistic term-oriented approach in terminological data management. Another preparation of terminological data is based on traditional approaches, which, important element is semantic interoperability and a higher degree of re-usabi- however, new data modelling systems may change. As a third problem, it was lity. Terminological data and other structured content are, hence, handled with generally emphasised that despite its crucial role in knowledge management, one theoretic-methodological approach, making standardization – also in view business and translation, terminology is still not recognised among experts. The- of content interoperability – all the more important. The presentation also high- refore, the participants called for awareness raising in this field and concluded lighted some deficits of terminological data found, distributed via and created the workshop by again underlying the importance of terminology in both practi- through the Web. The presentation concluded that there are new (multidimen- cal and theoretical terms. sional and integrating) approaches, which aim at solving traditional terminology problems. These new approaches may, in turn, have their impact also on terminology theory and methodology. Anja Drame discussed the possible differences of terminology policy and planning at company and national level. Before presenting the main developments in this field, participants could express their opinions on the notion of terminology planning. On the basis of several remarks, it was concluded that terminology planning may be an important part of language planning, more precisely corpus planning, and especially relevant for minority lan-

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Workshop 3.3 pean countries (Austria, Belgium, Catalonia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germa- ny, Great Britain, Romania, Slovenia and Switzerland) first introduced the rationale and outline of the project, and then focused on their specific tasks within The Dylan Project – The Ljubljana team’s it. The aim of the workshop was to disseminate knowledge on the reality of research task language practices in authentic European environments, and by familiarising the audience with research issues to invite commentaries and to raise awareness Chair: Marko Stabej, University of Ljubljana of multilingualism. Due to the fact that knowledge-production and knowledge- jordi Magrinyà i Domingo, University of Ljubljana dissemination are top priorities of the Dylan Project, the workshop’s informative Rapporteur: Maria Piotrowska, Pedagogical University of Cracow character served the purpose of highlighting those priorities very well. The period of the project covers the years 2006–2011, and in the early phase now, no conclusions or observations coming from the research can be treated as final. The predominant goal of the project is to identify the conditions ABSTRACT under which European linguistic diversity, its multilingualism, is to be perceived The main aim of this workshop is to give an overview of the research project as an asset rather than an obstacle. To fulfil the goal, comparisons of commu- Dylan – Language Dynamics and Management of Diversity, an Integrated Project nication scenarios in various settings are conducted with possible recommen- funded under the Framework Programme 6 (FP6) of the European Union, whose dations for language policies to become more methodical, sound and efficient. central purpose it is to find out under which circumstances multilin-gualism can The workshop exposed an intricate network of relationships between research be an asset rather than an obstacle. partners, research stages, objectives and particular tasks. In order to provide a general outline, we will start with a short description of ‘Everyday multilingualism’ is the key concept in the Dylan Project as this the Dylan consortium (the 19 participating partners) and will then discuss the is precisely the area of research activities and empirical work. The research work project structure and its analytical framework (Policies and strategies, langua- is organised in four fundamental packages (WPs) that use the terrain of compa- ge practices, representations and context within the EU institutions, companies nies (6 partner companies), EU institutions (3 units) and educational systems and educational systems). In addition, we will briefly present the tasks and ob- (6). Among those four WPs, three are further subdivided and oriented towards jectives of the individual research teams. specific sub-goals; subdivided packages allocated to particular research cen- In an attempt to illustrate what the project work can look like more specifi- tres. The fourth work package is structured differently, as it is oriented towards cally we will discuss two research tasks in more detail: a) the ‘transversal’ task three transversal issues of ‘efficiency and fairness’, ‘forms of multilingualism in carried out by the Vienna team (Investigate the linguistic and communicative European history’ and ‘emerging varieties’. The fifth work package concentrates changes that affect English as a lingua franca under increasing interaction with on Training in order to enhance European cohesion by offering training oppor- other languages in multilingual practices); and b) the task focusing on the ‘insti- tunities. tutional terrain’ investigated by the Ljubljana team (Examine the compatibility Among 18 case studies in progress now in various institutional contexts between language policies in favour of multilingualism and political will to pro- across Europe, two were presented clearly, methodically and in more detail mote lesser-used languages). during the workshop. Marko Stabej and Jordi Magrinyà i Domingo, two representatives of the Ljubljana University research team discussed their task of studying the re- report search field of EU Parliament and the Council of Europe with the goal of explo- The Dylan Project Workshop demonstrated a structured and very complex system ring the Slovene language and its speakers functioning within those institutions. of conducting an Integrated Project funded under the Framework Programme 6 The analysis focuses on the comparability of language policy in favour, or not of the European Union. Research teams from two universities in Ljubljana and of multilingualism with interesting insight coming from the area of translation. Vienna that belong to the Dylan Consortium of 18 participants from eleven Euro- The research questions focus on how the working monolingualism can impact

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the external communication in the selected institutional environments and how Workshop 3.4 multilingualism is reflected in EU texts. The other study presented by Heike Böhringer and Cornelia Hülmbauer from the University of Vienna demonstrated the ‘transversal’ task of investiga- Markets and Everyday multilingualism ting linguistic and communicative changes that affect English as a lingua franca under increasing interaction with other languages in multilingual practices. The Chair: helen Kelly Holmes, University of Limerick, Ireland transversal task was structured in order to foster the integration of the project Rapporteur: jiri Nekvapil, Charles University, Prague so that individual work packages could be connected. Examining language practices and policies in a diachronic dimension, with Latin being a historical reference point was another important consideration in that work package. Different perceptions of multilingualism are somewhat reduced at the ABSTRACT initial phase of the project as it imposes certain procedural interpreta- The objective of this workshop is to explore markets as sites of everyday tions of the collected data. The data analysis stage, on the other hand, opens multilingualism. The format of the workshop is designed to facilitate the exchange up broader horizons on the researched variables, that is language practi- of knowledge about how the decisions and practices of actors in the commercial ces, language policies implemented by the authorities and language strate- sector impact on multilingualism, and, conversely how multilingualism impacts gies used by companies, diverse multilingual repertoires and the linguistic on the commercial sector, and what the effects of these processes might be. The environments. Mutual interrelationships among the variables are in the process workshop is divided into three sections. At the start of each section, the con- of being investigated, and the three studied language use terrains are integrated venor will briefly introduce ideas and present data on the topic of that section through the transversal platform, which introduces an element of procedural uni- before inviting responses and input from participants. formity in levelling disparate methods of research. An interesting concluding observation to be made is that tremendous orga- Section 1: Language policy considerations nisational and methodological demands put by the wide-ranging and compre- What is language policy in the corporate sector? hensive Dylan Project on the researching teams in their efforts to efficiently How do companies act as agents of language policy? collect and analyse authentic multilingual scenarios, will hopefully be responded How does commercial language policy interact with national, regional and supra- to by formulating valid generalisations on successful multilingual policies and national language policy? strategies. Complex reality of multilingualism is researched to reveal general mechanisms of communication and to lead to a better understanding of those in Section 2: Concepts and practices of multilingualism a diversity of professional, educational and political contexts. How is multilingualism conceptualised in commercial settings? How do territoriality and individuality principles interact in commercial defini- References tions of language(s) and speakers? http://www.dylan-project.org/Dylan_en/home/home.php What is the role of autochthonous and allochthonous minority languages in commercial contexts? How are these linguistic resources activated in commercial contexts, by whom and with what results?

Section 3: Effects and impacts Do these policies and practices help to ‘normalise’ or ‘abnormalise’ multilingualism? Does multilingualism become an everyday thing or an exotic thing as a result of commercial policies and practices? How can we engage more with commercial contexts and actors in order to inform policy?

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report The relationship between language(s) and economy is not a prominent topic Section 4 in the context of contemporary (socio)linguistics, yet interest in it is undoubtedly growing, particularly in connection with the way in which this relationship is (newly) manifested in the form and function of contemporary languages and economic processes themselves. The relationship between language and economy can be studied using various approaches, from the position of linguistics, typically, as the functioning of various languages in economic contexts or from the Everday Multilingualism position of economics, typically, as the analysis of language as a specific type in media and cyberspace of goods subject to the laws of supply and demand. One ambitious approach is the determination of the participation of language (or languages), communication and interaction in the realization of economic processes, and the workshop It is of crucial importance for everyday multilingualism to promote content and assumed just that approach. easy access to information in as many languages as possible in media and in The aim of the workshop was to explore markets as sites of everyday cyberspace. The interest in this subject area is directed towards medial produc- multilingualism. The workshop was divided into three sections: language po- tion and cyber space content in a wide variety of languages, especially in such licy considerations; concepts and practices of multilingualism; effects and that are less used in this domain so far. New media and the global market as well impacts. The discussion within individual sections was based on a number as traditional media like radio programmes have to be taken into account. of well-formulated questions (see above). The participants particularly dis- The interrelations between language and media politics were illuminated. cussed issues related to multilingual advertising and in this connection new Of particular interest was an exchange of the status quo of media politics in questions emerged such as Does multilingual advertising offer an escape terms of multilingualism in different countries. from monolingualism? It was pointed out that for example, advertising on web- Online resources for non-dominant languages, for example free accessi- sites made use of very limited number of languages (no more than one hundred?) ble language-learning materials in electronic or traditional form for children, while all over the world there are about five thousand languages. Thus it is im- are practical examples of the access to information in regions with linguistic perative to be aware of that multilingualism as practiced in commercial settings diversity. The section was a platform for presentations of initiatives promoting might represent “fake multilingualism” characterized by inability to deal with real linguistic diversity in the media and cyberspace, e.g. the implementation of the multilingualism and linguistic variation in general. European Carta of Regional and Minority Languages in the media sector.

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panel discussion SeKtion 4 Podiumsdiskussion

Multilingualism in the media

Jannis Androutsopoulos, Kings College, London Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit Brigitta Busch, University of Vienna in Medien und im cyberspace Tom Moring, University of Helsinki Helmut Peissl, Verband Freier Radio Österreich Rapporteur: Petra Herczeg, University of Vienna Im Rahmen der Lebensweltlichen Mehrsprachigkeit ist es von wesentlicher Bedeu- tung, Inhalt und leichte Zugänglichkeit zu Informationen in so vielen Sprachen wie möglich in den Medien und im Internet zu fördern. Das Interesse in diesem Bereich richtet sich auf Medienproduktion und Internetinhalte in zahlreichen Sprachen, How to promote multilingualism in the media. Brigitta Busch empha insbesondere in jenen, die hier bisher weniger genutzt wurden. Dabei sind so- sized that speaking about promoting multilingualism in the media means that wohl neue Medien und der globale Markt als auch traditionelle Programmschienen one has not to deal with symbolic or emblematic multilingualism but with every wie zum Beispiel das Radio zu berücksichtigen. Die vielfältigen Zusammenhänge day multilingualism. This is important in terms of access to the media. The zwischen Sprache und Medienpolitik und ein Austausch über den Status quo der promotion of multilingualism in the media has to be seen as a question which Medienpolitik in Bezug auf Mehrsprachigkeit in verschiedenen Ländern ist von concerns policy as well as media organisations. The closure of Berlin’s “Radio höchstem Interesse. Multikulti”, the big multilingual radio station in Berlin, has been argued with the Online-Ressourcen für nicht dominierende Sprachen, wie etwa frei zugängliche results of audience research, which showed that there has been not enough Sprachlernmaterialien in elektronischer Form für Kinder, sind praktische Beispiele audience. Brigitta Bush raised the question, if market economic criteria can be für den Zugang zu Informationen in Regionen mit einer linguistischen Vielfalt. Die put on a project as “Radio Multikulti” – the answer was no, such projects need Sektion diente auch als Plattform für die Präsentation von Initiativen zur Förderung absolutely another treatment. der sprachlichen Vielfalt in den Medien und im Internet, so z. B. die Umsetzung der Jannis Androutsopoulos pointed out that a lot of clarifications are needed, Europäischen Charta der Regional- oder Minderheitensprachen. when one is talking about multilingualism as a whole, and the media as a whole. It has to be cleared, what exactly could be meant with multiligualism and he distinguished two levels: The first level is to allow the use of more than one language. This seems to be the traditional way public bodies and institutions are going: to make available airtime in radio and TV for minority language groups, so that minority languages can be used. This can be seen as a counter mechanism to the market mecha nisms, as some of these groups would never have the strength and economic power to create or to constitute media markets on their own. The second level is to understand multilingualism as switching between different languages, a discourse with a specific type of communication, which implicates more than the simple use of a language. This is much more difficult because it needs a predestination to multilingualism in the audiences. It is very

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difficult to find, to target and to battle these audiences together. autochthonous minorities – print, radio and TV – to have available databanks, Tom Moring experienced that in the field of media and multilingualism language-hotlines and language-services. Media could play a role as a language particularism is more the rule than the exception. One always has to look at service institution and could be linked up with other communities e.g. for trans- the particular situation, even if certain principles can be stated in general. The lations. European Broadcasting Union for example postulates in its membership rules Helmut Peissl presents an example of the UK: three years ago the that a member should provide services for minorities irrespective of the costs, possibility for licences for community radio has been opened, now there are and there are existing other obligations like the Charta for regional and minority existing nearly 200 stations over the UK, a lot of them are ethnic stations. In languages, but in spite of all these rules minority programs are under pressure. spite of scare financial support there has been opened a spectrum for these Moring cited the example of Sweden, where the Finnish radio programme is initiatives. under a strong pressure and finnish programmes on TV suffer under reductions. There are a lot of documents on European and global level. The declarati- So there are a lot of arguments for really strict actions and making more of mo- on of the UNESCO conference in Maputo on “Freedom of Expression, Access nitoring. Moring warns to accept arguments that the minority should be on web, to Information and Empowerment of People” stressed the importance of the leaving the newspapers and other media. media sector and specially the importance of the media for ethnic and linguistic Helmut Peissl was talking from the practical perspective stating that in Aus- groups, to empower people. In a EU-wide study of last year one of the recom- tria 12 community radios in nearly all regions are existing mostly since more than mendations was that all national legalisation should defend the third media sec- ten years, only two of them were tendered from the beginning to produce mul- tor and mainly broadcasting as an own category, with own rules and taking it out tilingual programmes for national minorities. All the other radios now have pro- from the economical pressure, because it is the most spread in this field. grammes in different languages and language mixing multilingual programmes. Tom Moring mentioned Welsh media, which – following his opinion – re- In these programmes 25 languages are present, not because of regulation but ally gives extraordinary good services on television and makes really an im- because it belongs to the idea of community radios to be a kind of bottom up pact on society. Web service and community radio tend to fill much less parts public service, to give space and open access for individual groups producing of the day and they tend to fill much less of the function of media use ofa programmes they need. person. If one thinks about everyday multilingualism, there should be inno vated vehicles where people can spend time in their language. The analy- The Ethnic media market – possibilities to improve ethnic media. sis of what has happened with Wales is that also negative representation on Tom Moring cites Brigitta Busch that the media system at large is more a “han- minorities has come in. In the monitoring reports of minority languages a very dicap” than an asset to languages under pressure and Joshua Fishman, who has common issue is hate speech, negative representation and the new media been pointing to the same. The offering in national languages from the Anglo- in a way is also for me a problematic sphere. Jannis Androutsopoulos added: American media conglomerates is a heavy competitor against minority media. “Of course we have beautiful positive community speech and we have hate spee- Quality matters – otherwise people are not interested in different kinds of offers ch and we have to accept it, if we want to have the open space.” in minority media. It is a question of resources and how one can get the societies Viktorija Palatin (ORF Burgenland, minority Burgenland Croatian desk) is to get in. working for radio, TV and Internet. The most important programme seems to Jannis Androutsopoulos thinks that ethnic media should not be improved from be the 30 minute weekly TV-programme, it is the most watched programme, it is a centralist aspect, they should be self-improving and self-reinventing, and as very popular and German speaking people in the Burgenland asked us, why we new generations of minority language and community people are using new do not have German subtitles. People listen to the radio programmes in Croatian communication technologies for themselves. In his research of different Diaspo- language too, but the ratings are not as high. The internet turned out as very ra web sites. Androutsopoulos found out that some of them create public ethnic interesting and important media, because it offers services – language services, spheres or contribute to mix them – e.g. Turkish and German – because most of you can read the news and information in Burgenland Croatian. The Burgenland them are more user oriented under young professional control. Croatian desk of ORF Burgenland wants to help to develop consciousness, the Brigitta Busch thinks that it would be useful for minority media of Austrian language and sympathy for the language and for the minority.

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Language Standardisation and Cultural Variety. Tom Moring has ciety, how to create a public sphere. If a minority community has a discourse going been convinced by experience and by research that language standardisation of on and nobody is listening, that is not what one can call deliberate discourse. minority languages has been advanced by media. As a journalist educator he has Androutsopoulos is seeing a divide between different kinds of media gen- personal experience with Sami, Swedish, Finnish and Welsh minorities and he res, which have a different accessibility and acceptance by the majorities. On is rather familiar with the Irish and Catalan situation. Androutsopoulos pointed one hand you have programmes based on language such as news, interviews, out that minority languages tend not to be used in certain areas of distinguished talk shows, expert discussions where it is hard to imagine that the majority life – some minority languages are weaker and stop to develop in technologies’ shares them. But on the other side – film, music – where the role of language vocabulary, so that their speakers have to switch in the majority language to talk is less high and the emotional aspects are much more important, there are a about things such as science and specific academic things. lot of examples how such contents are brought into society by minorities and Brigitta Busch thinks that the topic is again access and representation. For then circulated and enjoyed and are shared by the majority. Androutsopoulos people who usually do not have access to the media the free or independent states as an example Bukovinan style club music brought by Serbians, Croatians radios serve as a possibility of training. One example mentioned was a private to Hamburg and London, Bollywood films coming from somewhere, introduced trilingual radio station in the Burgenland where the first journalists in Romani by minority communities and enjoyed by the majorities. Several kinds of media language got training there by doing, so that some of them could moved to the have a bridge function but not all of them distinctions have to be made according public service radio station. The question is how to assess the training that is to the genre of the media. being given by the independent media and to get an official recognition of such The different points of view presented in the discussion and the multiplicity training. of elements belonging to the field of language, ethnicity and public communi- Helmut Peissl added that this of kind training is not so much concentrated cation once again showed the complexity of the issue „media and minorities“ on professional journalistic issues, but is seen much more as an improvement and how many factors have to be considered in developing strategies how to of social, personal and professional competences. promote multilingualism in the media. Above all it’s a permanent challenge for a In the work of independent radio stations in Austria Brigitta Bush found also European media society, which is obliged to maintain Europe’s cultural variety. an exchange moment as mutual visits and journalists working for some time for a program in another language. This started a transformation of discourse, because the journalists going to another program had their own audience in mind plus the other audience usually listening to this program. So having both audiences in mind created a huge impact on the way of communication and on the content too. Helmut Peissl reminded the audience on the project “radio dialogue”, a project of the Austrian community radios in the year of intercultural dialogue supported by the EU and the Austrian ministry for education. In this “Radio dia logue” shall be established multicultural lecture teams with different cultural, linguistic and ethnic background, producing radio magazines which can be heard on all 12 free radio stations in Austria. Via web forum can be interacted and also the public can intervene. Such projects stresses Peissl cannot be done on a voluntary basis they need public support for the values they create. Moring has been involved in a project called European public spheres and spherical concepts. In Finland or Sweden e.g. the main problem is to get minority voices heard outside from the minorities. How can one deal with the problem to allow people belonging to smaller circles to speak to broader circles of the so

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Workshop 4.1 Minority language situation:  The media interferes more with the mother – tounge as supports it  The language – shift and the assimilation of minorities is accelerated Media for linguistic minorities:  The minority – language should perform a restitutionary (giving back) the challenge of new media function, a defensive tool balancing the media impact in the language

Chair: tom Moring, University of Helsinki Levels of completeness: Rapporteur: Mioara Girlasu, Intercultural counselling and therapy  Institutional Centre Graz (ZEBRA)  Functional (depends on level of bilingualism of person or family, social context)

Types of multicultural encounters in the media: ABSTRACT  Ethnically distinct minorities A new media landscape has emerged with the development of new media.  Language minorities (usually already citizens) The Internet, mobile phones and digital television have brought developments  Representation (stereotyping) of nationals from other nations towards niche-media and social media, produced by the end-users themselves. These new forms occur in parallel with commercialization and con- Examples: centration of media ownership and increased benefit of scale in content  web services production. This development affects the situation for minorities in many  Periodicals, weeklies ways. It may be easier to develop small-scale media on new digital platforms.  Radio services At the same time, the challenge from the global media market increases, leading young audiences to consume media from a global market. Media for Warnings: linguistic minorities will have to adjust to new market conditions in order to  Dominance of big languages (30% in English, 2% Russian) maintain a restitutionary or complementary function in service of their related  81% of the Internet in the top 10 languages of the world cultures. The new media landscape presents challenges – at least – related to quality of content, availability on a multitude of platforms and awareness of the Discussion: importance of genre. The workshop will focus on necessary and sufficient insti-  Practical examples tutional and functional conditions for minority media to survive and thrive in a  Radio station new media landscape.  Finnish (Swedish language)  Southern Mexico (small minority/radio program) ¥ commercials, new economic movement – radio is an auditive medium (can express dialects, report intonations) and it is relatively cheap. The main question is: Which role does linguistic and cultural diversity play within DiM and the core dimensions of DiM (gender, age, disabilities, ethnical back- Particular roles of different media: ground, religion, sexual orientation)? Moring main thesis: “Every language should  Radio – keeps the language alive, standardizes it have a full platform of representation”, through: Internet, mobile phones, digital  TV – is the most visible way to present a culture television. First we had a discussion around the main ideas from the presenta-  The press – includes daily reading tion, like how this affects the situation of linguistic minorities or if it is easier to develop small-scale media, new digital platforms? Why is this so important?

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 web – archive of the community, all media (culture/within culture) it depends Workshop 4.2 on the educational level and the way people get access to information.  Sceneggiata Napolitana (theatre) Languages and Media Politics Discussion on different levels: Sprachen- und Medienpolitik  Educational purpose – chats, blogs (develop another type of social language in communication) Chair: brigitta Busch, Universität Wien  Economic aspects – the media of minorities are sometimes of lower quality Rapporteur: judith Purkarthofer, Universität Wien because of financial problems petra Pfisterer, Universität Wien  Social aspects – the distinction between TV or radio programs coming “from above” or “from within”  Question – to put “time” as an investment in it (to offer something which is wanted on the market), in order to acquire more audience ABSTRACT Language and media politics are interrelated in many different ways. Media We have closed up with a positive remark: “All predictions of language-deaths can express the monolingual habitus of nation-state politics but can as well re- are far more pessimistic than they should be; languages tend to live more than flect everyday heteroglossic practices. Especially alternative or citizen’s me- scientists think.” dia provide spaces for the expression of lived heteroglossia, as they do not only want to represent multilingual diversity, but understand themselves as a forum for negotiation. In this workshop we want to discuss the requirements of language and media politics which account for multilingual lifestyles. We will mainly draw on examples taken from the radio. Funding policies and measures of evaluation have a strong impact on media landscapes and their role and responsibilities will be discussed with the participants. Here, we will take into account the participants’ experiences with media and language politics in their countries of origin.

report Sprachen- und Medienpolitik sind auf vielfältige Weise miteinander verknüpft. Medien können Ausdruck eines monolingualen Habitus‘ nationalstaatlicher Po- litik ebenso sein wie Spiegel heterogener sprachlicher Lebenswelten. Um die Aufmerksamkeit der WorkshopteilnehmerInnen auf ihre eigene Vielsprachigkeit, die Vielsprachigkeit ihrer Lebenswelten und ihres medialen Erlebens zu lenken, begann der Workshop mit dem Zeichnen von Sprachenporträts. Die Teilneh- merInnen waren eingeladen, sich über ihre Sprachen Gedanken zu machen und diesem Nachdenken Ausdruck zu verleihen, indem sie ihren Sprachen zeich- nerisch einen Platz in einem Körperumriss zuwiesen. Seit mehreren Jahren verwenden die Mitglieder der Forschungsgruppe Spracherleben dieses Instrument, um gemeinsam mit InterviewpartnerInnen, SchülerInnen und WorkshopteilnehmerInnen

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neue Perspektiven auf gelebte Sprachen und Spracherleben zu erschließen. Die wurde(n). Dies entspricht auch den Erkenntnissen des Eurobarometers („Euro- Zeichnungen sind als Momentaufnahmen zu verstehen sowie als Ausdrucksmöglich- peans and their languages“, 2006), wonach Mediennutzung maßgeblich zum keit für Einstellungen gegenüber Sprachen und Varietäten, und sie dienten im darauf Sprachenlernen und Festigen von Sprachen beiträgt. folgenden Gespräch als Erzählanlass. Einflüsse und Auswirkungen von Sprachen- und Medienpolitik zeigen sich Als neue Dimension kam eine Reflexion über mehrsprachiges Medienerleben u.a. in den Funktionen, die Sprachen und Varietäten zugeschrieben werden, so- hinzu: In einem zweiten Zeichenschritt wurden die TeilnehmerInnen aufgefordert, wie in der stark unterschiedlichen Verfügbarkeit und Zugänglichkeit von Medien die Sprachen und Varietäten in ihren Sprachenporträts durch Möglichkeiten der in ihrer gesamten Bandbreite an Erscheinungsformen in weniger verbreiteten Mediennutzung (wir gehen hierbei von einem Mediennutzungsverständnis aus, oder weniger mächtigen Sprachen. Im Sinne einer Sprachen- und Medienpolitik das auch Medienproduktion einschließt) zu ergänzen, die ihnen zur Verfügung von unten, um auf den Vortrag von Neville Alexander zu verweisen, wäre es wün- stehen. In einer anschließenden Reflexionsrunde beschrieben die Teilnehmer schenswert, die Verfügbarkeit und Zugänglichkeit von Medien an der vorhan- Innen jeweils ihre Zeichnungen und reflektierten, angeleitet durch Fragen der denen sprachlichen Vielfalt und damit an den Bedürfnissen der Lernenden und Workshopleiterinnen, über ihr Sprach- und Medienerleben ebenso wie über Mo- Sprechenden auszurichten. Hierbei ist die Breite von komplementärer, mehr- mente, in denen Sprachen- und Medienpolitik in ihren Porträts und Erzählungen sprachiger Mediennutzung, wie sie sich auch in den Workshopbeiträgen zeigte, sichtbar werden. zu berücksichtigen. Einige Ergebnisse der Gespräche sollen hier festgehalten werden: Gene- Am Ende des Workshops ergab sich eine von den TeilnehmerInnen gewünsch- rell muss davon ausgegangen werden, dass Menschen emotionale Bindungen te Diskussion zum Thema Untertitelung und Synchronisation in Fernsehen, Film zu mehreren Sprachen haben. Ihre Einschätzungen und Einstellungen sind mit und Kino, in der die TeilnehmerInnen ihre Erfahrungen aus verschiedenen eu- persönlichem Erleben, aber auch mit übergeordneten gesellschaftlichen, ge- ropäischen Ländern einbrachten. Die Relevanz von Untertitelung und Synchro- meinschaftlichen und familiären Diskursen verknüpft. Bestimmten Sprachen nisation als eine mögliche Art des bewussten Erlebens von Mehrsprachigkeit werden von ihren SprecherInnen Eigenschaften und Funktionen zugeschrieben, und der Förderung von Sprach- und Lesekompetenz wurde ebenso besprochen u.a. kommunikative Funktionen im Umgang mit Medien. So berichteten die wie die Einflüsse von Filmförderung und Marktmacht auf die (auch sprachliche) TeilnehmerInnen, dass die von ihnen als Muttersprache bezeichnete Sprache Vielfalt der verfügbaren Filme, deren Mehrheit derzeit aus dem englischspra- ohne Einschränkung für alle Formate, Genres und Medien benutzt wird, „egal, chigen, US-amerikanischen Raum stammt. Auch an diesem Beispiel zeigt sich, wo die Informationen sind, das lese ich“, während so genannte Arbeitsspra- wie sehr sprachenpolitische und medienpolitische Entscheidungen ineinander chen (v.a. Englisch, Französisch, Burgenland-Kroatisch, Kroatisch, Deutsch) verschränkt sind und wie die Möglichkeiten, die durch sie geschaffen werden, und andere erlernte Sprachen für spezifischere Medienkontexte stehen. Als sprachliche und mediale Ressourcen, welche Sprechenden und Lernenden zur Beispiele hierfür wurden u.a. Filme, Untertitel, Liedtexte, Radio, Nachrichten, Verfügung stehen, beeinflussen. Bücher, Reportagen, Verfassen und Lesen von Gedichten, Werbung, Comics, Events, Ferien, aber auch Recherche im Internet, Textlesen und -schreiben Bibliografie Busch, Brigitta (2006): Changing Media Spaces: The Transformative Power of Heteroglossic Practi- sowie Plakat- oder Folderproduktion für den Beruf genannt. Der Mutterspra- ces. 206-219. In: Mar-Molinero, Clare & Stevenson, Patrick (2006) (eds.): Language Ideologies, Poli- che wird also die breiteste Mediennutzung attestiert; erlernte Sprachen wer- cies and Practices. Language and the Future of Europe. Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave Macmillan den gezielter, je nach Kompetenz und Verfügbarkeit, eingesetzt, wobei nicht Busch, Brigitta/Aziza, Jardine/Angelika Tjoutuku (2007) (eds.): Language biographies for multilingual learning. Cape Town: PRAESA (Project for the Study of Alternative Education in South Africa), alle Genres, Formate und Medien Sprachlernenden und -übenden für alle University of Cape Town Sprachen und Varietäten gleichermaßen zur Verfügung stehen. Es muss zu- Europäische Kommission (2006) (Hg.): Europeans and their languages. Special Eurobarometer n°243. dem davon ausgegangen werden, dass Medienzugang nicht unabhängig von Krumm, Hans-Jürgen/Jenkins, Eva-Maria (2001): Kinder und ihre Sprachen – lebendige Mehrspra- chigkeit: Sprachenporträts gesammelt und kommentiert von Hans-Jürgen Krumm. Wien: Eviva sozioökonomischen und etlichen anderen Barrieren bzw. Voraussetzungen be- Pfisterer, Petra (2003): Sprache und Medien in Frankreich. Eine Untersuchung der Sprachpolitik trachtet werden kann. Frankreichs in den audiovisuellen Medien. Diplomarbeit, Universität Wien Zusammenfassend lässt sich festhalten, dass Mediennutzung als wichtig Purkarthofer, Judith (2007): Freies Radio! Freies Sprechen? Erleben, Gebrauch und Bedeutung von Standard und Non-Standard bei jugendlichen RadiomacherInnen. Diplomarbeit, Universität Wien für den Erhalt einer Beziehung zu Sprache(n) erachtet wird, die einmal aufgebaut

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Workshop 4.3 ages in computer-mediated discourse, in particular in terms of language choice and code-switching; and the use of multilingual resources in web design, e.g. minority/migrant languages as icons/emblems of insti-tutions or individual users. The multilingual Internet: Spotlight on A selection of materials as a backdrop for discussion (e.g. screenshots, migrant/diasporic communities extracts of web discussion forums, interview extracts) will be provided. Confe- rence participants with personal interest or experience in this area are parti- Chair: jannis Androutsopoulos, Kings College, London cularly welcome to offer their own examples; please contact me in advance. Rapporteur: inese Vasiljeva, State Language Agency, Riga report This workshop shows us the importance of cultural and linguistic diversity in ABSTRACT the digital world and highlighted the fundamental importance of removing barri- New media are changing the way migrant and diasporic lives are experienced ers to access and participation of all on the Internet.1 (Mallapragada 2000). Migrants may e.g. use online newspapers ‘to stay in How to produce multilingualism in media? – That was the main post for panel touch with news and popular culture from the homeland’ (Sinclair and Cun- discussion. In the workshop we continued this post and discussed two objects: ningham 2000); e-mail to facilitate contact with relatives and friends; web dis-  diverse identities cussion boards to sustain geographically dispersed networks of discourse; and  language choice websites/blogs to provide cultural resources and promote migrant agendas. Such practices of new media use and activism may, in turn, have impor- Media studies in ethnological viewpoint have to be performed by supplemen tant implications for multilingualism involving migrant/minority languages. If ting because sometimes is a very hard to understand who is who and why the internet is viewed as a site for ‘the productive construction of new hybrid somebody use some language in some website. If the person use some con- identities and cultures through the active, simultaneous process of main- crete language it does not mean that he/she is relevant to concrete diaspo- tenance and negotiation between the poles of an original home and a newly ra, ethnical group or migrant community. Different language using let the acquired host culture’ (Sinclair and Cunningham 2000), then we may ask person feel, show and uses different identities. From other side of course if about the role of multilingual resources in this process, as well as about the person can use a language somehow he/she is a relevant. But there are relevance of new media practices to the wider status and use of migrant/ many factors that make a language choice – technology problems, unmarked minority languages. languages, identity (in many areas), traditions and purists etc. In this workshop we will try to assess some of these implications, drawing For the absentee are migrant/diaspora-websites pretty often the way to on examples from a range of (European) countries. We bear in mind that mul- communicate with a homeland. But much often they are a way to communi tilingualism on the internet is multi-faceted and comes in patterns which vary cate with other absentees in the same or other cities and countries. Ethni- considerably across as well as within communities. While certain choices of cal public niche interconnected to all societies. And the diasporical websites linguistic resources in computer-mediated discourse are part of daily multilin- are just a part, just a sphere of ethnical life. gualism, to the extent they are routinely engaged in on a daily basis, others The main and the most interesting thing are two different areas of language are subject to the careful planning and editing of web content with a view of choice on the web: edited part and user part. The edited part is a part that keeps addressing ethnic niche markets. More specific issues to be addressed (part- the border between the languages. As often as not diasporical/migrant-websites ly linking back to other topics of the conference) include the role of migrant/ taken a newspaper functions and in this situation we can see edited part best of minority languages in new media activism (e.g. diasporic websites representing all – because of the choice of information which will be publicized on the website and promoting minority agendas) and the potential benefits of such activism to (for example news and current events), update frequency, redaction, etc. minority language maintenance; the hows and whys of migrant/minority langu-

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Which are the relevant languages? Which languages are used for edited Workshop 4.4 part and how? Generally it is three tipes: 1/3 dominantly minority, 1/3 majority, 1/3 bilingual mirror. Which are the factors how/why choose the dominant minority? The factors Multilingualism & Cyberspace – are different and dependent on many reasons and circumstances, for example: how multilingual children can grow up  aim (e.g. not just minority but interested others) in the media society  size of community  historical fact Chair: petra Herczeg, University of Vienna  new generation Rapporteur: gerlinde Egger, Pädagogische Hochschule Tirol  migration  technology etc.

User part is always “multivoiced” mixed of multicultural things – questions, ABSTRACT answers, feedbacks, quotations, references, self-positioning, self-actualization, Languages are embedded in the modus of how media “work” within a human self-showing and self-advertisement, etc. One of the reasons why it is so multi society. In this undertaking, we can mark out a number of different and even lingual and language mixed is a fact that the user ceases to be competent in a apparently contradictory operations: communicative unification processes face mother tongue (mostly a new generation) ore to the contrary – ceases to be a broad diversity of differentiations rooted in the media’s effort to extent their competent in a language of domicile. programmes. Umberto Eco in 1994 assumed that the modern media give rise Interesting things and ethical aspect we can find in chats and discussion to xenoglossy. Such multilingualism also intends a view of seeing modern boars. There is different language regularity. For instance in forum we can media as agencies and reloading points for linguistic novelties and the spreading see that person use one language in profile but another language for a mes- of languages. This is about creating formats, about how to handle multilingu- sage (ie. to post). Sometimes posters language choice depends on questions alism in the various programme elements, and how to encourage networking language – answers follow the same language as a question or first mes- between the interacting partners. We need to discuss how to reach the disper- sage. And the language-choice in poster, profile info or in signature line is like sed target groups characterised by different linguistic competences and subject emblem. Migrant/diasporic-websites create ethnic public spheres in the host preferences. “Children’s radio in multilingual regions” explicates the potential of society. And the minorities usually (most frequently) don’t have policy for web- focused communication strategies: the radio-programme raises the kids interest sites and all the websites are different in their language. in minority languages and gives an example of the way minority groups, their cultures and languages can survive. A CD for children who were belonging to the Footnote Burgenland-croat minority in Austria has been created. This pilot project can be 1 http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.phpURL_ID=18377&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html adapted for other ethnic minorities and will be presented among other projects from different regions.

report In today’s society we find that the media is a vital tool for the spread offo- reign languages across borders. But how can we make the best use of media for our children to promote everyday multilingualism, so that diversity of thoughts and cultures becomes something to treasure: a communication opportunity as opposed to an obstacle?

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The Internet as one such resource is invaluable. The World Wide Web has CD-evaluation also indicated that children who really knew the minority language no limits; no borders, any language can be chosen and experienced fully were proud to understand all languages used in the stories. regardless of location, age or social background. It is therefore a vital tool in The importance of minority languages can be supported with media pro- the promotion of multilingualism. Children are highly interested in languages, ducts, and the aim of the project is still to demonstrate that minority languages as they are with all new and therefore exciting things. The mother tongue is are usable in everyday life and bilingualism is a matter of course. Herczeg sho- developed autonomously at home, on a day to day basis, a process in which they wed a lot of very useful web-sites, which you, dear reader, can explore on your unknowingly partake. Therefore, if another language is introduced simultane- own, the addresses are below. ously, then the learning process becomes almost second nature. Children are But are media really accessible for all children? Often not at home. Schools learning through experiences rather than textbook learning. Through media such and other educational institutions should step in. School libraries could provide as TV, DVD, CD-ROM, they can improve languages by playing games, watching freely accessible language learning materials in electronic form for children, es- favourite shows and not distinguishing the fun from the learning. pecially in regions of linguistic diversity. They could expand their offerings to a If national or regional TV-stations would make more use of subtitling, sho- wide range of media, self-study materials, podcasts for download, games, books wing serials or interviews in news, e.g., children as well as teenagers and all and online magazines in different, domininant and non-dominant languages – at other age groups could benefit a lot. Modern media, however, especially te- least some of them in all the languages spoken at school. Plurilingualism can be levision can be criticised for the sole promotion of certain “highly regarded” achieved through classroom education, but also – and often more effectively languages and could, one may argue, be better used to promote a much and less expensive – through independent autonomous learning. All education wider cultural variety. Yet despite this criticism, we find that in this day and age goes through language; language is used for mental activities. Kids are entitled one is far better enabled to experience other cultures and languages from any to develop their learning abilities according to their needs. For a multilingual point of origin, mainly through this wide-reaching resource. society, the provision of and easy access to information in the media and the internet is of great importance.

references http://www.lingoland.net/languagequiz/q1.php www.funkhauseuropa.de/sendungen/index.phtml www.funkhauseuropa.de/sendungen/radio_colonia/zapping/2007/ berlinertafel.phtml www.bbc.co.uk/voices/yourvoice/multilingualism.shtml www.youtube.com/watch?v=BtdxUu45Df8 www.logosdictionary.org/pls/dictionary/ new_dictionary.kdic.main?phrase_code=4308526 www.blinde-kuh.de/sprachen/index.htm www.early-advantage.com/video/videotestimonials.aspx http://volksgruppen.ORF.at www.buch-mehrsprachig.at, www.sprachensteckbriefe.at http://www.provincia.bz.it/cultura/bilinguismo/home_e.asp

The evaluation of a CD with stories-produced by Herczeg (2006) pointed out that children who were not able to speak and understand the minority language well had the feeling to understand more than they really did. So they got better self-confidence concerning their minority-language competences. And the

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Presentations Präsentationen

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Workshop 1.3 the southern Albanian dialect called Tosk and is spoken above all in the Italian Albanian communities in the South of Italy that, from a linguistic point of view, Linguistic Otherness in education – represent a non-uniform linguistic area. Arbërisht has been and still is used in linguistic behaviour and ethnic private life for familiar affects and has a communitarian diffusion; it is consi- identity across students dered by speakers as a non-prestigious code as opposed to Italian that, on the contrary, has a social distribution, is used in public contexts or business, and is considered by Italian Albanians as an official and more prestigious language. Arbëreshë (Albanians) in Italy – Identity The presence of the Arbërisht dialectal variety in Southern Italy is due to profile among university students with the presence of an Albanian population as the result of several migratory waves some other data from the Balkans (between three and seven, according to the authors, although there is no conclusive documentary evidence), especially from southern Albania Giovanni Belluscio, University of Calabria and the Peloponnese following the Ottoman invasion of the Balcan region in the middle of the 15th century. Having reached Italy they settled in isolated, remo- te, and inaccessible areas of southern Italy (the then Kingdom of Naples), in most cases re-populating pre-existing inhabited areas. Their history, apart from ABSTRACT some recent scholarly studies, is to this day based on descriptions from the The first part of the report will analyze the diverse elements – the language, late Romantic period as well as on a few original texts and copies of notarial religious practices, and cultural patrimony – that constitute, in varying degrees documents.2 and according to local conditions, the identitary traits of the Albanian communi- The 20th century Albanian migrants are not considered as so-called historical ty in Italy. Next will be examined the most important actions taken to relaunch settlers even if somebody uses to add this last migrating wave to the former this minority language. The institutional subjects that have coordinated these as the very last migration. There is a kind of contact between the newcomers actions, deriving from the approval of the national minority language law n. and the historical settlers in the sense that some Albanian newcomers decided 482/1999, have been local bodies within the Provinces. Particular attention will to settle in some Italoalbanian historical communities and today they still live be given both to the energetic role exercised even at the inter-regional level by there. the Province of Cosenza through the special Office of the Councillor for Linguis- The Arbëreshë do not use a single and unified linguistic code, in fact there tic Minorities and to the scientific support activities provided by the University are as many dialects as there are communities. Many dialects are very similar of Calabria. to each other, while others are so different (differences in phonetics, morpho- The second part of the report will briefly examine, in the light of the results logy, word forms, and semantics) that speakers demonstrate some difficulties of a recent study concerning a representative sample of respondents from the understanding each other, so they prefer to speak Italian together instead of Arberesh university student community, the present relations between linguistic Albanian. behaviour and the sense of identity in that age group in the Italo-Albanian community in the Province of Cosenza, which constitutes almost half of the entire historical Albanian minority present today in Italy.

1. A short Introduction. Albanian is an Indo European language1 spoken in Albania, Kosova, Republic of Macedonia and Montenegro; its standard form is the official language of the Republic of Albania. Albanian dialects are also spoken in Greece, Ukraine, Bulgaria and Italy. Arbërisht is a sub-dialectal variety of

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Italo-Albanian villages in the Province of Cosenza, with a rough a more elaborate linguistic koinè commencing in the early 1800s with the work dialectal subdivision of Girolamo De Rada. It should be remembered that in Albania a single alphabet was only developed in 1908, and that it was several decades before its use became the norm. There were objections to the use of Monastir‘s alphabet in the Arbëresh context even more recently (for example, G. Gangale from about 1960). Objections have been based on the different literary tradition and the linguistic and cultural uniqueness of the Arbëresh when compared to the historical, linguistic, and cultural evolution of Albania. Nowadays it can be said that Arbërishtja is a mixed-language code with frequent and normal Code-switching, which has done a relatively good job re- taining both its syntactic and morphological structures but which has lost a lot of its phonetic and lexical integrity. From a sociolinguistic point of view its speakers are also described as diglossic or bilingual: they use Arbërisht in familiar or community context, but they also use standard regional Italian at school, outside their community, or with newcomers living inside their community, and they can also speak the Italian dialect of the neighbouring Italian villages. Only those speakers that have studied and learnt it for their job or for individual cultural Arbëreshë speakers who live far apart prefer to switch to Italian whenever they interest know Standard Albanian.3 have to sustain a conversation or discuss particular issues. This is also common In the past, the first contact of theA rbëreshë with the Italian language would between speakers in the same community who find themselves discussing a topic take place in the classroom, so that it could be said that Arbëreshë children that is outside the usual daily range, or matters unrelated to everyday life. were monolingual Albanian speakers until the age of six. Nowadays, even though In 1979 F. Solano developed and demonstrated a classification and sub- many like to insist this is still the case, children start primary school having division of the dialects on the basis of some phonetic consonant phenomena already acquired a good, ever-improving, knowledge of Italian. and divided Arbërishtja (i.e. Italoalbanian subdialect) into three main and two It is important to remember that interaction between the Albanian and Italian secondary dialect groups, the differences being mainly phonetic, lexical, and, language groups has increased significantly lately. Apart from the Albanian immi- in part, morphological. Savoia (1991) broadened the parameters by adding mor- grants who came to the Arbëresh villages after the fall of communism, there is now phological and lexical elements, although the overall picture set out by Solano among Arbëreshe communities a large number of non-Albanian speaking immi- remained substantially unchanged. grants, i.e. young Italian married couples or singles from Italian villages or cities that The Arbëresh dialect, while not like any dialect in the home country, is a se- married Arbëreshe women. This means that children grow up in bilingual families. parate system with many structural (phonetic, morphological, lexical) similarities The Albanian ethnic minority is clearly not a linguistically homogeneous entity. that bring it close to the dialect of the Çamëria and represents a frozen medieval Out of this demographic diversity come various visions and interests with stage of the Albanian language. It retains many archaic characteristics, but these regard to the local language and culture, leading to difficulties in taking steps to have changed over time due to prolonged contact with the Italian language and maintain and protect language, traditions, and customs. its dialects. The fact that the standard language has a Tosk base offers the Alba- Currently there is no accurate information about the extent to which the nians of the diaspora an opportunity to understand and learn it more easily. Arbëresh actively use the Albanian language, nor are there any data on current The first evidence of a written language among the Arbëresh dates from literacy levels. There is no doubt that the current situation is significantly bet- 1592 with the publication of a Christian Doctrine (E mbesuame e Krështerë) ter than that uncovered by Harrison in 1972–76 when only a very low 8% were by Arbëresh papas Luca Matranga of Piana degli Albanesi in Sicily. Arbëresh literate in Albanian. The improvement is undoubtedly due to the increase in lan- writers have used their local language since that time, with a tendency to create guage teaching in schools as a result of an increase in the number of university

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graduates and a wider use of the language following the introduction of law culture promotions and projects conducted by associations, cultural groups and 482/99. Nevertheless, written Albanian is still not widespread in the various Italian-Albanian publications, and on the other to the work done in the areas of social contexts, and spoken Albanian is in decline as the language is not being research and education by Albanian language and literature departments in the passed on in families, while the Italian language is. Italian universities, which have trained and continue to train a large number of Arbëreshë academics. 2. Speakers. Today Italian Albanians live in fifty communities scattered over Only a very rough estimate of the number of Arbëreshë in Italy is available seven southern Italian regions and ten provinces.4 Because of this geographical which, according to the authors, ranges between 100,000 and 150,000. This is dispersion, Altimari et al. (1989) have referred to it as a “linguistic archipelago”. clearly an indicative figure as, taking the total number living in Italian-Albanian communities as the starting figure, 15–20% of that number which is not Albani- Geographic distribution of Arbëresh communities an speaking needs to be deducted. Unfortunately, as there is no agreed method for including or excluding descendants of mixed marriages, and/or non-Arbëresh couples who have settled in Italian-Albanian communities, who live inside the communities and are linguistically integrated, the figures become even more imprecise and the total number is bound to be lower than is commonly believed1. On the other hand it is not possible to count the Arbëresh that belong to the internal (Ita- lian) diaspora and their descendants, as well as those of the foreign diaspora, as they are “hidden” in the general population of the places were they have settled. Population statistics have been available since 1543 (Zangari 1941), as well as in the Catasti onciari registers since the middle of the 18th century, and from 1861 to 1921 in the censuses of the Italian population. It was the Fascist government which stopped gathering data on the Albanian-speaking Italian population like on all the other minority groups, and this negative stance has persisted ever since. As indicated above, it is not enough to simply count the number of people by community in order to arrive at the total number of Arbëreshë in Italy. This is because: a) the population of Albanian communities is not all Albanian speaking; b) many Arbëreshë have moved to the large Italian cities, especially after 1950, and have been emigrating abroad as far back as the late 19th century.5 Another issue yet to be resolved is what criteria should be used to define Arbëresh. The language is usually the determining factor, so that anyone who speaks Italoalbanian (i.e. Arbërisht) is considered to be Arbëresh. However, sociolinguistic studies, such as Altimari (1983), clearly show that even those It was not until the second half of the 20th century that a wider ethnic awa- who do not speak Albanian can feel, and consider themselves to be Arbëresh. reness began to develop among the Arbëreshë, together with the understanding Others suggest that the determining factor is religious practice and belonging to of the number and location of the communities. This finally led to the limited, a Greek-Byzantine Rite eparchy. restricted view of adjacent or surrounding communities being overcome. The 2002 annual report of the Italian Ministry of the Interior gives a figure Today it can be said that the Arbëreshë have a clearer understanding not only of 70,342 Albanian speaking residents in the “46 Arbëresh communities” which of their geographical, historical, social and political situation, but they are also have by law established their own geographical boundaries and numbers of Alba- surely better informed about cultural and educational issues. On the one hand nian speakers. The figure given for the number of communities, however, is not this raised awareness can be traced back to the many Arbëresh language and accurate because on the other hand we find also figures for some other histo-

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rical Albanian villages that nowadays have lost their original language, traditions as well as in a few other communities in other Provinces, arises from using the and, above all, do not feel as belonging to Albanian ethnos anymore. Besides national legislation to setting up numerous language programmes at the local there is no mention of a definition neither of the term A“ lbanian speaking” nor of and provincial government level. These offer many young graduates the oppor- how the total number was arrived at. tunity of short-term employment.

3. Dialect or language? Arbërisht has been and still is above all an oral 4. Status of language education. Until 1999, before the introduction of language. It has always been widely used in the public sector where Albanian- law 482/99, Albanian could only be taught outside the school curriculum and as speakers worked – for example in town halls, post offices, in schools between an optional, “non-traditional” subject in primary and junior secondary schools. parents and teachers, etc. There was never a problem about using the language In the past it became possible to adapt a curriculum to local needs, but as men- in a place where the official language was supposed to be used. What mattered tioned above, only outside the school curriculum. most was the language most commonly spoken by the person you were talking Subsequently, new secondary school programs provided clear guidelines on to. In the past, speaking Arbërisht with students in class was not allowed, even the maintenance and teaching of minority languages and cultures. Following this when the teacher was Albanian-speaking. Arbërisht was never used on official legislation and the new opportunities it opened up, non-traditional programs occasions such as at town council meetings, public gatherings and assemblies, were run in primary schools. not because of any particular ban but due to self-censorship, the importance However, in view of the different political and administrative circumstances of the event and in order to ensure better communication.The use of the writ- in which Arbëreshe communities find themselves living, legislation and its ten language was not widespread and even today is still restricted to particular implementation vary significantly from one region to the next, so it is difficult Albanian cultural publications, and rarely for standard official, semi-official or to generalise. Basilicata, Molise and Sicily have already enacted regional legis- personal texts. lation to support and protect Arbëreshë communities living under their jurisdic- Only with the introduction of Italian Law 482/99 were the conditions created tion. Calabria has passed in 2003 a regional law, followed by criticism and re- which allowed the written language to be used, optionally, in official documents, servations voiced by many different parties and universities. Abruzzo, Campania government schools and local administrations. Nevertheless, even before the and Puglia have not yet introduced any special laws. It is clear that the teaching introduction of this law, in some Italian-Albanian communities local adminis- of Albanian is not the immediate responsibility of the regions, but also depends trations had introduced bilingual place names in metropolitan and rural areas on Provinces, Municipalities, the teachers’ willingness, school directors, univer- inside municipal boundaries. This had also happened in the private sector, albeit sities, and cultural associations. However, local legislative action can provide a in a very limited way, with shop signage. powerful stimulus to the development of language programs for children and/ In public schools at both the primary and junior secondary levels, as early or adults. When a Region provides ad hoc laws to safeguard minority culture, an as the 1960s, followed by significant growth in the 1980s, extra curricular lan- extraordinary number of initiatives spreads out, above all because local legis- guage and culture classes were available. These took advantage of opportunities lation can also provide some more economic support. offered by ministerial policy circulars and/or legislation which were freely inter- In a study carried out in 1972 in three Arbëreshe communities in the pro- preted in order to fit a multilingual context. vince of Cosenza a survey was done on the teaching of Albanian in schools; Nowadays, despite legislation which allows for the official use of a minority the respondents were 1682 people who represented the general population. language in every possible circumstance, it is still a struggle to promote Arbë- Harrison (1979) states that 47% of respondents would have preferred it to be a risht and have it used widely in documents and in public places as well as in compulsory part of the curriculum, 13% thought it should be optional, 3% wanted social contexts. This is especially the case with the written language. Among it introduced at the higher secondary level and 36% did not answer the question. other things, an effort is being made to have the postal service recognise and According to the author, the latter figure “may indicate an implicitly negative use bilingual place names and to have these used in any official document produ- position which has not been expressed overtly simply out of respect for the ced inside the Albanian speaking community. A major contribution to extending Arbëreshë researchers who were conducting the survey and who – this is known the use of the written language in the communities of the Province of Cosenza, in the towns – want everyone to learn to read and write Arbërisht. In actual fact

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the “blank” response to this question was supplied by those for whom reading Greek-Byzantine rite (into the rings) and Latin rite Albanian and writing in any language is an abstract concept. They either never learnt to villages (out of the rings) or, over the years, have forgotten the little capacity they had picked up so labo- riously at some stage in the past (Harrison 1979).

5. Identity, identities. After this essential introduction, we can now deal with the core of the issue. First of all we have to decide if a population, whatever it is, has a clear perception of what identity is. If we ask somebody “Do you have an identity, and if yes, what is yours?” We normally receive answers which refer to personal data (name, surname, address etc.), and very unusual, or at least quite impossible, there will be answers referring to belonging to (ethnic) groups; that’s why authors like Salza 2003 state that “such a phenomenon (i. e. ethnic or cultural identity) may be considered more like a category created by scientific analysis than an experience really and rationally lived by a population. Let’s start from Trumper-Maddalon 2002 who presents an exhaustive approach to basic theories about identity, language and culture. In their study they describe two far different contexts of ‘minority groups: the Celtic group in Gre- at Britain and Albanians of Italy pointing out the different situations of identity perception in those areas. As far as the Arbëreshë/Italo-Albanians, they give figures from a sample survey they hold among 14 Arbëreshë students at the University of Calabria (questions were about their linguistic consciousness and ethnic belonging. Using statistic data crossing authors state that for 1/3 of the interviewees language In 1974–1976 a first scientific approach was proposed in order to check anthro- and its use is the main identity index. pological and social behaviour in some Albanian communities of Calabria. A group But let’s have a look to foregoing situations. If we think of the inner situation of field researchers, directed by Gualtiero Harrison took into consideration three existing at the historical Collegio in San Demetrio Corone (province of Cosenza) features to evaluate their effective importance on determining what “identity” is were Albanian and non-Albanian intellectuals received their basic cultural for- based on: Language – religious rite – bilingualism. The last item was considered mation during the 19th-beginning of the 20th centuries, the situation there (consi- as necessary in order to point out the thesis of an existing “double identity”. The dering only Albanian students) was very complicated due to their different religi- research’s outcome was that for the arbëreshë at least two “identifications” were ous membership: the Albanian writer Girolamo De Rada (boarder of the Collegio) to be considered: an ancient one (grounded on the myth of the origin, language, reports in his biography the continuous struggles among Arbëreshë belonging to rite, habits, way of life) and a modern one (which has its base on economic terms, the Greek-Byzantine rite and those belonging to the Latin rite. So, there, at that socio-political links with the surrounding regional situation and the awareness of time, identity was based also on religion as well as on language (referring to non belonging to a non-distant other, with whom they share their common problems Albanian students). If we consider the map below, where are indicated Albanian (underdevelopment, emigration etc.). But for Harrison and his staff, identity is ba- communities belonging to the two Greek-Byzantine dioceses, villages are divided sed, above all, on language difference, and this was explained using a paradox: in half. From a cultural and linguistic point of view, it is generally acknowledged; “if you are on a train there is not any other evidence but language to identify an Greek-Byzantine Church had given in the past a great contribute for the protec- arbëresh”, and this to tell that, from any other point of view (way of dressing, body tion and flourishing of Albanian culture as well as group identity.6 language, habits etc.) s/he shares the dominant national/regional way of life.

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We have other remarks in these directions from Altimari 1983. A sociolingu- there is a perception of an irreversible process in the loss of language (parents istic survey carried out on primary school students has stated for the first time use to speak more Italian than Albanian to their children); on the other side that “being Albanian” (i.e. identity) shouldn’t be reduced to “albanophony” (i.e. we are assisting to an increasing level of the perception of culture: there also “speaking Albanian“) because of the answers given by the students. exist a widespread sense of belonging to the group and the growth of language use in official situations (school, offices, media, internet).N evertheless Trumper- From Altimari’s data we have (p. 9): Maddalon’s figures point out that among university student’s identity hasits  Italian mother-tongue students: 50,3% roots above all in the humus of language, but for 50% it has also a necessary link  Albanian mother-tongue students: 49,7% to Albania and albanophony in general. It is also interesting to consider the fact  Students feeling themselves as Arbëresh: 55,6% that for a third of the interviewee identity is felt in opposition to “italianity”. These rough concepts need now a more structural and comprehensive If we consider that 55,6% of the sample feel themselves as Albanian and that analysis with a larger population of interviewee. The CELE (Centre d’études lin- only 50,3% are Albanian mother-tongue, we have to explain what 5% of student guistiques pour l’Europe) together with the chair of Albanology at the University base their identity on. of Calabria is working to a forthcoming field research, a survey on culture, iden- The last survey by Trumper-Maddalon (2002) particular attention is given tity and self-identification. It will be a quantitative approach, useful to reach a to four different situations considering the relationship between language and deeper knowledge of the local situation among the Albanian communities in culture; where language and culture have a different weight than the objective Calabria from a linguistic, sociolinguistic and identitarian point of view. Other values given by enciclopedy or linguistic manuals. Considering the table below, aims will be the analysis of the actual level of different uses of linguistic codes among minority groups, say the authors, it is not relevant processing cases A and the subjective vitality of language ad its link with communities’ identity. and D that refer to the peripheral positions, while cases B and C seem more Only after these new data we can have an updated description, after more common. Quoting Smith 1989, the authors state: a) linguistic ‘distinctiveness’ than 30 years from Harrison’s results, of the linguistic behaviour of different could be used for defining a distinct ethnic group; 2) the definition of “distinct age groups and forecast tentatively the linguistic and cultural evolution of the ethnos” should be based also on what is common for a (in exile) group (Urhei- Arbëresh minority group in Italy. mat, the common myth of the origins, the same heroic figures of the common past; c) “culture” as a complex category that can also imply religion, which can Footnotes 1 The Albanian language, first identified as belonging to the Indo-European language branch by F. replace all the other above mentioned factors. Bopp in 1854, is divided into two large dialect groups: the Geg dialect spoken in the northern part of central Albania and in Kosovo, Montenegro and Macedonia, and the Tosk dialect spoken in the A B southern part of central Albania, some parts of Greece along the southern Albanian border, Boeotia and the Peloponnese, as well as Italy. The two principal dialects are further divided into sub-dialects. + Language + Language Since 1944, the standard or official Albanian language has been based on the southern dialect, i.e., + Culture – Culture it has a Tosk base, even if in the past the language of the State under the Communist dictatorship consisted of both the principal dialects combining equally to form one national language. 2 An early description of the customs and language of the Albanians in Calabria is to be found in C D Marafioti (1595); it is also impossible to ignore the work by Rodotà (1763), especially the third – Language – Language volume, and finally Zangari (1941) on the Albanians in Calabria, as well as Primaldo Coco and Emidio + Culture – Culture Tomai Pitinca for the Albanians in Puglia (Panareo 1996). After Zangari, apart from a few original documents in the archives, historical research on Albanians amounts to the repetition and reorga- nisation of the familiar. A modern and interesting approach is now M. Mandalà, Mundus vult decipi, Palermo, 2007, who proposes a documented revision of historical clichés. 3 But where can we place the Albanians of Italy as a whole? From an historical According to Harrison (1976), only 26.4% of the teachers interviewed said they could read and write Arbërish, while the 1972 survey carried out on a mixed group of respondents found that only 8.9% point of view they seem to cam from the situation B: a well preserved language could read and write both Italian and Arberish. There are no up-to-date figures. but a non real cultural self-consciousness (with the exception of intellectuals 4 We now have good official data from the Frascineto community (Cosenza province, Calabria), and are now passing through situation C in the direction of situation D, since published locally by the parish priest, which describes the situation at 31 December 2003 and which

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may also be indicative of the situation in other communities. Of a total population of 1960 inhabi- storica, Dipartimento per le libertà civili e l’immigrazione, Direzione centrale per i diritti civili, la tants on that date there were 477 families of which 258 (54.1%), i.e. a majority, consisted of mixed cittadinanza e le minoranze, Ufficio minoranze, Roma. couples (233 = 48.8%) or couples where the parents were both migrants of non-Albanian origin Salza Alberto (2003), “Identità”, L’Enciclopedia, UTET, 2003 (25 = 5.4%). The population trend seems clear (general strong decline throughout all communities), Savoia Leonardo Maria (1989), “Per un’educazione arbëreshe”, Le minoranze etniche e linguistiche, as does the breaking down of language use and cultural practice, brought about by an on-going, Atti del II Congresso Internazionale (Piana degli Albanesi, 7¬–11 settembre 1988), vol. II, p. 211-31. growing presence of non-Arbëresh inside the communities. For data on the presence of Italo- Reprinted in Altimari e Savoia (1994) I dialetti italo-albanesi. Albanians in other Italian regions and cities and the demographic ratios of the Italian and non-Italian Schirò Di Maggio, Giuseppe 1985. “Iniziative autonome per la salvaguardia della lingua e delle tradi- speaking populations, (including information about other, non-language and non-cultural, aspects), zioni albanesi in Italia nell‘ultimo quindicennio.” – In: Le minoranze etniche e linguistiche: Atti del 1º see Tagarelli 2000 and Tagarelli 2004. For a sociological and demographic discussion of Arberish Congresso internazionale – Palermo; Piana degli Albanesi : [s.n.], 1985, p. 291-312. migration see Bolognari (1989). Smith A. D. (1989), The Ethnic Origin of Nations, Blackwell, London-New York. 5 There is no better study of Arbëresh demographics than the comprehensive research carried out by Solano, Francesco (1979), I dialetti albanesi dell’Italia meridionale. Appunti per una classificazione, Gambarara (1980). This study analyses two periods by using the population censuses held between Quaderni di Zjarri. 1861 and 1921 which are then combined with and compared to statistics gathered by Klaus Rother Tagarelli Antonio, Anna Piro, Giuseppe Tagarelli (2000), “L’etnia arbëreshe del Parco Nazionale in 1966. Some figures gathered first hand in the municipalities of Milan, Genoa, Bologna and in three del Pollino. Studio genetico-comparativo tra la popolazione arbëreshe e non arbëreshe limitrofa”, outlying Milanese districts (Garbagnate, Cinisello Balsamo and Cologno Monzese) are available in S,Tagarelli, Antonio (Editor), L’etnia Arbëreshe del Parco Nazionale del Pollino. Studio genetico- Bolognari (1989). Some more data are given in Belluscio (1988). For data on the presence of Italo- comparativo tra la popolazione arbëreshe e non arbëreshe limitrofa, CNR, Rubbettino, Catanzaro. Albanians in other Italian regions and cities and the proportions of Italian and non-Italian speaking Tagarelli Giuseppe, Anna Piro, Paolo Lagonia, Francesca Condino, Antonio Tagarelli (2004), “Studio populations, (including information about other, non-language and non-cultural, aspects), see Taga- antropologico della comunità arbëreshe della provincia di Torino”, in Tagarelli, Antonio (Editor), Stu- relli 2000 and Tagarelli 2004. For a sociological and demographic discussion of Arberish migration dio antropologico della comunità Arbëreshe della provincia di Torino, CNR, Edizioni Libràre, Torino. see Bolognari (1989). Trumper John, Marta Maddalon (2002), “Identità e lingua”, La legislazione nazionale sulle minoranze 6 Considering villages that have lost language and sense of belonging, they all belong to Latin rite, linguistiche. Problemi, Applicazioni, Prospettive, V. Orioles Editor, Monographic issue of Plurilinguis- and probably this is not by chance. mo. Contatti di Lingue e culture, Forum Editions.

References Altimari, Francesco, Leonardo Savoia (Editors., 1994), I dialetti italo-albanesi. Studi linguistici e storico-culturali sulle comunità arbëreshe, Bulzoni editore, Roma. (The largest collection of dialecto- logical and linguistic writings). Altimari, Francesco (1988), “Comportamento linguistico e condizionamenti socioculturali nella situazione plurilingue di un’area albanofona della Calabria», in Studi linguistici arbëreshë, Quaderni di Zjarri (First editiona: Etnia albanese e minoranze linguistiche in Italia, Atti del IX Congresso Inter- nazionale di Studi Albanesi (A. Guzzetta. ed.), Palermo 1982, 51-74. Altimari, Francesco (1985), “Lingua ed emigrazione nella comunità albanese di Calabria”, in Le minoranze etniche e linguistiche : Atti del 1º Congresso internazionale di Studi albanesi, Palermo, Piana degli Albanesi, 1985, p. 121-141. Belluscio, Giovanni M.G., Vita Lentini (ed., 2002), La minoranza linguistica italo-albanese: Aspetti educativi e culturali, Catanzaro, 125-141. Bolognari, Mario (1978), Il silenzio della tradizione, Edizioni Sciascia, Caltanissetta-Roma (especially Chapter 2 “L’insegnamento scolastico dell’arbresh”). Çabej, Eqrem (1976), «Storia linguistica e struttura dialettale dell‘albanese d‘Italia», Bilinguismo e diglossia, Pacini, Pisa. Camaj, Martin (1976), “Il bilinguismo nelle oasi linguistiche albanesi dell’Italia meridionale”, AA.VV., Bilinguismo e diglossia in Italia – CNR Centro di studio per la dialettologia italiana, Pacini,Pisa. Carrozza Paolo (1986), “Profili giuridico-istituzionali” (§ 9 in particular)”, Altimari F., Bolognari M., Carrozza P., L’esilio della parola, ETS Editrice, Pisa. Gambarara, Daniele (1980), “Parlare albanese nell’Italia unita”, Zjarri, anno XII, 27, San Demetrio Corone, 49-67. Harrison, Gualtiero (1979), La doppia identità, Sciascia, Palermo. Maddalon Marta, Giovanni Belluscio, “Albanian and Italo-Albanian a difficult case of linguistic contact”, Akten des 34. Linguistischen Kolloquiums in Germersheim, 7–10 Oktober 1999 (L. Rapp Editor), Peter Lang, Mainz 2002, Vol. 1, pp. 193-202. Ministero dell’Interno (2002), Gli Arbëresh in Italia, cultura ed immagini della minoranza linguistica

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Workshop 1.3 motivation, intelligence, language-learning proficiency, parental aspirations or other factors of this level. Furthermore, when a group is additionally reported to have a Linguistic Otherness in education – relatively weak average command of the family language (in our case: Turkish) the linguistic behaviour and ethnic “individual-motivation hypothesis” could be assumed to be ruled out completely. identity across students Rather, we have to aim at getting substantially more insight into maybe still unknown causes for such striking “collective” language-proficiency characteristics, as well as into actual language use and language shift patterns, family-language biographies Best success through language loss? and their impact on the next generations‘ school (language) success in migration. Open questions and possible answers In this context not only the receiving societies’ education and language policies, but concerning language, school and also that of the sending countries have to be subjected to closer inspection. immigration However, if language proficiency, use, transmission and loss appear as collective phenomena, they can only result from high societal pressure on a whole Katharina Brizic, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna group, and thus from specific aspects of social inequality. Furthermore, if in fact an impact of family-language biographies and parental language transmission on immigrant children‘s proficiency can be uncovered, a fresh perspective should Studies of how well immigrant pupils do at school and how easily they aquire emerge for the examination of the qualitative hypothesis named above stating: a language regularly come from very different and fiercely debated approaches. family-language loss does not facilitate school language acquisition, just because Quantitative sociology often1 arrives at the conclusion that maintaining immigrant- language acquisition is a holistic process and highly depends on the quality of family languages is counterproductive to children’s educational success. Therefo- parental input. If parents transmit the language(s) they feel “at home” with, child- re, some researchers favour language shift from the immigrant languages to the ren can be expected to score higher in both family and school languages. societally dominant language as a basic condition for school success (Esser 2006). The incipient project “Best Success through Language Loss?” presented here Qualitative linguistics, in contrast, mainly reveals a positive maintenance effect on deals with the many questions related to this area of research. It furthermore in- children’s school (language) proficiency, immigrant family-languages thus being vestigates what new answers to these issues would mean for the present fierce regarded as a potential resource for school-language acquisition and educatio- educational policy debates in many European and other immigration societies. nal success (Cummins 2000). To complicate things further, there is a substantial The incorporation of several disciplines concerned (sociology, socio-/psycholingu- blind spot in many parts of educational research in regard to the question which istics, research on language shift etc.) is intended to make the present approach languages are actually transmitted in immigrant families (as to this remark cf. Bri- innovative. Thus, for methodology and theory, but also for educational practice in zic 2007). Moreover, many researchers point out societal responsibility for edu- sending and receiving societies ample output can be expected. cational success and social cohesion in modern immigration societies (Portes & Footnote Rumbaut 2001), while others favour the importance of individual motivation (Esser 1 but not always: see Portes & Rumbaut 2001 2006) – a controversy which is closely connected to the challenging question why some groups, such as the Turkish immigrants, regularly score so low in regard to References Brizic, Katharina (2007): Das geheime Leben der Sprachen. Gesprochene und verschwiegene Spra- educational as well as linguistic success (Esser 2006). chen und ihr Einfluss auf denS pracherwerb in der Migration. Internationale Hochschulschriften, Vol. From a sociolinguistic perspective, an exploratory study (Brizic 2007), con- 465. Münster (et al.): Waxmann. ducted 2003–2005 in Vienna with sixty immigrant children from the former Yugos- Cummins, Jim (2000): Language, power and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon (et al.): Multilingual Matters. lavia and Turkey, tried to address these antagonisms. From this study the following Esser, Hartmut (2006): Sprache und Integration. Die sozialen Bedingungen und Folgen des Spracher- hypotheses have emerged: When school failure and school-language learning “disa- werbs von Migranten. Frankfurt (et al.): Campus. bility” appear as collective phenomena, such as in the case of the Turkish immigrant Portes, Alejandro & Rumbaut, Rubén G. (2001): Legacies: the story of the immigrant second generation. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press. group in Austria, they can by no means result from individual differences in terms of

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Workshop 1.3 20th century in the beginning of which the last monoglot speakers lived. Today, all users of the language (except very small children) are fully bilingual. Although Linguistic Otherness in education – Upper Sorbian could be spoken by about 20,000 people at the moment, it is only linguistic behaviour and ethnic less than half of this number who are, from both objective and subjective causes, identity across students active daily users of the language; for even a smaller number Sorbian is really used currently, deliberately and consciously. In comparison with the situation in Lower Lusatia, Upper Sorbian still shows greater vitality and is still the mother tongue of a Sorbian youth: bilingualism, language number a children and young people; yet within its area and domains of its use we attitudes and ethnic identity come across considerable assimilation trends, overall erosion and many particular problems. This fact also concerns what has been referred to as the Catholic region, Leoš Šatava, Institute of Ethnology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague which is an area approximately between the towns of Bautzen/Budyšin, Kamenz/ Kamjenc and Wittichenau/Kulow comprising about 250 km2. Here it is the only territory where in about seventy to eighty villages 9,000 to 10,000 Sorbs still make up approximately two third (in some places even 80 to 90 per cent) majority of the ABSTRACT inhabitants; it is also only here where there are schools with Sorbian as the medi- The present-day ethnic and language situation of the Sorbs, a small Slavic mi- um of instruction. Although Sorbian fulfils the fundamental communication func- nority group in the territory of Germany, is complex and ambivalent. Despite the tion here, its role in this field is decreasing. It is also common to switch language revitalisation efforts, assimilation still goes on threatening the very existence of codes (i.e. Sorbian and German) usually depending on the situational background the minority group and the Sorbian language both of which are growing weaker of the conversation. in the number of the members and speakers. Far poorer is the situation in Lower Lusatia. Out of about 6.000 to 7.000 For the Sorbs and their culture to survive in the future, the young people are users or, let us say people with Lower Sorbian language competence, almost all of utmost importance today since they are a litmus paper of problems of Slavic speakers of Sorbian as a mother tongue are aged over 60. Their number declines Lusatia today. Increasing ethnic and language activism of young Sorbs has been fast as there are no natural arrivals of children and young people. The number an outstanding new phenomenon recently; the significance of its results, howe- of opportunities to use the language is already very limited; this fact is further ver, decreases due to their small number. strengthened by the low prestige of the language. Besides the given handicaps, The paper deals with details of many phenomena, in particular of the pro- a considerable distance between the (purified) standard language and the (Ger- blems of (in a number of cases dual) ethnic identity of young Sorbs and their manized) village dialect has occurred. Ethnic delimitation of the Sorbs is not attitudes to Sorbian (and/or German); theoretical and practical aspects of bi- sharp today, too. Only seldom do they declare themselves as an ethnic group, a lingualism, concern for the survival of Sorbian culture and the estimation of the nation; most often they refer to themselves by means of the ethnonym (Sorbs) overall situation of the Sorbs in Germany are also inquired into. Some hypotheti- or a people. Similar to many other minority ethnic groups, it is the language that cal developmental trends and tendencies are outlined as well. is their main differentiating factor. When speaking about Lusatia, we should make distinctions as to the present- day situation of the language assimilation. In the whole of Lower Lusatia and in Sorbs, a small Slavic ethnic group settled in the eastern part of today’s Germany the predominant, Protestant part of the territory of Upper Lusatia, a language for one and a half of thousand years, have been exposed to permanent assimi- shift occurred about fifty years ago. The young generation of Sorbian ethnic ori- lation in the last two hundred years. The number of the users of the Sorbian lan- gin is almost fully assimilated in those parts. The situation in the heartland, i.e. guage (divided into two branches, the Upper and Lower variants) keeps falling. in the Catholic triangle between Bautzen, Kamenz and Wittichenau and to some While in the 18th century there were about 250,000 speakers, the 1886 Census extent also in a specific case of the town of Bautzen itself, is different –S orbian already gives only 166,000 Sorbs and the decline went on throughout the whole ethnic consciousness is still the medium of communication of all generations.

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The general situation in the generation handing over Sorbian to the children The presented findings may be further specified within several is, nevertheless, alarming. It is the mother tongue (of a substantial part, in many broad topics: places even the majority) of children and young people in Upper Lusatian Catho- A. The Sorbian ethnic awareness. In their views of their identity, the lic region only; even here however, this fact is far from being valid for all families, A-students (visiting the schools with Sorbian-medium instruction in the majority and the total number of Sorbian-speaking youngsters is small (less than 2.000 of school subjects) were not unanimous. Only about one-third of the students people under 20!). Outside the Catholic villages and Bautzen/Budyšin Sorbian- identified themselves either clearly or exceptionally as Sorbs. Although, on ave- speaking children and young people are a rare exception; with respect to their rage, Sorbian identity seems to rate slightly higher than the German one, a large number, we might rather think in tens and hundreds. Owing to quite a small group identifies with the designation of “German”. Only very few students, how- birth-rate, there are, on average, only about 50-60 (sic!) children born per year in ever, identify with the ethnonym Slavic. National awareness seems to spring from Lusatia today who can, prospectively, be assumed to hand on the Sorbian langu- tradition rather than from conscious argument. Sorbian ethnic awareness of the age as a mother tongue. The awareness of the double, i.e. Sorbian and German A-students, therefore, tends to decline, and so does its strict delimitation, in com- (ethnic) identity has been growing stronger. parison with their parents’ generation. Welsh sociolinguist Heini Gruffudd, specializing in language attitudes of mi- The Catholic region is the area of the highest degree of both the young people’s nority group young people, wrote: “… language choice in the case of bilingual ethnic awareness and their language loyalty. The situation there is, however, quite youngsters will probably provide a more accurate guide to the state of vitality of complicated. The hypothesis that the degree of the Sorbian factor will be higher the endangered language then statistics on language ability.“ This thought of his among students from its core area than among students from the fringes has not applies to Lusatia as well. been confirmed. Generally speaking, the extent ofS orbian identity and the use of What then is the present-day state of ethnic consciousness and of the Sor- the Sorbian language should not be overestimated, not even in the heartland of bian language, largely understood as the main ethno-differentiating mark (sym- the so far Sorbian-speaking area – the strong impact of language erosion and the bol) of the Sorbs, among the youngest generation of the Sorbian youth in whose decrease in self-identification with the “Sorbian” are already visible here as well. hands the fate of the language in the 21st century is – that is among the children In Bautzen/Budyšin and in the Protestant area in particular the level of “Sor and young people of the Catholic region and Bautzen/Budyšin? bian factors” appears to be slightly lower. From the sociolinguistic survey, interviews and participant observations Students from B-classes (most students are of German origin, and Sorbian is carried out at schools in Upper Lusatia and the Sorbian Grammar School in one school subject only), on the other hand, emphasize their “German identity”; Bautzen/Budyšin in the past decade, a large bulk of data was obtained (Šatava yet a certain part of them feel connected with the Sorbian traditions, no doubt 2005). On the basis of their analysis and interpretation with respect to the de- because of the partly Sorbian background of the parents. clared (ethnic) identity, the use of the Sorbian language, the reception of Sorbian culture, and attitudes of the students of Sorbian schools, some fundamental B. Sorbian – language attitude and language use. In considering assumptions were confirmed: this aspect, differentiation is important as well. For a relatively large part of the 1. Concerning ethnic self-identification,S orbian young people do not make one A-students, Sorbian is still the language of everyday communication (together homogeneous whole. with a lesser or greater degree of German, of course). Yet, they have grave short- 2. substantial differences exist between respondents according to their age, comings in Sorbian word formation, and their spelling competency is on a very low sex and place of origin. level. Regarding the use of the Sorbian language, the same concepts apply as for 3. Compared to the students of the Sorbian middle schools, the students of the the Sorbian awareness; it means that it is rather a tradition (family; local) than a Sorbian Grammar School have, on average, displayed a slightly higher rate of conscious “programme”. positive attitudes to some Sorbian phenomena. Some of the B-students are also able to communicate actively in Sorbian – they are most frequently students from all-Sorbian or mixed families. On average, knowledge of the Sorbian language for the majority of the B-students is quite weak and mostly passive (sometimes even deliberately so).

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As far as the sex of the respondents is concerned, it is conspicuous that it is At about the age of 20 or later, due to various factors such as greater matu- the girls who develop a closer relation to the Sorbian language and declare more rity, a Sorbian partner and others, this attitude can change again to the benefit interest in its maintenance; in comparison to the boys, they are also greater “con- of Sorbian. To sum up, we can say that the A-students of the SMS and the SGS sumers” of the Sorbian media. consciously identify with their Sorbian background, language and culture only to a small degree. Instead, these students subconsciously seem to adopt certain C. Sorbian culture. Reception and the active use of the Sorbian culture, or let routines or stereotyped identities which, in case of changed living conditions (e.g. us say its role in the lives of A-students, appears to be a relatively weak phenome- moving from a largely Sorbian-speaking village to a German-speaking neighbour- non. The young people feel a part of the international scene and prefer contem- hood) that can easily shift in the direction of German and German conscious- porary (pop) music (mostly English), computers or sport to traditional “national” ness. cultural activities. Obviously, there are also relatively fewer such cultural activities, such as limited radio broadcasts, and a small number of Sorbian books, magazines Conclusion. A rapid language shift towards German, which occurred in the Pro- or music projects. Among the B-students “Sorbian”“ culture plays almost no role; testant parts of Upper Lusatia and in Lower Lusatia in the 1940s and 1950s, is not on the contrary, it is often rejected and denigrated. as likely to occur in the Catholic parts. Nevertheless, the Sorbian-speaking milieu, The results of the questionnaire survey confirm great heterogeneity ofS orbian still relatively intact, is exposed to serious erosion, especially on the fringes. The students with respect to their ethnic identity, relationship to the language, and percentage of only German-speaking or mixed families has been rising. Important reception of Sorbian culture. Generally speaking, their feelings of belonging (and warning signals point to a considerable weakening of Sorbian self-identification and being active) among the Sorbs tend towards indifference. the will to use Sorbian actively (and pass it on to younger generations also in many This phenomenon has two levels: firstly there is the objective level, i.e. the genuinely Sorbian or so far largely Sorbian families). The proportion of Sorbian position of Sorbs as a minority group in Germany and in Lusatia, as well as the young people affected by these facts can only be roughly estimated; the reality may particular, everyday personal and social living conditions of each individual; se- be near 50%. Findings and conclusions from bilingual Wales (Gruffudd 1997:222) condly it is the subjective level dependent on the will and wishes of the people concerning the majority of adolescents aged 16–17 who hesitate about the questi- themselves. Which of the two levels will be stronger and which will be weaker in on of their language and ethnic belonging can, most probably, be applied to Lusatia their impact can hardly be determined. When compared to the pupils in the lower as well. The present day efforts to revitalise the Sorbian language and conscious- grades/forms, Sorbian adolescents seem to experience a natural “crisis of (eth- ness should, therefore, concentrate on winning the hesitant “grey zone” of the stu- nic) identity”, which is most acutely felt between the ages of 15 and 17. They do dents over to the Sorbian side. Only in passing Sorbian and Sorbian consciousness not want to stand out, be different from the others, and they often cling to German on to other generations lies the chance for the further existence of Sorbian (i.e. also identifiers. Many imitate German young people and the global (largelyA nglo-Ame- Sorbian-speaking) Lusatia. In order to achieve this aim, greater readiness for action rican) cultural behaviour; they also increasingly distance themselves from Sorbian of the younger generation is, therefore, a sine qua non (Šatava 2006). culture, which now appears “unnecessary”, “boring”, not “cool” enough or “fine” References enough. Gruffudd, H. (1997), Language conflict and young people: Mass media and threatened languages. “It is just the time between 14 and 20 … when you are … already fed up with In: B. Synak, T. Wicherkiewicz (eds.), Language Minorities and Minority Languages in the Changing the Sorbian … you are fed up with hearing the Sorbian and you actually want away Europe, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego: 213–226. Šatava, L. (2005), Sprachverhalten und ethnische Identität. Sorbische Schüler an der Jahrtausend- … the German has something … it draws you … after twenty one has … mostly wende. Bautzen: Domowina-Verlag (Schriften des Sorbischen Instituts/Spisy Serbskeho instituta calmed down after a stormy youth …”; “In the young people one can see that ... 39). In the chapter Literature of this work, other author’s texts, especially those published in perio- it is most important to be cool ... and to it also belongs that one ... has the right dicals, on issues concerning the language and identity of Sorbian young people, are mentioned (in Czech, Sorbian, German, and English). clothes, that one listens to the right music and that one also speaks German.”; Šatava, L. (2006), Młodźina – identita a rěč. Ideje, naprawy a argumenty /Youth – Identity and Lan- A female source (*1974), tape-recorded in April 1996. guage. Ideas, Measures and Arguments/, Budyšin: Domowina – Rěčny centrum WITAJ. Of course – the situation in other minority groups of Europe – e.g. in Wales Walde, M. (2004), Demographisch-statistische Betrachtungen im Oberlausitzer Gemeindeverband „Am Klosterwasser“, Lětopis, 51 (1), 3-27. – is often similar.

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Workshop 1.4 main linguistic groups, and, in the Ladin parts on trilingualism. South Tyrol’s consociational democracy system provides for a large spectrum of positive mea- Multilingualism in diverse contexts sures within its arrangements. The ethnic divided governance system applies to everyday life in South Tyrol, ranging from the field of public employment to the educational system and linguistic rights in practice. A system of group rights South Tyrol’s institutionalized linguistic established in the Province of Bolzano/Bozen, based on the declaration of af- diversity – status quo and challenges filiation to a language group and resulting in a ethnic quota system aims at the preservation of the German (and Ladin) language and culture. Elisabeth Alber, European Academy Bolzano|Bozen Art. 99 of the Autonomy Statute (hereinafter ASt) sets German on a par with Italian, being the latter one the official language of the State (“In the Regi- on the German language is made equal to the Italian language, ...”). Everybody can either use Italian or German (in limited areas also the Ladin language) in The Autonomous Province of Bolzano/Bozen-South Tyrol in Northern Italy is ge- the relations “with judicial offices and with the organs and offices of public ad- nerally considered to be one of the most successful examples of the accommo- ministration situated in the Province or which have regional power, as well as dation of minorities through territorial self-government. Annexed by Italy after with concessionaires who provide public services in the Province.” (art.100 ASt WWI, it suffered a strong policy of assimilation during the fascist regime, when para.1). The public employers must be bilingual (and trilingual in the Ladin areas) mass immigration of Italians was promoted to industrialize the area and to chan- as well as place names must be bi(tri)lingual. Nevertheless, toponomy related ge its ethnic composition. After a long-lasting dispute between Austria and Italy, issues are one of the most debated topics in South Tyrol. involving also the United Nations General Assembly, in 1992 the international A so called ethnic proportional representation quota system regulates the conflict regarding South Tyrol was settled: the full implementation of the auto- employment of the personnel in public offices, being the positions “reserved nomy system accompanied by the satisfying protection of its German-speaking for citizens belonging to each of the three language groups in proportion to the minority was officially acknowledged. numerical strength of those groups ascertained from the declarations of mem- The autonomy arrangement for South Tyrol (Second Autonomy Statute, bership given at the time of the official census of the population” (art. 89 ASt 1972) is strongly characterized by detailed legal safeguards assuring the territo- para.3). This quota system is conceived as a mechanism of reparation for the ry a distinctive position within the Italian legal system, which protects linguistic Italianization process during the fascist period. Being an affirmative action, the minorities by means of special measures required by art.6 of the Constitution question regards its limitation in time, which is not clear yet and often debated. (“The Republic safeguards by means of appropriate measures linguistic mino- The educational system in South Tyrol is based on separation and the princi- rities”). Article 116 para. constitutes the legal guarantee of the special rights ple that “instruction in the nursery, elementary and secondary schools shall be granted to the autonomous regions (“According to their special statutes adopted provided in the Italian or German mother tongue of the pupils by teachers of the by constitutional law, particular forms and conditions of autonomy are enjoyed same mother tongue” (art. 19 ASt para.1). The teaching of the second language by Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily, Trentino-Alto Adige, and the Aosta Val- is obligatory. A multilingual system is implemented in the Ladin valleys, where ley.”). Thus, in Italy we distinguish between a protection system based on a far- lessons are conducted, in equal hours, in Italian and German, and Ladin is taught reaching autonomy including the German-speaking South Tyroleans, a system as well. enhancing cultural and linguistic development embraced in the law 482/1999 School and language policy have always been interwoven in South Tyrol implementing article 6 of the Italian Constitution and a no special protection lately the voice for a integrated model gets stronger. Although intensive talks system for not recognized minorities such as Roma and immigrant groups. about how to reform school policies are on a daily agenda, reservations against South Tyrol’s population (462.999 inhabitants1) consists of 69,15% German- bi(tri)- or plurilingual instruction, against immersion instruction, against the co- speakers, 26,47% Italian-speakers and 4,37 Ladin-speakers.2 The whole institu- presence of teachers of German and Italian mother tongues, and against expe- tional design of the Province of Bolzano is based on the separation of the two rimental content.

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Language Integrated Learning initiatives will continue to be upheld, especially by the main political parties. However, recently conducted surveys confirm the desire of South Tyroleans to move towards an integrated model of language learning3. The future will show if the demand for such methods and the already experimental implementation in some areas (especially urban areas) can find their right to exist in a wider South Tyrolean context where historical legacies and the politicization of conflicts still burden their development significantly. South Tyrol’s detailed autonomy arrangements based on a permanent trust-building process are challenged by evolving interethnic tendencies and by the raise of immigrant presence4. Concerning the integration of immigrant children, art.19 ASt finds application also vis-à-vis foreign pupils attending schools in South Tyrol. The decision 07/05/2007 of the provincial government foresees, among another measures, the establishment of language centres and competence centres as facilitators for the integration of people with migrant background, favou- ring an integrated model supported by professional cultural mediators. Glocal tendencies, potentials and limits of the development of territorial autonomy, minority protection and immigrant integration will necessarily lead to intensive discussions and eventually open new horizons within the South Tyrolean autonomy arrangements.

Footnotes 1 For further data on the census 2001 consult: http://www.provinz.bz.it/astat/it/popolazione/ 445. asp?redas=yes&demographischebewegungen_action =4&demographischebewegungen_ article_id=25041 2 Source: ASTAT, South Tyrol in Figures (Provincial Statistics Institute, Bozen/Bolzano), 2005, 15. 3 For example, the results of the survey conducted by the research institute Apollis on behalf of the weekly South Tyrolean journal FF shows that 81% of South Tyroleans would welcome a bilingual school policy (16% are against it); this is the opinion not only of 98% Italian-speakers, but also of 73% German-speakers and even of 74% of sympathizers of the SVP, the ruling German ethnic catch-all South Tyrolese Peoples’ Party. FF Umfrage, “Die Stimmen des Volkes”, in FF No.23/2008, 20-31 4 Immigration increased significantly in the last few decades in South Tyrol. For example, the 5,8% of 01/2007 increased to 6,7% at the end of 2007; this amounts to approximately 33.ö000 persons; Ca- ritas/Migrantes, Immigrazione-Dossier Statistico 2007, XVII Rapporto, Idos-Redazione Roma, 2007.

References Woelk, J./Palermo, F./Marko, J. (eds.), Tolerance through Law – Self Governance and Group Rights in South Tyrol, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden/Boston, 2008

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Workshop 1.4 and the need for German and French as languages important in the European communication. Aspirations, however, are connected not only with future job Multilingualism in diverse contexts possibilities, but also with the participation in culture and for this reason Spa- nish and Italian gain more and more popularity in the Polish context. Another factor shaping those needs is the market very strongly emphasizing the need for Promoting plurilingualism and English, German and Russian. multilingualism – the polish perspective The Polish educational policy vis-à-vis plurilingualism is connected with recommendations of the European Union and the Council of Europe and aims Hanna Komorowska, Warsaw University, Warsaw a) at teaching two foreign languages in the school system apart from the mother tongue, b) at the promotion of the early start and c) at the lowering of the starting age for the second foreign language. So far, legislation has introduced two obligatory foreign languages into the Polish general education and has just ABSTRACT brought the starting age for the first foreign language down to the age of 7 (the The presentation will look at the language policy from two points of view: the school entering age) and the starting age for the second foreign language down individual and the social. In the first part the promotion of plurilingualism will to the age of 13 (the lower secondary school entering age). be analyzed, understood as the promotion of linguistic competences of the indi- Difficulties can still be noticed in the broadening of the language offer due vidual. Emphasis will be given here to linguistic needs, educational aspirations, to staff shortages and financial difficulties. This is so because languages such influences of the language market and the motivational strategies used. In the as Arabic, Japanese or Chinese, but also less widely spoken languages are not second part multilingualism will be looked at. The place and the role of mother the top choices of the Polish students and could only be taught as third or fourth tongues and minority languages in the educational system will be discussed and languages in the school system. implications of the present situation for the future will be sought against the Obstacles on the road to plurilingualism are also of an individual character. background of the country report prepared for the Language Policy Division of Autocratic traditions of the Polish school system, only recently being abandoned, Council of Europe and the expert’s report formulated in response to it as well negatively influence the sense of achievement and the learners’ self-efficacy. as against the background of recommendations of the EU High Level Group on Task-based learning, self-assessment through the European Language Portfolio Multilingualism in Brussels. Conclusions will list strengths and constraints in the and the promotion of learning to learn skills and learner autonomy have a great process of promoting pluri- and multilingualism in Poland. role to play here. Another important group of linguistic needs is connected with the promotion of multilingualism understood as a variety of language codes (mother ton- The most important present day linguistic needs in the polish context is the gues, minority and migrant languages) in a broader social context. Requirements promotion of plurilingualism understood as the promotion of the linguistic com- for everyday multilingualism spring from various sources, the most important of petence of the individual. which are 1) the set of EU recommendations prepared by the High Level Group on Linguistic needs of adults are shaped mainly by their actual communica- Multilingualism, 2) the set of recommendations prepared by the join committee of tive needs, while those of children and adolescents – by future communicative the Polish experts outlining The Country Report and the Council of Europe experts needs perceived by their parents. New needs result from the rising educational from the Language Policy Division and from 3) the legal obligations of the Polish aspirations of citizens of the country where the scholarisation index is constant- government vis-à-vis ethnic minorities, their languages and their schooling. ly trending up, general secondary education covers more than 80% of the age The present situation is in many respects quite satisfactory. Ethnic minorities cohort and the number of college students has increased five times since the benefit either from education through the medium of their language or from the fall of communism. Educational aspirations, connected with the future work and free supplementary teaching of their language as well as the history and geogra- mobility, cause huge interest in English as the lingua franca of the modern world phy of their home country. Yet, there are huge differences in the level of active-

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ness of particular minorities in terms of using the existing legislation to their full Workshop 1.4 benefit – although primary education flourishes, there is far less interest in lower secondary education and close to nil interest in the upper secondary schooling. Multilingualism in diverse contexts Contrarily to good provision for ethnic minority languages, almost no provision is offered by the government for migrant languages. In order to achieve desired results in the promotion of both plurilingualism Multilingualism in the Baltic States and multilingualism, strong motivating arguments should be used. Parents and teachers should be convinced of the benefits springing from language education. Mart Rannut, University of Tallinn The cognitive value of language learning for the overall development of children Inese Vasiljeva, State Language Agency, Riga should be stressed, as well as its role in facilitating future learning and ensuring Jolanta Zabarskaite, Institute of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius employability. Parents and teachers should o become aware of the fact that language learning supports attention, perception, memory, concentration, concept formation, critical thinking and problem-solving, awareness of their own culture, openness to other cultures as well as skills to cooperate and work in teams. ABSTRACT Individual learners ought to be motivated according to the age group – in- Multilingualism in the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania is a wide trinsic motivation of pleasure in learning can be capitalized on in the groups of spread phenomenon, with more than hundred native languages listed in the last young learners, combined extrinsic motivation of diplomas and intrinsic motiva- census in each state and proficiency in other languages besides native over the tion of interest in culture-oriented topics and multimedia tasks can be targeted European average. Multilingualism implies also linguistic integration on the basis in groups of teenagers, while combined instrumental and integrative motives of the common language. In the Baltic case, the titular languages Estonian, Lat- connected with mobility, employment and leisure will prove useful in the work vian and Lithuanian have been legally established as national (state) languages with adults. The key to success is to set realistic goals and provide positive ex- in this function, serving as the main languages in the administration, the court, perience of language learning as well as guidance on how to learn and how to education, media, entertainment and in other functional domains. become an autonomous learner. The role of the media is significant in making Linguistic and minority rights are respected in the Baltic States. All the Baltic languages visible and attractive, e.g. through sports, music, cultural programmes States have adopted corresponding language acts providing necessary provi- and various kinds of “edutainment”. A tendency can nowadays be seen, as poin- sions. Education is provided by the states in several languages, minority langua- ted out in the work of the High Level Group on Multilingualism, for the media to ge medium media is available and accessible. take over the motivational role, while the actual language learning takes place in Responding to the rising number of (new) immigrants, the Baltic States have school, at home or via the Internet. For that reason providing support in the form launched adaptation courses for new immigrant children and prepared the cor- of supplementary materials on-line, educational portals or webquest activities is responding study-ware. indispensable. Useful in-school approaches which help in the promotion of mul- Foreign languages are popular due to the impact of globalisation. Several tilingualism include Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), Content methods for enhancing foreign language acquisition have been adopted, such as Based Teaching (CBT), Language Across the Curriculum (LAC). Together with the early start, CLIL, direct contacts with target language speakers, etc. use of the Internet and multimedia these approaches can put an end to the – so The titular languages of the Baltic States as official languages ofE U are com- far frequent – demotivating role of school. There are also valuable out-of-school petitive also in the corpus and technological dimensions. Language cultivati- ways of promoting language education which include both large scale programs on is a priority and the governments have to support extensively developments such as E-twinning, Town twinning or the European Language Label, and small in language technology. In the presentation, detailed comparative data will be scale interschool projects such as language festivals, days of languages or pe- provided in the aforementioned areas. dagogical exchanges. Activities of all the above mentioned kinds have already been launched in Poland.

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Multilingualism. Multilingualism implies much more than just skills in At present, according to Statistics Estonia (2006), Estonians constitute several languages. Societal multilingualism within a state is efficient only in the the main bulk of the country’s 1,4 millions population (68,6% in 2006). Other case of network, based on linguistic integration of the population around the major ethnic groups include Russians (25,7%), Ukrainians (2,1%), Belarussians common language(s), enjoying official status, as a rule. Besides this, tolerance (1,2%) and Ingrians (Ingermanland Finns) (0,8%). Altogether, there are 145 ethnic and respect towards speakers of differing languages as well as common values groups in Estonia. are a must, with efficient legal and administrative instruments at its disposal to Latvia with a total population of 2,3 millions is the European country with the reject phenomena of xenophobia and racism. highest proportion of minorities. Latvians constitute the main bulk of the popu- Multilingualism is based on the principle that every language has the right lation with 58,6%, Russians form the second largest group (28,8%), other bigger to exist and there must be a common language (or languages) that holds them minorities are Belarussians, Ukrainians, Poles, Lithuanians, Jews and Romani. together. Multilingualism basically means that no language alone is perfect or Lithuania’s ethnic composition is more homogenous. Of its 3,5 millions inha- represents the best „window to the world“ and that it can therefore benefit from bitants Lithuanians constitute 83,5%. The percentage of the country’s resident learning additional languages. non-titular communities is much smaller than in Latvia or Estonia (where there In this sense multilingualism requires that all speakers in their attitudes is a greater density of Russian people in particular). The largest ethnic groups towards other languages should be open, self-critical, and interactive in their consist of Russians (6,6%) and Poles (6,7 %). Others include Belarusians (1,5%), relations with speakers of different languages, therefore, xenophobic attitudes Ukrainians (1%), Jews, Latvians, Germans, Tatars, amongst others (Population and racism are incompatible with the notion of multilingualism. Though many Census, 2001). There is also a 3.000 people strong Roma community that is ethnic groups experience unequal access to resources and opportunities due to mainly settled in the Vilnius region. language barriers, multilingualism is not confined to ethnicity. In order to clarify As is common for immigrant residence patterns, non titular population is the concept in the case of states, organizations and institutions, introduction of mainly concentrated in bigger cities, with the exception of Poles in Lithuania in the notion of institutional multilingualism may be necessary. Thus, the relation- Šalcininkai and Vilnius regions. Since the restitution of independence in the Baltic ship of various linguistic rights and obligations concerned may be provided and States there has been a notable decrease by third in the percentage of resident the threat of institutional forms of linguistic discrimination eliminated. Multilin- Russians (and Russian-speakers), related to political developments, repatriation gualism of various states is revealed (and may be compared) through various and lower birth rate. Emigration to the West (5–7% total) has decreased in the features, such as ethnic diversity, common (national) language acquisition and recent years considerably and there are signs of return. foreign language teaching. Languages in the Baltic States. Multilingualism in the Baltic states of Baltic population. The three Baltic republics Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania is a wide-spread phenomenon, with more than comprise about 8 million people altogether. Though in all the countries titular hundred native languages listed in the last census in each country and profi- nations constitute the main bulk of the population, ethnic diversity is significant. ciency in other languages besides native over the European average. However, Russians and Russian-speaking groups (ethnic groups that have assimilated to the number of functioning home languages securing intergenerational language Russian) constitute a significant part of the population, with more than hundred transmission is around thirty. other ethnic groups represented. This is due to the heritage of massive immigra- In the 2000 Estonian census (Population Census of Estonia, 2000), 109 diffe- tion during the 50-year Soviet occupation that started during the World War II rent languages were declared as mother tongues by the respondents. The most and ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. During this period the common were Estonian (67,3% of the total were speakers of Estonian as a native titular languages were downgraded from official to minority status with cons- language) and Russian (29,7%). Language loyalty is particularly strong between traints on functions, with no real obligation to learn by Russian-speakers, while two ethnic groups: 98,2% of the Russians and 97,9% of Estonians speak their Russian was declared the interethnic language and made compulsory in educa- respective languages. The mutual influence in terms of language shift (processes tion. This abnormal situation ended together with the end of occupation and the of russification and, during the last 20 years, estonification) have been insignifi- status of the titular languages restored. cant among these groups, due to the high status of these languages.

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One can also see that in both cases the proportions of the speakers are minorities consider Russian their native language and usually the language of higher than those of ethnic Estonians (67,3% vs 68,6%) and Russians (29,7% vs the everyday communication as well (79,1% of Jews, 72,8% of Byelorussians, 25,7%), respectively. This is because, with the exception of ethnic Russians, only 67,8% of Ukrainians, 57,7% of Poles). According to the data of 1989 census, the 40% of members of ethnic minority groups have maintained their language of Latvian language was mastered by 23% of representatives of Latvian minorities ethnic affiliation, others shifted to Russian during the Soviet times. At present, and in 2000, according to the data of census by 53%. This means significant rise due to the presence of these russified minorities, the number of people speaking of Latvian from the 1989 level. In general, 79% of residents of all nationalities Russian as their mother tongue is almost 400.000, which is considerably higher in the country can communicate in Latvian, which means that about half of the than the number of ethnic Russians (approx. 340.000). Due to repatriation from representatives of the minorities have still no command of the Latvian language other countries, there has also been a rise in number of non-Estonian-speaking at all (Mežs, 2003). (mostly Russian-speaking) ethnic Estonians. In total, over 97% of the population The language situation in Lithuania is least challenging in the Baltic, resem- have Estonian or Russian as their mother tongue. Only about 3% of the popula- bling Western European countries in this aspect. Nearly all native Lithuanians tion speak the other 107 languages. In comparison with the 1989 census (Po- speak their titular language as do increasingly members of the minority com- pulation of Estonia, 1995), a decrease in the use of one’s ethnic language has munities, the total percentage of speakers of Lithuanian as the first and second been recorded for all of these minority languages. According to the last census language altogether has risen from 85 in 1989 to 94 in 2000. (Statistical Office of Estonia 2001) there are 61 959 inhabitants (5% of the total population) from other ethnic groups than Russian, who speak Russian as their Multilingualism implies also linguistic integration on the basis of the com- first language. mon language. In the Baltic case, the titular languages Estonian, Latvian and Commonly, smaller ethnic groups lose their languages in the third genera- Lithuanian have been legally established as national (state) languages in this tion, after leaving their native language territory (Rannut & Rannut 2007). As a function, serving as the main languages in the administration, the court, ed- result, in the school-age population, only 32 languages are used as home lan- ucation, media, entertainment and in other functional domains. All the Baltic guages (Rannut & Rannut 2007; Vare 2002). Changes are also apparent in the states adopted language regulation that in the case of Estonia and Latvia was direction of assimilation: while in the Soviet times speakers of various languages and still is quite similar. The first acts that were introduced in 1989 were pro- tended to shift to Russian, nowadays a shift to Estonian has become more appa- visional, matching the needs of the transformational process underway in the rent, reflecting the high status of the language.A ccording to the estimates of the Baltic, thus later new versions have been adopted and numerous amendments Ministry of Education and Research (2007), based on whether students choose made. The overall logic behind regulation was to start with ‘visible’ goals of the to attend a school using Estonian or another language of instruction, the share language policy that could be reached in a short time (official use of the titular of speakers of Estonian as the first language will continue to rise to comprise ap- languages, public signs and labels, customer service, etc.), then gradually move proximately 80% of Estonian population in the next generation. Simultaneously further toward national consolidation and linguistic normalization that included new home languages arrive as a result of globalisation and migration movements an integrated information space and mastery of the titular language concerned and ethnic languages appear (are qualified from dialects, e.g. Woro) as a result as the common language by all members of the population. of postmodern social fragmentation. Functional distribution of the titular languages and Russian in the Baltic The most challenging situation is revealed in Latvia. Latvian is spoken by countries is different. In Estonia, during the last twenty years Estonian has suc- 59% of residents, Russian by 39%, other languages by 2% (Data Serviss 2006). cessfully regained its position in most of high-prestige functional domains, like The Latvian language is the native language for 95,6% of Latvians. Latvian is the administration, banking, business, while Russian is still used alongside Estonian native language most often for Lithuanians (42,5%), Estonians (39,2%) and Ger- in the first-level court (majority of defenders in Estonia are Russian-speaking, mans (24,6%) and as a second language, for more than 20% of the population, thus, Russian is used for expediency), in naval and railway transport and to a lar- together covering 79% of the population (LL 2003). The Russian language as ge extent in construction and in low-prestige employment areas. During the last the native language is used by 39,6% of residents of Latvia and other languages decade, English has settled in as the language of the highest decision-making in – by 2,2% of residents of Latvia. A great number of representatives of other banking and also, in business.

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The Latvian language dominates in the government bodies and state admi- national minorities and English as an international language are used as media of nistration, law enforcement and armed forces, local governments, public infor- instruction (ELS 2004). Graduation exams follow this pattern, with the addition mation, culture and education spheres. Latvian is dominant also in agriculture of the compulsory exam in the subject of the titular language. During the period and in legal services (Data Serviss 2006). The usage of the Latvian language is from 1991 up to 2004 the amount of Russian-speaking students has dropped by still problematic in the police, transport, construction and industrial production 60% in Lithuania to from 76.000 to 30.000, while the number of Polish students branch (especially in private entrepreneurship), as well as in the sphere of provi- has risen almost twice, from 11.000 to 20.000 (Bulajeva & Hogan-Brun 2008). sion of public services. In employment the usual pattern is Latvian-Russian bilin- Responding to the rising number of (new) immigrants (mostly from the coun- gualism. Several languages are represented in the media with Latvian and Russi- tries of the former Soviet Union), the Baltic states have launched adaptation an at the top (70 local Russian-language newspapers with the annual circulation courses for new immigrant children and prepared the corresponding studywa- of 70 millions, several TV channels and radio stations broadcast in Russian). re. This is available in Lithuanian and Estonian, aimed at the target group of In Lithuania, Lithuanian is used in all functional domains; even driver’s licence teenager immigrant students in order to cope in the titular language-learning exams are conducted solely in it. The only major exception in industry is the environment. Ignalina Power Plant that operates in Russian. Lithuanian dominates the media, Foreign languages are popular due to the impact of globalisation. Foreign Polish and Russian are also visible, Jewish (Yiddish and Hebrew), Belarusian and language education provides a stable ground for the maintenance of linguistic Ukrainian are also present. and cultural diversity, as well as democratic citizenship. Several methods for enhancing foreign language acquisition have been adopted in regular programmes Education. Linguistic and minority rights are respected in the Baltic states. All in the Baltic States, such as early start, CLIL, direct contacts with target langua- the Baltic States have adopted corresponding language acts providing necessary ge speakers, etc. Foreign language serves similar place in the curricula of com- provisions. Education is provided by the states in several languages, minority pulsory education in the Baltic States, following the EU 1+2 recommendations language medium media is available and accessible. in language policy. In Estonia the share of pupils enrolled in Estonian schools four-fifths) ex- In Lithuania the first foreign language (which can be chosen from English, ceeds considerably the share of Estonians from total population (two-thirds). German and French) is compulsory from the fourth grade till the end of seconda- This means that in these schools pupils with home languages different from the ry education (grade 12). All school leavers must take the national examination in language of instruction constitute a significant part and pose a challenge for uni- a foreign language. A second foreign language is introduced two years after the form teaching methods. Therefore, innovative programmes have been launched, first one and is obligatory in grades 6–10. Uptake of a third foreign language is such as early and late immersion, serving as transfer programmes to Estonian- optional. The most widespread choice is English as the first and Russian as the medium higher education. Also in secondary level, bilingual teaching methods second foreign language (Bulajeva & Hogan-Brun 2008). are gradually introduced, providing 60% of teaching via Estonian (Rannut 2004). Foreign languages in Estonia are widely taught in secondary and higher ed- In Latvia the percentage of students learning in Latvian has risen steadily: ucation and used in the service sector. The capacity of this domain has risen from 60,3% in 1995/1996 schoolyear up to 73,0 in 2006/2007 (Djaèkova 2003). steadily in response to a growing demand. Among Estonians, Russian is still Simultaneously the share of students in other languages has come down, though the most widely known foreign language (half of the population can speak it), marginally. The biggest loser seems to be Russian-medium education that has followed by English, German and Finnish (Population Census, 2000). However, in lost almost half of its studentship, dropping from 132.540 to 70.683 during this the younger generation Russian has been side-lined by English: the graduation period. Nevertheless, Russian is the language of instruction for almost 30% of exam in English as a foreign language is twenty times more popular than that all schoolchildren, who are taught in more than 300 schools. Other minority in Russian, German holds a steady third place (not far from Russian), know- schools provide instruction in Estonian, Polish, Ukrainian, Lithuanian and He- ledge of French has improved but is still minute (REKK, 2006). This decrease in brew (Hogan-Brun et al. 2007). Russian proficiency has widened a communicative gap between Estonian- and In Lithuania the mainstream education is conducted in Lithuanian. Besides Russian-speaking youth, as finding a common language may prove difficult. Fin- Lithuanian Polish, Russian, Belarussian, Jewish and German as languages of local nish, a very similar language reserves a specific place in Tallinn, the capital of

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References Estonia. Finnish was widely acquired informally by Estonian-speakers in1960s– Data Serviss (2006). The influence of language proficiency on the standard of living of economically 1980s, thanks to visibility of Finnish TV-programs that provided virtual window active part of population. Riga. to the free world as well as numerous grass-root contacts via tourism and trade. Bulajeva, T./Hogan-Brun, G. (2008) Language and education orientations in Lithuania: A cross-Baltic perspective post-EU accession. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Though latter are still popular, the popularity of Finnish TV has dropped when Djaèkova S. (2003). Latviešu valodas zinašanas un sabiedribas integracija. (Knowledge of Latvian competing with a multitude of satellite channels. language and integration of society) Sabiedriskas politikas centrs Providus. Among non-Estonians, foreign language proficiency levels appear to be more Hogan-Brun, G./Ozolins, U./Ramonienė, M./Rannut M., (2007) Language policies and practices in the Baltic States. Current Issues in Language Planning, 8, 4. modest (Population Census, 2000). The main reason for this is the fact that in Ministry of Education and Research (2007) http://www.hm.ee/vana/hm/client/index. Russian-medium schools the curriculum slot for the first foreign language is re- php?135262301328541054 Accessed November 11, 2007 served for Estonian as the national language and a second language for learners LL 2003 = The Latvian Language, Languages in Latvia. (2003). Valsts Valodas Komisija, Izdevnieciba Tapals. there, leaving “real” foreign languages the slots of the second and third foreign Mežs, Ilmars (2003). The Latvian Language in the Mirror of Statistics. Jana Seta Map Publishers. language. Population Census (2000) Command of other languages is an important factor in the functional division http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/I_Databas/Population_Census/Population_Census.asp Accessed 11.11.2007. of languages in Latvia. A significant percentage (81%) of residents of Latvia still Rannut, M. (2004). Language planning in Estonia: Past and present. Working Paper 16. Ciemen/Mer- have a command of the Russian language, which often indicates the choice of cator, http://www.ciemen.org/mercator/index-gb.htm the communication language. English, according to the self-appraisal of the re- Rannut, M./Rannut Ü. (2007) Tallinna õpilaste kodukeeled (Home languages of the pupils in Tallinn). Haridus 3-4, pp. 7-10. spondents, is mastered by 14%, German by 8%. The number of people speaking http://haridus.opleht.ee/Arhiiv/3_42007/07-10mustv.pdf. Accessed November 30, 2007. other languages (French, Swedish, Norwegian, Polish) does not exceed 1%. REKK 2006 = Riiklik Eksami – ja Kvalifikatsioonikeskus. Statistika (National Exam and Qualifications In order to fulfil the function of the common language of multilingual popula- Centre. Statistics). http://www.ekk.edu.ee/statistika/index.html Accessed November 11, 2007 Statistics Estonia (2006) http://pub.stat.ee/pxweb.2001/I_Databas/Population/01Population_indi- tion, the titular languages of the Baltic States as official languages ofE U have to cators_and_composition/04Population_figure_and_composition/04Population_figure_and_compo- be competitive also in the corpus and technological dimensions. Language culti- sition.asp. Accessed October 26, 2007 vation is a priority, and developments in language technology are supported ex- ELS 2004 = Švietimas.Lietuvos statistikos metraštis (Education. Lithuanian Statistics (2004) www. smm.lt/svietimo_bukle/docs/statistika/svietimas (213-234).pdf tensively by the governments who have launched several financing programmes Vare, S. (2002) Eesti keel vene koolis II. Eesti keele kasutamine vene üldhariduskoolis (Estonian for this purpose. Language technology level in the Baltic States has risen to the in Russian school II. Use of Estonian in Russian comprehensive school) http://www.hm.ee/index. European average, providing the so-called HLT survival toolkit in the titular lan- php?popup=download&id=3971. Accessed November 11, 2007 Verschik, A. (2005) The language situation in Estonia. Journal of Baltic Studies, 36, 3, 283-316. guages: speech synthesis (e.g. for vision-impaired people and in GPS devices), speech recognition systems (limited vocabulary), text processing and Internet communication tools (Microsoft Office, MSN, etc), native language menus in various devices (mobile phones, automatic banking). In addition, various language aids are available: spellers, morphological analyzers, academic and bilingual dictionaries, multilingual terminology resources and text corpora. Free online machine translation system in Internet is available in Lithuanian. Multilingualism in the Baltic States is taken as common sense, being the only option for development of multicultural and open societies that respect otherness and are competitive on international markets thanks to foreign language skills.

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Workshop 1.4 was solved by intellectual force from the dominant culture. In the decades coming, after finishing studies in Prague, Vienna or Budapest and later at the newly Multilingualism in diverse contexts established Slovak universities, their Slovak successors became the intellectual elite of the future young nation, being first successful in the central structures of the monarchy or the Czechoslovak state. In the recent days, about 300.000 Multilingualism in Slovakia citizens of the Czech Republic officially declare their nationality as Slovak. In Slovakia, the largest minority with 600.000 citizens is the Hungarian. Martin Sarvaš, Ministry of Culture of Slovakia German, mostly protestant immigrants brought their enterpreneural culture in the medieval era not only to the Carpathian wine regions of western Slovakia, Ruthenia with the town Uzhorod was a part of the Czechoslovak state before the Munich agreement and the Viennese arbitrage came in power. Today, we ABSTRACT officially talk about 12 national minorities in Slovakia, among them also Roma,  Preserving multilingualism in Slovakia/Educational system/Support of Croatian, Polish, Ukrainian. the culture of minorities through the grant system of the Ministry of Culture There was a lot of political turbulence happening in the history on the territo-  Legislation on languages of minorities/Examples from media landscape/ ry of today’s Slovakia. Nevertheless – or maybe, this is the reason – why working self-governing bodies on territories with mixed settlement in a multicultural environment and using two or three languages in everyday life  Language market and policies/Position of a small dominant language in was nothing exceptional for people living and working here. Nowadays, when the recent media and business environment Slovakia is the number one producer of cars per capita, we have Korean televi-  Legislation on the using of a small dominant language/Examples of dis- sion in the basic offer of the cable operators and a special French radio trans- function in media and self-governing bodies mission with terrestrial access for the employees of another automotive plant.  Recent measures of the government of the Slovak Republic on the Slovakian According to the new legislation, pupils will learn first foreign language from the language/Preparing a novelisation on legislation third class of basic school and the second one from the sixth grade, to be more  Promotion of foreign languages in the educational system successful on the labour market. This maybe explains why preservation, support  Further co-existence of languages in a territory with a small dominant and development of the multilingualism never really were an issue. language/Strengths, difficulties and challenges for the near future For its support, Slovakia has a special legislation on the usage of the language of national minorities (law 184/1999). Citizens of Slovak Republic, belonging to a national minority, living in a municipality with at least 20% of its population, Slovakia is an independent state since January 1st of 1993. With 5,5 millions of declared as the minority, are enabled to use their language as the first or official inhabitants it is the smallest among its neighbouring countries. In the decades language in the contact with local authorities. Regarding the education of mino- and centuries before, it was always a part of a multinational state or federation, rities, the recent system has three basic levels: whether it was the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, or – after the year 1918 – 1. schools or classes in the language of the national minority – where all educa- the Czechoslovak state. There were no dominant languages, all languages were tion is led in mother language, the dominant language is taught as obligatory, equal, but the Hungarian, and later the Czech language dominated the public life separate subject, as well as the culture. You have had to master these languages, if you wanted 2. schools or classes with a combination of languages in educational process, to be successful above standard. Now a dominant language, the Slovak speech 3. schools or classes in the language of the minority as mother language, where itself was a longtime subject of discussions about its right to exist, instead of all other subjects are led in dominate language. taking care of its development and safekeeping. There is a special system of support of the languages and cultures of mi- On the other hand, we have a lot of examples from public life, where the norities. The total of financial support of the culture of minorities in the year problem of missing class of Slovakian bureaucracy, cultural and intellectual elite 2007 – through self-governing regions, the ministry of culture, national museum

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and its museums of the heritage of minorities, and the cities and villages itself – Workshop 1.4 reached 10,592.000 Euro. This included live culture, periodical publications, press of minorities, non-periodical publications and books, libraries of minori- Multilingualism in diverse contexts ties, museums and theatres. At the same time, the total support of the Slovakian culture through the grant system of the Ministry of Culture in 2007 reached 3,382.352 Euro. The support die indische manthra für mehrsprachig- of the culture of minorities through the same grant system reached in the same keit und sprachpolitik in europa year 1,516.529 Euro, which is a little less than 50% of the amount for the culture of the majority. Shrishail Sasalatti, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi We have to admit, that at the same time we are not witnessing a visible improvement in the mastering of the Slovak language among the representatives of the minorities. The link between the educational activities and the needs of the labour force market is weak; pupils are not equipped sufficiently with com- ABSTRACT petences required by the employers. The lack of communication skills in the do- “I do not want my house to be walled on all sides and my windows stuffed. I minant language is then forcing these representatives to join labour market and want the cultures of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible, corporate entities, where – from a certain level of management – the language but I refuse to be blown off by any. I would have our young men and women with of a minority is the unofficial communication language. This sometimes is the literary tastes to learn as much of English and other world languages as they like, case in certain supermarket chains on certain territories. An increasing pressure … but I would not have a single Indian to forget, neglect or be ashamed of his or to ease the standards of mastering the language of majority on all levels of edu- her own mother tongue or to feel that he or she cannot think or express the best cation of minorities makes the circle perfect. thoughts in his or her own vernacular.” – Dieses Zitat von Mahatma Gandhi, dem The Slovak language itself, as an only official language of an independent Vater der Unabhängigkeit Indiens von der englischen Kolonialherrschaft, bein- state, is recognized for only 15 years. In the history there was a time when it was haltet den Grundgedanken für eine intelligente Sprach- und Kulturpolitik in allen prohibited to use it in the contact with the officials, or to use the ancient geo- multilingualen und multikulturellen Gesellschaften, sei es in Indien oder Europa graphical names in Slovak. For several different reasons, it is facing a phase of oder Afrika, als die indische Manthra. destruction, with lack of instruments for the preservation of it. The government has agreed for measures to prevent further decline of the level of the language in public life. At the same time, keeping and upgrading the existing status quo on 1. Europäische Erweiterung und ihre Problemstellung zur the usage of languages of minorities remains the priority agenda of government Lingua franca. Die heutige Herausforderung für Europäer ist die Problem- objects. stellung, wie man mit den vielfältigen Sprachen und Kulturen eines ständig expandierenden Europas effektiv umgehen kann und ob man die vorhandene individuelle und gesellschaftliche Mehrsprachigkeit Europas als Potenzial aus- nutzen soll, ob und wieweit man multilinguale und multikulturelle Kompetenzen im Hinblick auf den Globalisierungsprozess bei den Europäern erzielen kann, und ob dabei die Wissensbestände und Erfahrungen von multilingualen Gesell- schaften wie z.B. Indien bei diesem Versuch als eine Unterstützungsinstanz dienen können. Indien weiß, wie man mit Gefahren der Globalisierung umgehen kann und wie man diese in Chancengleichheiten umwandelt; Indien weiß das latente Po- tenzial der Mehrsprachigkeit und Multikulturalität möglichst effektiv aufzube-

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wahren, die regionalen, nationalen und internationalen Interessen demokratisch Land der Erde und fast jeder sechste Weltbürger Inder ist. Die Sprachpalette aufrechtzuerhalten – und wurde so in wenigen Jahrzehnten ein verantwortungs- umfasst an die 298 Sprachen und Dialekte, wovon 22 Sprachen durch die Ver- voller globaler Mitspieler. fassung als Scheduled Languages of India offiziell anerkannt sind (vgl.S asalatti, In der globalisierten Auffassung der Welt gibt es aber Kräfte, die auf Einspra- S. 2003, 156-171). chigkeit bestehen und dementsprechend nur einsprachige Lösungen für mehrsprachige Herausforderungen anbieten. Die Vertreter dieser Meinung scheinen nach 3. Zum Bildungswesen und zur Drei-Sprachen-Formel in Indien. meiner Einschätzung große Anhänger des britischen Neo-Kolonialismus zu sein. Die Sprachen- und Bildungspolitik gehen Hand in Hand und beeinflussen sich wechselseitig. Indien wurde 1963 nach den linguistischen Kriterien in 28 Bun- Den Vertretern der Einsprachigkeit muss gesagt werden, dass: desländer und sechs zentral regierte Union-Territorien als Verwaltungseinheiten a. die Wirtschaft nur ein Teil des gesamten Lebens ausmacht, dass es etliche reorganisiert. Die Bundesländer, die für die offizielle Sprache und die Bildungs- Lebensbereiche gibt, wo Geld nicht mehr eine so wichtige Rolle spielt; bzw. Ausbildungspolitik zuständig sind, wollen natürlich ihre eigene Sprache b. selbst das Bewirtschaften regionaler, nationaler und internationaler Art gar bzw. Kultur weiter tradieren und durch Bildung und Ausbildung weiterentwickeln. nicht einsprachig laufen kann; Da diese die Durchdringung des Englischen auf der schulischen Ebene wohl zu c. man im Namen der globalisierten Wirtschaft das Erbe der Vielfalt von Spra- Recht als Gefahr für die Entwicklung der eigenen Sprache und Kultur betrachten, chen und Kulturen der Welt nicht „unterbügeln“ kann; stellen sie sich als Konkurrenz gegen den starken Einsatz des Englischen in der d. das demokratische Prinzip von Inklusivität für multilinguale Gesellschaften Schulpolitik. Somit gibt es in Indien einen ewigen Sprachen- und Kulturkonflikt. eher akzeptabel ist und nicht das hegemoniale Prinzip der Exklusivität eige- Es gibt jedoch viele Intellektuelle, die solche Konflikte durch Dialog und Diskus- ner Sprachen und Kulturen durch eine einzige dominante Sprache von ande- sion stets unter Kontrolle bringen. So hat man in Absprache mit den Chief- und ren; Erziehungsministern von Bundesländern die Drei-Sprachen-Formel für Schulen e. die multilaterale Sprachpolitik und Sprachplanung und nicht die unilaterale in Indien eingeführt, wobei jedes Schulkind zumindest drei Sprachen lernt, also Sprachpolitik an der Tagesordnung in Indien und Europa herrscht/herrschen die jeweilige Muttersprache oder Regionalsprache, Hindi als überregionale natio soll. nale Kommunikationssprache und Englisch als internationales Kommunikations- mittel. Kinder, bei denen Hindi sowohl als Mutter- als auch Nationalsprache gilt, Eine singuläre Lingua franca für Europa kann zu katastrophalen Ergebnissen sollen noch eine dritte Sprache Indiens lernen. führen, denn der europäische Reichtum der Vielfältigkeit ressourcevoller Spra- Somit ist die Formel 2+1 im größten Teil Indiens verwirklicht worden, wodurch chen und Kulturen darf nicht unterschätzt werden. Im Hinblick auf den Globali- jeder Inder/jede Inderin bei Schulabschluss zumindest zwei bis drei Sprachen sierungsprozess der hegemonialen Politik lautet meine erste Formel: Dreispra- beherrscht. Die Qualität der unterschiedlichen Sprachniveaus sind verschieden chigkeit als Schlüssel zur Globalisierung. Der Europäische Kommissar Leonard und hängen mit dem Bildungssystem zusammen: Jedes indische Bundesland Orban betont am 2. 4. 2008: „Sprachpolitik sei eine empfindlicheA ngelegenheit kann auch mehrere Schulsysteme zuzulassen, nämlich a) regionalsprachige, b) auf EU-Ebene, da sie eng mit der nationalen Identität verbunden sei und in die englischsprachige, c) Schulsysteme, in denen Hindi und Englisch neben der je- Bildungspolitik – eine nationale Zuständigkeit – eingreife … Die EU-Kommission weiligen überregionalen Sprache einen bilanzierten Zugang finden. soll ihre neue Strategie zur Mehrsprachigkeit zusammen mit einem Bericht der hochrangigen Gruppe „Mehrsprachigkeit“, deren Vorsitzender der französisch- 4. Zur Neuakzentuierung der Hochschulpolitik seit dem Jahr 2008. libanesische Autor Amin Maalouf ist, im September dieses Jahres vorlegen.“ Laut Internetportal der indischen Regierung gab es am 31. März 2005 insgesamt 342 anerkannte Universitäten und 17.625 Colleges. Die Anzahl der imma- 2. Indien und seine Sprachenvielfalt. Wenn wir die Gesamtbevölkerung trikulierten Studenten betrug 10,481.000, darunter ca. 40% Frauen; die Anzahl der Welt von etwa 6.314 Millionen mit der Gesamtbevölkerung von Indien von der Lehrkräfte lag bei 457.000. Dazu gibt es eine hohe Zahl privater Universi- etwa 1.027 Millionen vom Jahr 2001 vergleichen, können wir leicht feststellen, täten und Colleges in Indien. Mit dem Grundprinzip der gesellschaftlichen bzw. dass Indien, der Stärke der Bevölkerung gemäß, nach China das zweitgrößte individuellen Gerechtigkeit hat zum Beispiel das höchste Organ des indischen

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Justizsystems, The Supreme Court of India, durch seine bahnbrechende Ent- rentable Arbeitskraft vor allem für Europa mit seinem wachsenden hohen Anteil scheidung vom 10. April 2008 die Beschlüsse des Parlaments befürwortet, dass an älterer Bevölkerung wohl zu Recht interessant geworden. Belgien, Schweden 27% aller Studienplätze der höheren Ausbildung für Angehörige der Scheduled und Frankreich haben schon Anfang August 2007 ernsthafte Gespräche mit In- Cast und Scheduled Tribes und Other Backward Classes im Ausgleich zu Ange- dien in dieser Hinsicht geführt. (vgl. Times of India, 6. 8. 2007, p. 9: Aging Europe hörigen der höheren Kasten reserviert werden sollen und jede Institution der seeks manpower from India) höheren Ausbildung in den kommenden drei Jahren ihre Studienplätze für Ange- Durch die offene Sprach- und Kulturpolitik Indiens und die Beherrschung hörige der Scheduled Cast und Scheduled Tribes und Other Backward Classes des Englischen durch ca. 100,000.000 InderInnen – auch wenn mit unterschied- auf 54% erhöhen soll. Somit wird ab 2008 die höhere Ausbildung Indiens massiv lichem Niveau und eigener Sprachvariation des Englischen – stellt sich dennoch expandiert. Diese wird u.a. die Problematik der Mehrsprachigkeit in Indien stark die Frage, ob es sich lohnt, einige Weltsprachen wie Chinesisch oder Mandarin beeinflussen. Genauso erfährt Europa mit ständig wachsender Anzahl der Mit- oder eine weitere Weltsprache aus Europa – wie Deutsch, Französisch oder Spa- glieder der Europäischen Union fast in allen Bereichen einschließlich der sprach- nisch – neben den eigenen Herkunftssprachen als zusätzliche Ausbildung zu lichen und kulturellen Vielfalt eine massive Expansion. beherrschen.

5. Zur Brückenfunktion zwischen Indien und Europa durch die 6. Globalisierung vis-à-vis Lokalisierung und „Glokalisierung“. englische Sprache. Das moderne Indien hat die ehemalige Kolonialspra- Bei der Manifestation des Sprechens wird beim Globalisierungsprozess nach che Englisch für seine eigenen Zwecke benützt und eine global anerkannte Va- Homogenität gestrebt, während beim Lokalisierungsprozess die Heterogenität rietät des Englischen als Pan-Indian Englisch herausgebildet. Obwohl Englisch durch gesellschaftliche Institutionen aufrechterhalten wird. Die Lokalisierung für Indien ein koloniales Erbe ist, betrachten manche ausgebildete Inder daher versucht, die Sprachgrenzen zu markieren, reichhaltiges Sprach- und Kulturgut das indische Englisch als eine funktionsfähige und effektive Zweitsprache zur aufzubewahren und durch Codemischungen bzw. Codewechsel die multilinguale nationalen und internationalen Kommunikation, insbesondere für die Bereiche und multikulturelle Kommunikation weiterzugestalten, wobei durch linguistische Schulausbildung, Technik, Wissenschaft, Handel und Verwaltung. Die Assimila- Pidginisierung neuere Kommunikationsformen entstehen. Das Nebeneinander- tion von Internationalismen und Anglizismen wie Hotel, Bus, Railway Station, leben und Zusammenwachsen von verschiedenen Sprachen ist möglich. Bei der Radio, Time, School, Teacher, Table, Paper, Pencil, Doctor, Engineer, Telephone, Globalisierung verlieren die kleineren Sprachgemeinschaften ihre Identität, in- Computer u. ä. geschieht in fast allen indischen Sprachen, egal ob in Stadt- oder dem sie sich an die herrschende dominante Sprechergruppe anpassen. Bei der Dorfkulturen. Hier sehe ich eine echte Synthese von einheimischen Interessen Lokalisierung hingegen identifizieren sich die Sprachgemeinschaften mit der jeder Lokalisierung und internationalen Interessen der Globalisierung. Die bi- bzw. weiligen Sprechergruppe. Sie bestehen auf Gleichheit, betonen das Grundrecht, multilinguale Kommunikation zeichnet sich durch eine kreative Praxis der Kodex- verlangen die öffentliche institutionelle Unterstützung für die Bewahrung und mischung und des Kodexwechsels in fast allen Domänen des Sprachgebrauchs Stabilisierung der eigenen Sprache und Kultur und pflegen ihre Traditionen so- in Indien aus. Der Einsatz der Weltsprache Englisch in ihrer indischen Variation wohl privat wie auch öffentlich, womit ihre Identitäten erhalten bleiben. hat auf diese Weise zur Verstärkung des Gebrauchs von indischem Englisch (IE) Die Planer, die Politiker und die Anhänger von beiden Ausrichtungen versu- geführt. Somit gilt Indien nach der Anzahl der englisch sprechenden InderInnen chen mit eigenen Argumenten zu beweisen, dass sie Recht hätten. Wenn wir von ca. 100 Millionen als das zweitgrößte englisch sprechende Land nach den hinter die Kulissen blicken, sehen wir ihre jeweiligen Interessen und verstehen, USA. Dieses Potenzial soll in Indien mit dem Schlagwort „Be Indian and Go Glo- wie – und weshalb – so oder so argumentiert wird. Hier kommt den Akademikern bal“ zur Modernisierung und Verbesserung der sozioökonomischen Lage beitra- eine verstärkte Verantwortung zu, jede politische Ausrichtung auf den Prüfstand gen. zu bringen. Ideal ist, wenn nicht die Akademiker politisiert, sondern die Politiker War früher die enorme Überbevölkerung das größte Problem Indiens, hat akademisiert werden. Daher versuche ich hier im Interesse einer jeden multilin- sich das Problem durch gute und rasche satellitentechnische Entwicklung und gualen Gesellschaft wie Indien oder Europa den Globalisierungsprozess und den effektive Vernetzung ins Gegenteil gewandelt. Die gut ausgebildete junge Bevöl- Lokalisierungsprozess zumindest modellartig auf einen gemeinsamen Nenner, kerung Indiens ist als potenzielle intelligente, leistungsfähige und wirtschaftliche nämlich den Glokalisierungprozess, zu bringen, damit die drastisch auseinander

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gerissene Welt nach dem 11. September 2001 endlich einmal versteht, dass eine of these languages in the capital city of India. This is an example of not just unkritische Unterstützung zur Globalisierung eine blinde Unterstützung zu einem preaching, but actually practicing everyday multilingualism of an educated Indi- neuen Empire sein kann. Kurz und bündig lautet meine synthetische Formel: an. Certainly my other tongue(s) come only after my mother-tongue. My other Globalisierung + Lokalisierung = Glokalisierung. tongues, however, coexist in harmony with my mother-tongue as part of my mul- Sprachpolitisch sehen die Inder den Einsatz des Englischen als ein zusätz- tilingual repertoire of a global citizenship. liches Instrument der additiven Zwei- bzw. Mehrsprachigkeit und nicht als ein ersetzbares der subtaraktiven Zweisprachigkeit, wie manche Deutsche – z.B. Literatur Annamalai, E: Reflections on a language policy for multilingualism. In: Language Policy, Vol. 2, Nr. 2, Hoberg: „English rules the world, was sollen die Deutschen machen“ – es sehen, 2003, 113-132. und zwar als ein Instrument des gesellschaftlichen Einstiegs und Zugangs zu Berchem, Theodor: Deutsche Sprache im 21. Jahrhundert – einige Überlegungen zu Möglichkeiten modernen Wissensgesellschaften der Welt, wobei die jeweilige eigene Sprache und Chancen. In: Konrad Ehlich(Hrsg.): Deutsch im 3. Jahrtausend, München, iudicium, 2000, 26 ff. Kripalani, K. (Ed.): All men are brothers: Life and thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi, Navjeevan Publ. und Kultur nicht aufgegeben werden. House, Ahmedabad, 1990, p. 199-200 Latin, David. D: Language repertoires and state construction in Africa, Cambridge, Cambridge 7. Ausblicke für Europa. Das Prinzip der Inklusivität, das Prinzip der Ge- University Press, 1992, 176 Sasalatti, Shrishail, Globalisierung + Lokalisierung = Glocalisierung: Ein indisches Experiment. In: rechtigkeit und das Prinzip der Chancengleichheit werden zum harmonischen Ehlich, Konrad/Neuland, Eva/Roggausch, Werner (Hrsg.): Perspektiven für Germanistik in Europa, Zusammenleben und Zusammenwachsen verschiedener Sprachen und Kulturen iudicium, München, 2005, 241-257. führen. Dies könnte ein Gegengewicht gegen eine unilaterale, hegemoniale Sasalatti, Shrishail: Zentrifugale und zentripetale Kontrollinstanzen der Sprach- und Kulturpolitik im Zeitalter der Globalisierung und Europäisierung. In: Valentin, Jean-Marie (Hrsg.): Akten des XI. Sprachpolitik einer dominanten Sprachgemeinschaft zu Ungunsten der reich- Internationalen Germanistenkongresses Paris 2005 „Germanistik im Konflikt der Kulturen“, Bd. 8, haltigen kulturellen Vielfalt eines so wunderbaren Kontinents wie Europa sein. „Universal-, Global- und Nationalkulturen“, Bern, Peter Lang, 2007, 119 ff. Genuine Mehrsprachigkeit und Multikulturalität sollte in Europa nicht nur ein http://education.nic.in/higedu.htm http://www.euractiv.com/de/kultur/interview-wichtigkeit-abnehmen-article-171... Lippendienst sein, sondern auf der politischen Tagesordnung stehen. „In Europa leben ungefähr 700 Millionen Menschen in rund 40 Staaten. In diesen spricht man je nach Kategorisierung 70 bis 100 Sprachen. In der Euro- päischen Union werden neben den 11 Amts- und Arbeitssprachen noch ca. 45 Minderheitensprachen gesprochen, also insgesamt mindestens 56 Sprachen. Dabei ist Deutsch mit 95 bis 100 Millionen Sprecherinnen und Sprechern die am weitesten verbreitete Sprache. Diese Verbreitung macht es erforderlich, dass dem Deutschen als Amtssprache in der Europäischen Kommission eine viel größere Bedeutung als bis dato zugebilligt werden müsste“, bemerkt The- odor Berchem (2000, 26ff). Berchem ist sich der Tatsache bewusst, dass eine Konfrontation gegen die dominante Weltsprache nichts bringt, daher plädiert er für „eine Mehrsprachigkeit im Sinne von gelebten und gesprochenen Kultur- sprachen, in der neben den jeweiligen Nationalsprachen und der internationalen Sprache Englisch auch das Deutsche zu seinem Recht kommt“. (ebd. 26ff). Eben diesem Recht der deutschen Sprache in Europa kommt meines Erachtens eine verstärkte Rolle zu. I am, by birth, an Indian. I start my day with prayers in Sanskrit, take my tea and breakfast while talking in Kannada with my wife, read my news papers in English, earn my bread and butter by lecturing in German, go for daily purchases in Hindi and relax in the evening by reading or watching Television in all or any

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Workshop 2.4 names of bilingual municipalities and autochtonous villages got bilingual topogra- phic signs in the year 2000. Primary schools in this area are bilingual. The Burgenland as an exemplary The Minorities School Act gives the right to the parents to unregister their child border region from bilingual schooling and choose only the subject (Croatian, Hungarian). At the same time the law opened the possibility for learning a minority language to all pupils. It also extended the bilingual schooling offers from primary minority public education in burgenland school to the full eight-year-period of compulsory education. Secondary schools with bilingual elementary schools in the area must offer Edith Mühlgaszner, State Education Authority Croatian or Hungarian also as obligation subject. Children must announce themselves for it. Two bilingual secondary schools and one bilingual grammar school were established. The maximum number of pupils per class was reduced to 20. Parents can request certifications for their children also in both languages. ABSTRACT In the school board there is a department for minority affairs. The school su- The minority public education in Burgenland with the natural bilingualism has tra- pervision is regulated for all school types. For the first time instruction forR oma dition for many decades. The legal regulation makes possible that today each pupil children is legally possible. The opportunity for teacher training and training for living here can learn the Croatian and Hungarian language beside the German. In educators in kindergarten is fixed. practice however the system is not yet in such a way developed that this takes place everywhere. The situation in the autochthonous area shows that children’s Statistics for the school year 2007/2008 – mother tongue can be German, the minority language or both of them and at school Croatian, Hungarian, Roman: they learn two languages from the beginning – speaking, reading and writing.  28 bilingual elementary schools with German and Croatian instruction language  two bilingual elementary schools with German and Hungarian instruction language Introduction. The tradition for many decades of the bilingual public edu-  pupils with bilingual and/or Croatian instruction: 1.399 cation in the autochtonous settlement area of the Burgenland-Croats and Bur-  pupils with bilingual and/or Hungarian instruction: 1.409 genland Hungarian people led to the fact that there can be found structures  two bilingual secondary schools (German-Croatian), Croatian instruction: of a natural bilingualism. This region was historically seen always two and/or 242 children multilingual area.  secondary schools offering Hungarian language: 636 children  bilingual grammar school, other grammar schools: Croatian 319 children Actual situation. The situation in the autochtonous area shows that children’s  bilingual grammar school, other grammar schools: Hungarian 250 children mother-tongue can be German, the minority language or both of them and in the  other types of schools: Croatian 168 children kindergarten they are naturally educated in two languages and at school they  other types of schools: Hungarian 271 children learn two languages from the beginning – speaking, reading and writing. The  teacher training institution: 10 students for Croatian development of the last decades brought new challenges for the educators in  school for educators training for kindergarten: Croatian 39 children kindergarten and the teachers. At the regional level, the kindergarten law of 1995 was the first important For successful working in the bilingual class we need support from specialists step for the promotion of bilinguality. The new federal Minorities School Act of in methodical and didactical working. There were no investigations or documen- Burgenland in the year 1994 (BGBl. No. 641/1994) replaced the legislation of 1937 tations of the multilingual education in Burgenland before. Only in the last 10 to and brought some fundamental changes. The law brought for people with Hunga- 15 years we started with analyses, scientific observations and evaluations: rian mother tongue the same rights as the Croatian minority group has. The place

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 Boeckmann, Börge, Schullaufbahn von Zweisprachigen im Burgenland/ In addition to this complex situation children meet to a different language school career of bilingual pupils in Burgenland, Universität für environment at home (Croatian, German, mixed, passively, actively). In every Bildungswissenschaften, Klagenfurt, 1990 case teachers have to do the instruction in both languages in all subjects in ap-  Boeckmann, Börge, Zweisprachigkeit und Schulerfolg/Bilingualness proximately same extent to both languages and they have to lead the children so and school success – Das Beispiel Burgenland, Lang, Frankfurt, 1997 far that at the end of the 4th school grade they should be able to speak and write  Larcher, Dietmar, Evaluation des zweisprachigen Schulwesens im in both languages. It is really a very idealistic claim. The teachers must combine Burgenland/Evaluation of the bilingual education in Burgenland, the methodology and didactics of foreign language learning, of bilingual learning european Union, project of the National school board in Burgenland, 1997 and of learning a second language.  Larcher, Dietmar, Scharniergelenke, European Union project of the The aim is not only the acquisition of language knowledge. It is important for national school board in Burgenland, 1998 children that they can make the experience in their own environment every day  European Union projects of schools with comparison of systems and that in this country there live people using the one or the other language and that methods of language learning it is everyday-life to use the one or the other language.  Vorteil Vielfalt/Advantage variety – 10 years Minorities School Act for Therefore it is a large challenge in the answer of this question: How and Burgenland, National school boarding Burgenland in cooperation with where can we offer for children – and later also for interested adults -, who want the Croatian Culture and Documentation Center, 2005 to learn one of the minority languages, the opportunities to do it?  Jedan dan – Hrvatski dan/One day – Croatian day – Immersion und rotation, National school board in Burgenland in cooperation with the Teacher training. This is a fundamental and basic thing of the whole system. Croatian Culture and Documentation Center, 2007 The possibility is given in the institution of the Pedagogical Academy in Eisen- stadt which is on the way to be changed into a High school. Teachers of bilingual Methodology and didactics in the instruction of Croatian and schools must prove the teaching profession examination in both languages, be- Hungarian language. The early language learning and the bilingual learning cause they must do the bilingual instruction during the full time. in this territory were always naturally practiced. However it must be noted that the basic conditions changed. Also the practical situation at the schools and in Instruction for children from the Roma and Sinti minority the classes reflects the social situation again. Therefore the methodology and group. For the Roma children there existed a special “gypsy school” from didactics of the respective region and/or condition would have to be adapted. 1924–1938. After World War II the Roma children were integrated in the schools The differences in the knowledge of language are regionally very large. With where they were living. After recognizing the Roma and Sinti as a minority group in a region conditions from one village to the other can be very different. Even at in the year 1993 the Minorities School Act 1994 opened the basis for offering the the same school the composition in the classes can be different from one year language at school. We started with offering support in learning in the afternoon to the other. Therefore there cannot be some kind of fixed methods, which can and doing homework and since 1999 instruction in Roman language is done in be used everywhere. Teachers have to try to treat the pupils individually and to some schools. fulfill the claim for internal differentiation corresponding to the needs of each child. The composition of a class can for example look like this: Concluding remarks. We can say that we have o good legal basis for lear-  pupils with German mother tongue without any Croatian knowledge ning minority languages. All the possibilities are not yet used in the whole region.  pupils with Croatian mother tongue with small German knowledge There are different reasons for it (opening numbers are not reached, informati-  children with another first language without German knowledge on, interest of pupils, parents and teachers, readiness for learning employment,  children educated with German language with passive Croatian knowledge possibilities of the adult education, importance of the minority languages in re-  children with good German knowledge and small active Croatian knowledge lation to English or French, less functionality of the languages in everyday life in  children educated in two languages with high knowledge in both languages society).  children with special needs who have to be integrated.

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A clear handicap for the teachers represents the very limited offer at school- Workshop 3.2 books and learning materials. This means that teachers have to make and develop books and materials in working groups themselves. Another problem is Multilingual terminology and the production of materials because of the too small edition number it is very structured content expensive and it is not always possible to print them. Therefore materials are in many cases copied by teachers themselves. In the eighties and nineties in our country started a reorientation process FORMULATING AND implementing arabic in the population, so that today the awareness for learning languages, specially terminology policy: Towards a Syste- for minority languages led to the situation that parents are more interested on matic Approach to the Creation and Use a bilingual education in the kindergarten and on bilingual instruction at school. of Terminology Also the adults show more and more interest in learning a minority language. Burgenland is an example of multilingualism in society and education. Suppor- Moh’d Tawfiq Bataineh, University of Salford, Manchester ting the offers from multilingualism in school and in the adult education it could lead to the way that in future in Burgenland every person has a basic knowledge in understanding and speaking in all three national languages. ABSTRACT If the Arab countries want to prepare their societies to enter the 21st century and face the new challenges of globalization and market economies, it seems that an obvious choice would be to aim at achieving necessary attitudinal changes. These changes would lead to a deliberate and accepted attempt to interfere with their language in order to bring about higher levels of linguistic self-confidence and desirable social change. The Arabic language needs urgent language planning strategies that will standardize it again and provide it with the necessary means for serving all the new challenging language functions of the 21st century. Attempts at reforming the Arabic language reflect three major positions. The traditional school strongly believes that Arabic is still adequate and requires no significant change. The Cairo Academy is interested in simplifying the language but without major deviations from its prescriptive framework. A third group, still the weakest of the three, stresses the need of radical modifications of the rules of Arabic. This paper will focus on the urgent need for Arabic Terminology Policy. It attempts to shed light on the theoretical basis for such a policy.

Background to the Arabic Language Policy. Globalisation and accele- rating technological advances have produced a dramatic transformation in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the Arab world. In (Bassey 2000: xviii) Minako O’Hagan points out that through information technology, the backbone on which many facets of globalization ride, language problems arise today with a feeling that was unknown in the age of limited cross-border transactions. This development

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has left its mark on the Arabic language, particularly its lexicon for the infiltration of Arabic Adaptation to Modern Needs. The dilemma that the Arabic langu- Western civilization upon the Arab world has brought with it new things, ideas, and age faces today is the adaptation of the language to modern needs especially to ways of life previously unknown to the Arabs, especially in science and technology. scientific and technical usage. The creation of terminology is a major challenge to The Arabic language, like many other languages, faces linguistic demands to change the Jordan Academy of Arabic. A tremendous increase in scientific knowledge has with the times. Arabic demands language-planning strategies that will provide it generated so many new terms. The problem, succinctly stated, is the incorporation with the necessary means for serving all the new challenging language functions of of these foreign terms to Arabic. The Arab countries have been daily confronted the 21st Century. The contemporary needs analysis for modern Arabic may include with the serious problem of expressing this growing need. The problem is a con- many elements of language planning, such as orthographic innovation or writing tinuing one and is being compounded daily by the rapid changes in science and system, grammar simplification, and the immediate need is for accurate and widely technology taking place worldwide. The modernization of the Arabic lexicon is pro- acceptable scientific and technical terminology (Elkhafaifi 1985:1). bably the most important objective of all agencies of Arabic language policy. It is One of the most important activities of Arabic language planning has recently the responsibility of the various language academies in the Arab world to meet the been concerned with lexical modernization, particularly in the scientific and tech- need for widely acceptable modern terminology in all fields of knowledge, primarily nical areas. Language planning academies in the Arab world have emphasized the the fields of science and technology (Elkhafaifi 2002:255). creation of new terminology in Arabic. Other aspects of language reform and deve- The risk for Arabic reform faces a challenge in the sense that it needs a prag- lopment, such as the issues of diglossia, dialects, and the writing system, have been matic awareness and concerns which need to be addressed together with the even entirely ignored or regarded as secondary (Mouloudi 1986:1). One on-going religious care and national interests. If the Arab countries want to prepare their trend in Modern Standard Arabic is modernization that involves the creation of new societies to enter the 21st Century and face the new challenges of globalization and terms for concepts that did not exist in earlier times. It is in the area of vocabulary market economies, it seems that an obvious choice would be to aim at achieving enrichment that the most meaningful language reforms can take place. The new and necessary attitudinal changes. These changes would lead to a deliberate and ac- growing demands of everyday life require retooling measures of lexical innovation. cepted attempt to interfere with their language in order to bring about higher levels According to (Maamouri 1998:55–56), three major attitudes of language plan- of desirable social change. The Arabic language needs urgent language planning ning prevail in the Arab world today. The traditionalist view holds that Arabic is strategies that will standardize it again and provide it with the necessary means for adequate for all needs and requires no changes. Like many other speakers around serving all the new challenging language functions of the 21st Century. New age of the world, Arabic speakers are sensitive to the wholesale borrowing of words. In globalization and its challenges demand a change in the Arabic language policy, so fact, they are perhaps more sensitive to language change because most Arabs that Arabs can be globally competitive. recognize Arabic as the language of God. Such a concept does not accommo- Arab intellectuals have been divided sharply on language issues. Remaining date language change well (Bishop 1998). The moderate view maintains that some loyal to a concept of linguistic purity based on the Muslims’ holy book, Quran, simplification and standardization is necessary, but the basic structure of Arabic and the classical literature; the conservative have adamantly resisted any change. should not be altered. The third view favors drastic changes and radical revision of Where as the modernist viewed the linguistic question in terms of adaptability to Arabic. Elkhafaifi (2002:255) adds that these divergent views are well represented modern need without a necessary regard for its traditions. This is the dichotomy of in all the Arabic language planning agencies as they deal with terminology produc- opinion: should the revival of Arabic emphasize the best traditions and past glory tion. The missions of promoting the use of Arabic and meeting the need for mo- of language, or should attention be given to modern exigencies without conside- dern terminology are the responsibility of the various language planning agencies ration of the language’s history and accomplishments. The central issue is how to in the Arab world. As a result, Arabic language academies have been established decide on a middle course whereby the past can be reconciled with the present. in several areas throughout the Arab world including Syria, Egypt, Iraq and Jordan. Thus, a need for a pragmatic awareness of attitudinal changes is of much impor- The Arab academies have pursued the vital task of developing scientific and tech- tance for Arabic language planners (Chejne 1969). nological vocabulary. Their main goal has always been the regeneration of Arabic The study very much endeavors to raise the point on the rationales for the as an effective communication medium for modern science and technology. The good term that are rooted in sources other than those which language planning creation of new technical terminology is one means of achieving this goal. agencies in the developing world fall back on when creating new terminologies.

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Neustupny in Bassey (2000:15) suggests that language planning in developing and Workshop 3.2 developed countries could be distinguished on the basis of approach. The former societies are described by what is called the policy approach and the latter by the Multilingual terminology and cultivation approach. In Jernudd (1983:366ff), approaches to terminology in both structured content societies are quite clearly stated. In developed countries or speech communities, the emphasis is said to lie in term systematicity, definitions, and harmonization achieved typically through the careful preparation of highly specialized reference Terminology policies and minority works, often containing only a modest number of highly elaborated term entries. language planning In developing countries or speech communities, a demonstration effect through publication of volumes of lists and perhaps texts should be the goal. Rationaliza- Anja Drame, International Information Centre for Terminology (INFOTERM), tion for the thrust in the developed world is variation in terminology usage, while Vienna in the developing world it would appear to be a public relations event, attempting to prove that concepts and discourse of a certain kind can be linguistically indige- nized (ibid). Finally, I hope through this work to offer some fresh insights into the real and ABSTRACT pressing problems that confronts Arabic language in the Arab world in general. I Trends show a growing demand for certification schemes and the application of am hopeful to offer some suggestions that would lend themselves to the effective- quality assurance principles in the language industry. Such certification must be ness of the Arabic Academies’ work in the area of lexical enhancement. It is my based on service standards (which are quite different from product standards hope that this study will stimulate further research on related problems of Arabic that regulate properties). A prominent example for such service standards is language planning and will demonstrate to the reticent individuals that Arabic has the European Standard EN 15038 for Translation Services. But there are more changed since classical times, that it is changing now and will continue to change, on the way: ISO 29383 „Terminology Policies – Development and Implementa- and that it is worthwhile venture to study the changes no matter how tiny they tion“ will, after completion in early 2010, give guidance to policy makers how to may be. It is hoped to provide through this study a few directions for future langu- successfully formulate and implement terminology policies in an organization age-related research, and introduce concrete Arabic language reforms. Thereby, or company, or in a language community or nation. The standard is developed it stimulates greater interest and enthusiasm for the modernization and reform of by an international expert group and based on research and experiences from Arabic in general, and in the vocabulary and lexical innovation, in particular. different domains and sectors all over the world. Terminology development and management can either serve as integral part of language planning and the modernization, thus equipping a language to function as medium in different domains. It has also a supportive role for the socio- economic and scientific-technical development. Therefore a cross-sectoral approach is often necessary to ensure harmonization of existing sectoral policies (e.g. Information policies). Civil society and the private sector are important factors for the empowering and promotion of languages and the improvement of access to information and knowledge management. Such organizations have their own demand for systematic terminology policies to support their operations and business sustainable and cost-efficiently. These demands can look quite different from those of a nation or a language community and serve different goals.

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Introduction. For most terminologists, no matter if they are employed on a typical language planner’s dilemma, which only becomes a terminologist’s pro- public assignment, in academia, in companies or non-profit organizations, the blem if it makes communication impossible. matter is obvious: The requirement for consistent, effective terminology policy Therefore the users and creators of terminology are the single most crucial is given. A terminology policy is seen as imperative to ensure consistent, syste- factor. The ultimate aim of terminology planning may be completely independent matic and planned creation and use of terminology in a certain environment to from the strategy of an existing language policy. Terminology planning must be ensure effective, reliable communication and the efficient distribution of budget regarded as supportive of scientific, technological and economic development on this largely cost-intensive, yet essential matter. And the necessity is likely to planning of a nation or an organization. And this in turn can have a positive effect grow the more thorough globalization will play a role in economy and society. on the status of and the attitude towards a minority language. The stronger the economic background connected to a linguistic group the more value will be at- Terminology and language planning policies. The understanding of tributed to the medium of communication. Vice versa a well-enriched and living what a terminology policy entails usually differs depending on your point of de- terminology will have positive impact on the economic future of their speakers. parture. By far the most common understanding of the term originates in the As a consequence of all this, and of the recognition that terminology plays field of sociolinguistics and of language planning. a role whenever domain-specific knowledge and information is generated, used, Language planners are usually concerned with the promotion and elabora- recorded and processed, passed on or translated, terminology planning, even on tion of a particular language, often minority languages, i.e. a linguistic minority a national level, must be regarded in a much wider perspective than it often is (in comparison of dominating and – usually perceived as threatening – other today. Again it must be stressed, that terminology planning should therefore be linguistic groups). As such their concern is to equip the speakers with a medium regarded as part of innovation, information, knowledge and e-content strategies that is not only fit for use in all kinds of public and private function, but also to in addition to the traditional view of it as cultural-linguistic good. It is, as I have raise its status simultaneously. argued elsewhere, just as much a resource for scientific-technical and econo- From its early beginnings language planning has put special emphasize on mical development as it is a linguistic resource or part of the management and lexical development and standardization. Lexical expansion as part of corpus preservation of biodiversity. planning is influenced by the status a language enjoys, and has at the same time some positive impact in return. Terminology policies. The shape and quality, and even the awareness of The problem has not changed much since then; the problems are as current terminology policies can be quite different. Contrary to popular believe a policy and pressing as ever. This is especially true with the growing hegemony of the does not always come in the disguise of a legal document. A policy can be a English language in many scientific-technical domains in the wake of globaliza- guideline, a common practice, a recorded statement by the top or middle mation in mind. nagement. Any official strategic guide can be potentially regarded a policy.I t can If we talk about terminology planning we must bear in mind the principle even be a policy to have no policy. A terminology policy can address different of terminology: concept orientation and the general principle of language inde- aspects depending on the specific situation. Typical problems that require sy- pendence. Terminology is often created, owned, processed and/or used by pro- stematic governance may concern the coordination of efforts and cooperation fessionals in particular subject fields and domains.T hey decide if they will use a between existing systems, policy frameworks, stakeholders and actors. A termi- term or if they will simply ignore it. Terminology creation and use therefore meet nology policy might ensure that the critical role of terminology is recognized for perceived communication needs of the domain rather than only linguistic ones the overall operation of the organization or nation-state/language community as and will take place according to the systematic of the subject field and not the well as their economic value. It can give guidance for capacity building to ensure language. Due to limited term formation possibilities any language has in store, sustainability and quality-based operation or for the creating and coordinating as well as a lack of linguistic awareness, the same subject specialists regularly infrastructure as well as governance mechanisms for terminology work (databa- create linguistic problems like homonymy, synonymy, etc. which might become ses, departments, processes, etc.). It can furthermore regulate access to, rules communication problems. Also the unreflected borrowing from other languages for the management, workflow cycles, standardization and use of terminology, or the all-too purist approach or abstraction levels may cause such barriers – a intellectual property questions and copyright, sharing of terminology resources.

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And it should provide the framework to persuade decision makers in view of Workshop 3.2 future policymaking, allocation of resources and strategic planning. An International Standard is currently being developed to assist those who Multilingual terminology and want to develop such a policy. The standards will guide policy-makers to esta- structured content blish the situation and needs, to get prepared for lobbying and advocacy work, it will help them to be inclusive and participatory in their consultation approach and to asses the many traps and pitfalls they might come across along their way. Terminology in the web (accessibility), Eventual they will be able to design and get official support for a evidence-based, via the web (distribution) and through sounded strategy on the basis for their particular needs as an organization or a the web (creation) – Considerations in language community. conjunction with standardization ISO 29383 Terminology policies – Development and Implementations as it activities will be known after completion in early 2010 will be published in two parts, each tailored for a specific user group. Part 1 will assist language planners and those Christian Galinski, International Information Centre for Terminology involved in minority language promotion while part 2 helps companies to plan (Infoterm), Vienna their terminology strategically and profitably. ISO 29383 is based on the UN- ESCO document Guidelines for Terminology Policies, published in 2005 as the result of a joint effort of international experts under guidance of the Internatio- nal Information Centre for Terminology. ABSTRACT Terminology in the meaning of terminology science and terminology work still References suffers from a number of “old” ailments, the most important of which are the http://www.termnet.org/english/products_service/publisher_products.php http://www.infoterm.info/activities/terminology_policies.php relative lack of recognition for its importance, the relative low degree of availability of high-quality resources, the labour-intensiveness (and therefore costliness) The complete article was originally published in the Proceedings of the Special Seminar on Minority required to prepare terminological data using conventional approaches, the lack Languages and Terminology Policies that was organized by the European Association for Terminology in July 2007 in Dublin. of esteem for terminology work among domain experts, etc. just to mention a few factors. Terminology (of a domain) in the meaning of representation of a set of closely related concepts is often considered to be a dull and uninspiring subject. On the other hand industry and advanced research in content and knowledge management is gradually recognizing the importance of terminology – more often than not called ontology – in terms of methodology as well as data. In industry, where it is crucial in communication (e.g. in trade, marketing, etc.), product data management, technical documentation, translation, and localization, as well as strategic in overall content management for globalization, internationalization and localization, terminology is an economic factor in conjunction with globalization, internationalization and localization. Research and development in this connection concentrates on ontology studies and interoperability – increasingly aiming at true semantic interoperability in the sense of conceptual and pragmatic interoperability of structured content, which is called content interoperability, in order to differentiate it from the semantic interoperability as used in computer science and mainstream programming.

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Keywords: terminology work and standardization; verbal and non-verbal repre- gration and re-use, c) terminology distribution and marketing, and d) of course the sentations; terminological data and datamodel; structured content; lexical se- technology used to support the above have an impact on terminology in theory mantics; ISO Concept Database (ISO/CDB); federation of terminology resour- and practice. ces; semantic interoperability, content integration and interoperability; European Interoperability Framework (EIF); terminological products and services; web-ba- 2. Globalization, Localization and Internationalization. Globaliza- sed distributed cooperative terminology work; workflow methods; globalization tion (G11N), localization (L10N) and Internationalization (I18N) are closely rela- (G11N), Localization (L10N) and internationalization (I18N); business models and ted concepts. Although they come from macro-economics, they have an impact intellectual property rights; content and knowledge management; EU projects: on all walks of life – even on terminology theory and applications. EURESCOM, EuroTermBank, IN-SAFETY, LIRICS, OSCAR, SALT. 2.1 Globalization – G11N. In the general public there are lots of misconcep- tions, especially about G11N, whose opponents tend to “feel that the interna- 1. State of the art of terminology work tional expansion of businesses is levelling local cultures and erasing local dif- From a purist theoretical point of view the reality of terminology work – especial- ferences” (LISA 2007:3). But “the only way for enterprises [for instance] to be ly in industry and terminology standardization – shows a lot of exceptions, even global is to be simultaneously local in the markets in which they do business. contradictions to fundamental principles of terminology science (not least due to By respecting local languages and culture at every level – in their products, ser- domain specific methods and pragmatic conventions in various subject fields). vices, documentation, customer support, marketing, maintenance procedures, Among others the following phenomena appear in terminology standards: business practices, etc. – global enterprises paradoxically expand the options  There are many different kinds of term collections in terminology standards, available at the local level.” (LISA 2007: foreword)  Often it is not clear, whether classification means concept classification or Analogously this applies also to terminology science and its manifold appli- theme classification (ISO 197; ISO 15253) (more often than not it is just termi- cations: Locales here are not confined to geographical aspects, but comprise nology), communities of specific conventions at any level – even within and across orga-  Any kind of chemical or mathematical formula may occur in standards (ISO nizations. Terminology as a field of endeavour only quite recently has become 472) as well as any kind of shortened formula, symbols replacing a formula conscious of this fact and started to make use of it. etc,  Generic names (ISO 2076) can be found side by side with short form, characte- 2.2 Localization – L10N. According to LISA (2007:11f.) “Localization is the pro- ristics (no definition) and examples for the generic, cess of modifying products or services to account for differences in distinct mar-  Concept systems can be represented in many forms: classification (ISO 6621; kets”. “Localization is often treated as nothing more than ‘high-tech translation’, ISO 4378 etc.) or full-fledged concept system (ISO 8090), but this view does not capture its importance, its complexities, or what actually  More or less all Latin and Greek characters plus some special characters (e.g. takes place during localization. It also hides the fact that localization must be in- in mathematics) occur for instance in ISO 31 (units, quantities, etc.), and are tegrated with other business processes if it is to be effective. Localization is an re-used in many terminology standards all across standardization, often as integral part of globalization, and without it, other globalization efforts are ineffec- part of a term or in combination with each other; tive.” (LISA 2007: 11) Therefore the interdependence of G11N and L10N has also  Even colours may be significant/characteristic (e.g. ISO 3864), been coined glocalization. Key concept in L10N is locales, which according to the  Other phenomena – especially in conjunction with non-verbal representations EURESCOM Report (2000:9) “refers to a collection of people who share language, of concepts which may lead us to question some of today’s prevailing assump- writing system and any other properties which would require a separate version of tions in the field of terminology. a product. […] In the software and information technology industries, the term is In addition, under the impact of globalization (entailing localization and in- used to refer to the collection of procedures and data that vary from one localised ternationalization) new terminology work methods, new approaches to increase version of a product to another”. In this connection terminological data, too, have efficiency in a) terminology creation and maintenance, b) terminology data inte- become a strategic resource in organizations, whether in private industry or in

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the public domain. Terminological methods and practices have reached strategic of project development, they will add substantially to the expense and time management as one of the keys to establish and maintain corporate know-how, required to localize a product.” corporate identity, branding, etc. far beyond its traditional roles, such as facilita- The above mentioned issues impact terminology data and datamodelling in ting domain communication and supporting translation. such a way that further to the recording and maintenance of terminological data According to LISA (2007:11f.) localization addresses linguistic, physical, in the traditional sense of information on concepts represented by designations business and cultural issues as well as technical issues. and descriptions, today’s datamodel s and data modelling methods/techniques  Concerning linguistic issues LISA (2007:12) states: “Almost any product or must be able to cover: service that will be sold to individuals who do not speak the language in  any knowledge/content items at the level of lexical semantics (i.e. at the which it was created will require linguistic adaptation. For example, a piece level of concept representation – covering also the whole range of data from of computer software will require translation of the textual components of morphology to phraseology and even factual micro-statements, if necessary) the user interface, online help, user documentation, installers, etc. Beyond beyond ‘traditional terminological data’; the product itself, business needs will require translation of marketing and  an extended range of non-verbal concept representations (from alphanume- product collateral materials, web pages, and support materials, and perhaps ric symbols via formulas and graphical symbols to audio-visual and haptic training documents, internal service bulletin, and other similar components. data); For media or informatics products, linguistic aspects of localization may also  product or service properties (e.g. in e-Business, e-Procurement or e-Health include dubbing and adaptation of speech-based audio components. … From applications, etc.) or (low-complex as well as elements of higher-complex) this it can easily be gathered, how additional information in terminology da- learning objects (if applied in e-Learning). tabases such as speech output, script information, information on specific If not, their scope of usability and applicability would be largely confined to applications, etc. are gaining importance. However, if it comes to icons and linguistic applications, which – as a fact – are ranking low on the importance graphical symbols, etc. traditional terminology needs extensions in order to scale and visibility ladder in industry as well as in the public domain. comply with new requirements. Physical issues LISA explains: 2.3 Internationalization – I18N. LISA (2007:17) defines “Internationali  “Beyond translation, localization often involves physical modifications to pro- zation is the process of enabling a product at a technical level for localization” in- ducts or services in order to be acceptable in the local market. cluding – of course – also services. I18N, therefore, enables a product or service  Business and cultural issues LISA mentions: “Local business and cultural issues not to require remedial engineering or redesign at the time of localization. LISA can affect all aspects of product design and localization.” This can refer to local further explains that “Localization does not just happen; it must be planned for.  currencies and accounting conventions as well as payment preferences, Even in the simplest cases, there will be issues that will work against successful  address and telephone number formats, localization [… for instance]:  colours and graphics as well as form,  graphics may contain embedded text that must be translated,  all of whose information may sometimes need to be linked to terminological  screenshots may appear in a particular language, data depending on their form of application as well as integration into or  phone-numbers may be usable only in one country. federation with other applications. Because of such issues, a process known as internationalization is used to  Technical issues LISA points out: “Supporting local languages may require remove cultural assumptions from products during development so that they special attention and planning at the engineering stage” referring among can effectively be localized.” others to East Asian languages with its multitude of characters as well as Arabic and Hebrew written from right to left, etc. – having an impact on text 3. Impact from terminology reality and G11N & L10N & L10N. In con- support (incl. date formats, separators used in numbers, alphabetic or other nection with the revision of ISO 10241 some hitherto neglected phenomena occur- kinds of ordering, etc.), input of text from and export of text into the local ring in the reality of terminology standardization had to be analysed and clarified. language. “If these technical issues are not considered from the early stages

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Symbols occurring as designations in international terminology standards the revised (conceptual) datamodel in terminology represent concepts and comprise among others: (*refers to repeatability)  alphanumeric symbols, such as eV-1/m3 (=reciprocal electronvolt per cubic metre; acc. to ISO 31-13),  graphemes (being units of text) and glyphs (being graphical units),  graphical symbols, such as ♥ or J,  icons, etc. Often symbols as designations are also abbreviations, but they have additional communicative functions, such as elements in mathematical equations, chemical formulas (e.g. H2O, -OH). Non-verbal representations occurring in international terminology standards mainly comprise visual representations, such as:  figures,  tables,  equations. Figures represent an individual object in a more or less abstracted way illus- This datamodel led to a more generic approach in terminological data mo- trating the concept in question. Figures may comprise: delling, which is not fundamentally in conflict with traditional approaches, but  photographs and pseudo-photographs, offers more possibilities to achieve data models for a much broader array of ty-  technical drawings, pes of structured data than before. Beside, all these data would be semantically  other kinds of drawings. interoperable and characterized by a higher degree of re-usability. In the new Tables represent a fact or statement referring to the concept in a tabular model the locale takes the position of language in the traditional model – thus way. Tables in a general sense may comprise: somehow even simplifying the global structure of the model.  tables, Recently it was taken over by ISO Central Secretariat in its conception of  charts, an ISO Concept DataBase (ISO/CDB), which will cover all kind of standardized  graphs, content items in the ISO framework. It had been developed and tested in the EU  diagrams, etc. project IN-SAFETY (http://insafety-eu.org): The Locale Section contains all the Equations are mathematical statements using symbols to represent the fact information (of a given concept entry) that are used in a given locale. Usually it that two things are the same (identity statement) or equal (equality statement). contains, for example, definitions, etc. associated with that locale (i.e. represen- In industrial reality terminologists may also be faced with complex visual tation autonomy). The locale section must be repeated for every locale treated representations representing concepts, such as: in the relevant concept entry.  maps (e.g. topic maps), In IN-SAFETY it contains all the traffic sign information that is used in a given  visualizations, etc., country or geographical region (e.g. the French speaking part of Switzerland).  non-conventional signs (similar to phenomena occurring in non-conventional The Representation Section contains information about the representation trademarks), such as (three-dimensional and other) shapes, sounds, colours, of the concept, and the representation itself. This section is identical with the odours, moving images (e.g. animated drawings), etc. term section of the terminological metamodel if the concept is only represented By extending the hitherto prominently verbal-linguistic term-oriented ap- by a term. proach in terminological data management, a generic datamodel emerges, which In IN-SAFETY traffic signs and verbal messages have to be maintained in a is applicable to all kinds of structured content (here: content items at the level visual or spoken form, but other multimodal representations are also conceiva- of lexical semantics – which in fact represent the most fundamental entities of ble (e.g. haptic). Even graphical representations of traffic signs may differ from scientific-technical knowledge). locale to locale.

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Since terminological data (including non-verbal representations of concepts)  e-Health and other kinds of structured content have a lot in common, it seems appropri-  e-Business/e-Commerce ate to handle them with one and the same theoretic-methodological approach. In  other e…-s. addition terminologies and other kinds of structured content have to be re-used This calls for content integration in individual systems and content interope- in many applications, such as e-Learning, e-Commerce, e-Government, e-Health, rability between different systems (and their respective datamodels). In order etc. No wonder that standardization is becoming an important issue – especially to achieve an efficient content integration as well as content interoperability it with respect to semantic – or better content – interoperability. is advisable to standardize content-related methodologies before standardizing and harmonizing content itself. ISO/TC 37 “Terminology and other language and 4. Content integration and content interoperability. As has been content resources” is right on this track. stated already, today’s datamodels and data modelling methods/techniques have to be conceived in such a way that they can also cover: 4.2 Interoperability in general. The European Interoperability Framework  knowledge/content items at the level of lexical semantics beyond ‘traditional (EIF – for pan-European e-Government services) defines interoperability as “the terminological data’, an extended range of non-verbal concept representations, ability of communication technology (ICT) systems and of the business processes  product or service properties for instance in e-Commerce, e-Procurement or they support to exchange data and enable sharing of information and knowledge.” e-Health applications, not to mention e-Learning, etc. This requires hitherto (EIF 2004: 3) This definition on the one hand is biased towards technical interope- unknown complexities of data, datamodel and computer system integration rability, while on the other hand falls short with respect to content interoperability. – not to forget the development of ICTs towards mobility, ubiquity and per- It does, however, quite adequately give a taste of the whole complexity of interope- vasiveness in applications and systems, which fosters the development of rability. EIF further identifies organizational interoperability, semantic interoperabi- distributed and federated systems as well as content resources. lity, technical interoperability, to which at decision-making level:  political interoperability (between countries or regions), 4.1 Content integration. Content in technical terms is defined as  strategic interoperability (within or between organizations),  text (textual data, incl. all kinds of alpha-numeric data),  could be added. But EIF sees semantic interoperability largely from a compu-  sound (audio data), ter science point of view. We therefore suggest to distinguish it from content  image (graphical data), interoperability.  video (multimedia data). However, from a semantic point of view, this is completely insufficient. Under 4.3 Content interoperability. Content interoperability goes a step further a mobile content (m-Content) perspective, today, content – including terminology than content integration – it responds to the emergence of mobility and distri- – is from the outset: buted as well as federated content resources. Content interoperability naturally  multilingual, refers to data and data structures in integrated (and possibly heterogeneous)  multimodal, systems – but even more so to distributed (and possibly heterogeneous) content  multimedia repositories under the fundamental requirements of content management: and should be prepared in such a way that it meets accessibility (or e-Inclu-  single sourcing, sion) and multi-channel requirements. Accessibility/e-Inclusion also comprises  resource sharing. the requirements of people with special needs. (s. ISO/TC 37 N496: 2004 and Single source or single sourcing (derived from single source publishing) MoU/MG N0221: 2006) allows the same content item – stored and maintained only once – to be used in Content should also be prepared in such a way that it is re-usable in all kinds different documents or in various formats for all kinds of applications, while re- of applications, especially the e-...s, such as: source sharing enables users and creators of content items to avoid duplication  e-Learning of work through collaborative processes.  e-Government

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4.4 Aspects of standardization concerning structured content.  properties, From a technical point-of-view, data processing requirements, syntax (technically  meta-data, speaking), semantics (technically speaking), technical interoperability, etc. need  proper names, and even (in adapted form) to technical – especially software – standards. These also comprise standards for  other kinds of content items, etc. semantic interoperability from a technical point-of-view. From the point-of-view of inter-human communication, content interoperability in the sense of syntac- 5. Structured content and semantic interoperability. Formally tic, conceptual and pragmatic interoperability (as understood by linguists) re- speaking terminological data – if they are of verbal nature – belong to language quires methodology standards not only for all kinds of structured content (at the resources, which are content resources, too, of course. But content resources also level of lexical semantics) as outlined above, but also for: comprise non-verbal representations of information/knowledge as well as many  distributed (web-based) workflow management, additional data. Hence we have to distinguish between different types and levels of  content item identification, content – in particular structured content at the level of lexical semantics.  copyright (incl. exploitation rights) management, According to recent discussions structured content can be subdivided into:  metadata repository design and maintenance,  structured content derived from un-structured content, which is structured  generic data modelling principles and requirements, syntactically according to formal criteria (such as bars of music, elements of  metamodel s also for metadata repositories, texts, frames of a movie, etc.);  federation methods and techniques, etc.  structured content (which may or may not be embedded in unstructured content), which is structured semantically according to semantic criteria. ISO/TC 37 “Terminology and other language and content resources” gra- Semantically structured content at the level of concepts (or lexical seman- dually extended its scope of standardizing activities, because increasingly ter- tics – covering also morphology and micro-propositions) is exactly, what ISO/ minological data is embedded in or combined with other kinds of structured TC 37 is dealing with. The TC prepares International Standards concerning the content in the form of texts, speech, graphics, audio-video and multimedia, and methods, processes, organisational and operational environments, applications occurs as knowledge-rich terminology, such as in encyclopaedic knowledge (e.g. and tools relating to these resources. Wikipedia) or knowledge/content management, and comprises also all sorts of ISO/TC 37 thus works at a most fundamental level for semantic interope- popularised terminology. Therefore, the experience with: rability (SIOp) – especially in inter-human domain communication as well as in  data categorising, human-machine communication – which is called today content interoperability.  data modelling, In the EU-project “SemanticHealth” (Semantic Interoperability Deployment and  (multilingual) databases, Research Roadmap – http://www.semantichealth.org/) experts elaborated in  metamodels, great detail definitions of semantic interoperability distinguishing between three  terminology work, implementation based levels:  terminology creation workflow,  limited SIOp confined to technical or structural/syntactic interoperability,  applications of terminology,  intermediate SIOp with partial exchange of meaning,  terminology management,  fully sharable SIOp, or co-operability which can be achieved within an insti  data quality, copyright, and policies/strategies related to terminological data tution, between institutions and human-to-human. and applications seem to imply that language-independent terminological These levels should be related to the desiderata for SIOp: methods with respect to multilingual terminologies also apply to:  readability – with potential for re-use,  general purpose language entities/units (i.e. words, collocations, mor-  (semantic) searchability, phemes …),  systematic identification with metadata,  classification entities/units (=classes),  systematic coding with hierarchy,  thesaurus descriptors,  systematic coding with context information.

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Under the perspective of ubiquitous and pervasive computing, where e-Con- impressive list of standardizing activities. “But the integrative effect of standardi- tent develops in the direction of m-Content (i.e. mobile content), ‘soft’ aspects, zation has been limited by lack of co-ordination among such initiatives, resulting like culture and emotion increasingly influence and need to be considered in data in the absence of interfaces among application-specific formats and models.” modelling as well as in information design. This development also necessitates For the general user (and even for industrial users), a lot of terminological data multi-channel approaches without media-breaks in ICT. Furthermore, at politi- are thus not accessible. Budin/Melby then “categorize barriers to terminological cal level the issue of accessibility (incl. the requirements of people with special knowledge sharing as follows: needs – also called e-Inclusion) is gaining attention at national (e.g. CLF – com-  legal barriers […], mon look and feel – in Canada) and international (e.g. IFAP – Information for All  economic barriers […], Programme – of UNESCO) levels. ISO/TC 37 is developing or will develop some  information barriers […], of the fundamental methodology standards valid for all application fields (viz.  technical barriers […], the e…s), which will pave the way for content interoperability conforming to the  methodological barriers […].” requirements of multilinguality, cultural diversity, multimodality, accessibility/ “Although these barriers are all significant, the legal and economic issues e-Inclusion and multi-channel presentations (see above). are manageable for a single multilingual document production chain within a national or world-wide organization, or when an organization desires to share its 6. Terminology in the Web, via the Web and through the Web terminology freely. Even in such cases, however, the technical and methodologi- 6.1 Terminology in the Web (accessibility). Many articles and evalu- cal barriers remain because of the diversity and incongruence described above.” ations have been written about the increasing volumes of terminological data Ultimately, they claim, these barriers can only be overcome by a set of meta- accessible in the Web, pointing out severe deficits: standards and even meta-meta-standards, some of which have been prepared in  Volume does not imply quality, so the reliability is mostly doubtful, the framework of projects and industry consortia, such as  although being accessible in principle, they are difficult to find (e.g. if they  the SALT project (Standards-based Access to multilingual Lexical and Termi- are at the end of a hit list in a web search), nological resources),  if they are found, ownership (referring to copyright) or integrity (referring to  the OSCAR special interest group in LISA OSCAR (Open Standards for Con- manipulation of existing data) questions are not clear, tainer/Content Allowing Re-use),  Codes of good practice (such as the one formulated by Infoterm) are usually  the OLIF2 consortium (Open Lexicon Interchange Format). not observed; Some of these standards have already entered as working items into ISO/TC Proprietary data are often not distinguished from commonly used ones, 37 activities; others will gradually be integrated. The LIRICS project (Linguistic  Experts tend to be loose with their terminology, assuming that they know Infrastructure for Interoperable Resources and Systems) finally aims at produ- what their terms mean. This shows in articles and technical documents as cing the meta-meta-standards necessary to bridge the technical and methodo- well as in conversation. More often than not experts are not much of assis logical barriers between various applications and approaches in terminology, tance if you are in need of a terminological clarification. lexicography and computational linguistics in general. Budin/Melby wrote in 2000 “Multilingual Terminology Resources (MTRs) Thus for the general user the supply with terminological data on the Internet have been created for decades for a variety of purposes. […] Being an integral is overwhelming on the one side, but suffering from ‘classical’ deficits, such as part of the language industries and the information economy, MTRs have been  no quality indication nor assurance, integrated more recently into machine translation systems, technical authoring  lack of comprehensiveness on the one hand, and tremendous redundancy of systems, translation memories and text alignment systems, corpus linguistics data on the other hand, applications, controlled language systems, etc. With the needs and requirements  not to mention the time-honoured (or rather onerous) information problem of of these applications multiplying rapidly, MTRs have diversified even more into “not available at the place, at the time and in the form required” for a specific different forms […].” As examples for the diversity and incongruence of MTRs use. they mention ontologies, categorization, datamodels, formats, followed by an

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6.2 Terminology via the Web (distribution). Although the Web offers A complex terminology database in general consists of linguistic and non-lin- new and actually much better means of distributing terminological data, this guistic knowledge representations – specified above – and may contain names distribution also suffers from a number of problems, which relate to: and logos being part of a term or concept description. The first type compre-  legal issues, first of all copyright, hends primarily:  business models,  terms proper, incl. abbreviations, nomenclature names, etc;  technical issues,  terminological phraseology,  lack of cooperation, etc.  thesaurus descriptors and class names of a subject classification scheme, The legal issues comprise first of all copyright, exploitation rights and moral  definitions and other kinds of textual concept description, rights.  statements representing a (micro-)proposition, and contexts or co-texts. “Experts hold quite different views on the question in which way, if at all, ter-  […] minology as such and terminology collections are subject to copyright or other As pointed out above, while the moral rights of a terminology compilation intellectual property rights. The opinion that the creation of new terminology remain with the author(s), the exploitation rights can be transferred to a third and the formulation of definitions and concept descriptions should be consi- party. An author authorizes for example a publishing house to publish his termi- dered as a creative mental achievement worth protection by copyright is rather nology collection in electronic form or as hardcopy. He can grant this right on an uncontested by subject-field and terminology experts in general. This, however, exclusive or non-exclusive basis. All conditions of use, alteration, etc. shall be more often than not is objected by legal experts claiming that the formulation of defined in a licence agreement between both parties. commonly accepted definitions and other concept descriptions lacks ‘originality’ Reliable terminology is an immensely important factor for scientific and commer- and therefore does not satisfy the requirement of a ‘creation’.” (This and the cial communication and development and should be distributed as widely as possi- following paragraphs are an excerpt from Raupach/Galinski 2006:264f.) ble. On the other hand, the creation and compilation of terminology is a time-con- “The Guide to Terminology Agreements by Infoterm states, that ’while con- suming and costly process. The solution for satisfying the needs of both users and cepts, as units of knowledge, should be regarded as the intellectual property creators while all the same effectively preventing misuse is the design of a thorough- of all mankind, their representations as terms and definitions, or other kinds of ly conceived business model, which also has to address all legal aspects involved.” concept description, as graphic symbols, or as other kinds of non-verbal repre- In any case, different interests of all parties involved have to be taken into sentation must be considered to be the intellectual property of the originator, account. There are first of all the owners of terminology resources – like authors i.e. a single expert, group of experts, or institution/organisation, if this infor- or publishers of terminology collections who, besides the fundamental interest mation has been conceived or prepared by the respective originator in the form of distributing the data and raising the popularity and reputation of their proof a terminological entry, a specific sub-section of an entry, or a collection of ducts, might focus in the first place on a material remuneration, but possibly terminological data‘ – whereas other experts – legal experts as well – deny that also on feedback and some kind of dialogue with users. Whereas the users of a single term or terminological entry is already subject to copyright in any case terminological data – e.g. translators, terminologists, technical writers, experts based on the fact that terminological data represent the state-of-the-art, which of individual subject fields – are in need of reliable up-to-date terminology for does not qualify them as original work. a price they can afford, maybe in conjunction with possibilities to enter into While the legal position with regard to the definition of the smallest unit that discussion on terminological questions with other users or with the resource may be asserted on the bases of the protection of intellectual property, is not owners. And finally, the database operator (DBO – or database publisher) may yet settled, a terminology database is covered by copyright in Europe as a sui be profit-oriented or not, at least he will need his maintenance cost recovered.” generis right granted by the EU Database Directive, because the compilation and (Raupach/Galinski 2006:266f.) presentation of the data has to be considered as an autonomous creative work Within the framework of the EuroTermBank project which focuses on the independently from its content and, indeed, often in addition to its copyrighted harmonization and consolidation of terminology work in new EU member states components. Protected by this right is a database as a whole or any substantial and resulting in a centralized online terminology bank for languages of new EU part of it. member countries interlinked to other terminology banks and resources, the

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question of the interrelation of legal aspects of all sorts with a business model  for other SDOs (standards developing organizations, such as OASIS) and was discussed in-depth. The results of this discussion were integrated into the SSOs (standards setting organizations, such as OECD, UNESCO, WHO, UN/ ETB business model.” (Raupach/Galinski 2006:267f.) ECE, etc.),  for other authoritative organizations at international, regional or national levels, 6.3 Terminology through the Web (creation). Web-based creation of  many experts, who want to have trust in reliable data, and terminological data comprises the following main aspects:  last but not least for any user or re-user of such quality-stamped data; just  web-based distributed co-operative terminology preparation, to mention a few. Therefore, they are not only benefiting ISO itself, but also  federation of databases with terminology resources, constitute a certain socio-political obligation to make them accessible as  workflow management for web-based distributed co-operative terminology widely as possible. preparation. Over the last few years, the use of databases to store structured content from “Terminology standardization is not only a goal in itself (e.g. for the purpose published ISO standards or ISO standards under development has significantly of ensuring common understanding of details in standards), but has an impact increased. More and more ISO committees use databases to store “structured on many existing or potential new applications. This is reinforced by ICT-driven items”, which lend themselves to being managed with the help of databases. globalization, which integrates more and more countries into world economy Examples of such structured items are: and affects all sectors of economy, society and walks of life – not to mention  terms and definitions, the processes occurring in standardization itself. This ICT-driven globalization i  graphical symbols, pacts the ways people work together, products are developed, business-models  codes of all types, are conceived and implemented. But nevertheless it does not lead to a totally  data dictionaries, unified world – on the contrary: increasingly products and services have to be  product properties, implemented in a way that allows for and facilitates the adaptation to local lan-  elements of classification systems, etc. guages and cultural conventions – and also to new kinds of uses and re-uses. ISO is currently working towards providing an environment, called the ISO Hence the increasing focus on localization, which entails the need to standardise Concept Database (ISO/CDB), which will facilitate collecting, storing and retrie- the methods for most efficient localization.” (see: Galinski 2007) ving concept-oriented items from standards. The main function of the concept database will be to provide accessibility to items that have been standardized, as 7. New approaches to terminology standardization. Everybody in- well as to provide an environment for ISO committees to develop and maintain volved in terminology unification or standardization is confronted with some un- items for which they are responsible. The effort to bring together content from favourable aspects and conditions – especially at international level. With new the different ISO committees is designed to facilitate cross-standard and cross- approaches at least some of them – especially for terminology standardization committee visibility and harmonization. at TC (technical committee) level – can be remedied. In the ISO framework standardised terminologies (and other kinds of standardised structured content) are 8. Conclusion. (1) Terminology (in the sense of terminological information) re- essential for many purposes and applications: presents domain-specific concepts including also non-verbal representations that  Within the standardization process in general: since nothing can be standardi- have full representation autonomy (as with term autonomy for terms). This fully fits sed, if core terms are not defined, the traditional role of terminology to facilitate domain communication especially in  at international level (within the ISO, IEC and ITU frameworks): guaranteeing written form – now extended towards multimodality and multimedia. common understanding of basic concepts, (2) As a matter of fact, terminology is – more often than not – embedded  between ISO and its members: to avoid deviances of rules between internatio- in or combined with other kinds of content. The variety of such combinations is nal and national standards, increasing – among others due to information and communication technology  for ISO members: to align their nationally specific regulations to International development. In this connection terminology can be seen as one kind of struc- Standards, tured content (i.e. content items at the level of lexical semantics).

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Abbreviations (3) In society and private industry terminology – in the sense of terminologi- EIF: European Interoperability Framework cal information and terminological methods – has become a valuable asset. At EURESCOM: European Institute for Research and Strategic Studies in Telecommunications decision makers level it has become a strategic asset for a number of reasons, IN-SAFETY: INfrastructure and SAFETY ISO: International Organization for Standardization its crucial role for knowledge/content management being one of them. ISO/TC 37: Technical Committee 37 “Terminology and other language and content resources” of ISO (4) The traditional – rather static and one-dimensional – approaches to ter- LIRICS: Linguistic Infrastructure for Interoperable Resources and Systems minology are increasingly extended towards dynamic, multidimensional and in- OLIF: Open Lexicon Interchange Format (Consortium) OSCAR: Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use tegrating approaches. There it is not confined largely to domain experts any SALT: Standards-based Access to multilingual Lexical and Terminological resources longer, but expert users as well as lay users may contribute in real time and concurrently to the development of terminologies. References* * individual standards mentioned in this contribution which are not of importance for the discussion of (5) Economic factors and quality issues play an increasing role in termino the topic as such have been omitted from the references. logical processes. Technological development, e.g. in the form of:  new media approaches for representing concepts, Budin, G./Melby, A.K. Accessibility of multilingual terminology resources – Current problems and prospects for the future. Gavrilidou, M. et al. (Eds.): Second International Conference on Language  web-based distributed cooperative work methods, Resources and Evaluation – LREC 2000, Proceedings Volume II. Athens: National Technical University  federated databases, of Athens Press, p. 837-844  new ways of distribution and new business models for terminological pro- EURESCOM [ed.]. Guidelines for building multilingual Web Sites. 2000. (Deliverable 1 of Project P923- PF Multilingual WEB sites: Best practice, guidelines and architectures) ducts and services, etc. helps to increase efficiency and lower costs, while European Information & Communications Technology Industry Association (EICTA) [ed.]. EICTA intero- improving quality and general acceptance. perability white paper. Brussels: EICTA, 2004 The above mentioned factors (and some more) inevitably have an impact on Galinski, C./Goebel, J. W., Guide to Terminology Agreements. Vienna: TermNet, 1996 Galinski, C., New ideas on how to support terminology standardisation projects. In: eDITion (2007) 1 terminological theory and methods, which definitely need an extension. Need- p. 7-9 less to say that this will also influence the way terminology will be taught as Hjulstad, H. Standards as databases. Submission on behalf of ISO/TC 37 to ISO/TMB/AHG “Stan- subject field at universities and other institutions of higher learning – and may dards as databases” of 2006-06-09 IDA (Interchange of Data between Administrations) Community Programme [ed]. European Interopera- also have an impact on: bility Framework for Pan-European E-Government Services. European Communities, 2004  science theory with respect to a broader view on knowledge representation Interoperable Delivery of European e-Government Services to public Administrations, Businesses and at the level of concepts, Citizens (IDABC) [ed.]. IDABC content interoperability strategy. Working paper. European Communities, 2005  communication science, which needs to re-visit those parts of the theory/ ISO/TC 37 [ed.]. Semantic Interoperability and the need for a coherent policy for a framework of distri- theories dealing with non-verbal communication, buted, coordinated repositories for all kinds of content items on a world-wide scale. 2004 (ISO/TC 37  N496 – endorsed by ISO/TC 37, CEN/ISSS/CDSF and CEN/ISSS and finally in 2006 by the MoU/MG applied linguistics and computational linguistics with respect to an integra- – Management Group of the ITU-ISO-IEC-UN/ECE Memorandum of Understanding concerning e-Busi- tive approach to language resources and other content resources, ness standardization – as document MoU/MG/05 N0221)  content management (and some aspects of knowledge management) with ISO [ed.]. Quantities and units. Geneva: ISO, 1993 (ISO Standards Handbooks with the ISO 31:1992 series of standards – under revision) respect to a broadening of the theoretical and methodological basis. ISO 1087-1 Terminology work – Vocabulary – Part 1: Theory and applications, 2000 This development may help the domains addressed to align – or at least ISO 10241 federate – their respective theories and methods – not least to improve metho- ISO 12620:1999 Computer applications in terminology – Data categories (under revision) LISA [ed.]. The globalization industry primer. An introduction to preparing your business and products dological practices and the tools to support these practices (among others for for success in international markets. Geneva: The Localization Industry Standards Association: 2007 the sake of comprehensive interoperability). Raupach, I./Galinski, C., Business models as a means of IPR protection of structured content – Taking terminological data as an example. Schaffert, S./Sure, Y.; Reitbauer, A. (eds.). Semantic Systems Orthography – From Visions to Applications. Proceedings of the SEMANTICS 2006. Vienna: OCG, 2006 (OCG The following spelling has been chosen based on a recommendation at the OFMR 2007 (Open Forum Schriftenreihe 212) on Metadata Registries): datamodel (instead of data model), metamodel (instead of meta model), Schmitz, K.-D./Galinski, C., Data modelling: from terminology to other kinds of structured content. modelling (instead of modeling). (unpublished)

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Workshop 3.3 are a natural feature of ELF at the phonological, lexicogrammatical as well as pragmatic levels and cross-linguistic processes like code-switching (cf. Klimpfin- The Dylan Project ger 2007) and the exploitation of parallel linguistic structures are characteristic of much lingua franca use. Moreover, from the perspective of multi-competence (cf. Cook 2002:10-13), regarding different languages as a continuum rather than Dylan’s transversal research task (RT): as distinct entities in multilingual minds, phenomena like linguistic innovation, ‘Emergent Varieties’ influences from the mother tongue or code-switching can no longer be interpreted negatively as deviations from a norm, i.e. errors, but have to be seen posi- Heike Böhringer, University of Vienna tively as differences resulting from particular communicative needs. Cornelia Hülmbauer, University of Vienna From this perspective, ELF speakers are not considered to be learners aiming at a formally defined native-speaker target model but primarily as users of the language, whose objective is not conformity but effective communication. Proficient ELF users are subsequently characterised by their capacity to jointly ABSTRACT create meaning in intercultural interactions. Evidence indicates that they show As part of Dylan’s transversal work package, the research team ‘emergent varie- the ability to cooperate with and accommodate towards other speakers, an awa- ties’ at the University of Vienna is engaged with the “investigation of the linguis- reness of lingua-culturally crucial factors in interaction, and generally signal an tic and communicative changes that affect English as a lingua franca (ELF) under open-mindedness towards linguistic innovation (cf. Jenkins 2007). This does not increasing interaction with other languages in multilingual practices”. ELF, as it mean that ELF cannot display forms similar to learner English, but their signifi- is generally perceived, represents a means of international/intercultural com- cance is essentially different in that weight is put on functional effectiveness munication between speakers who do not share a primary lingua-cultural back- rather than on formal correctness (cf. Hülmbauer 2007). Consequently, the lin- ground. Through the ‘exolingual’ process of online appropriation and negotiation gua franca repertoire is not perceived as a deficient kind ofE nglish – it may just by predominantly non-native speakers for international use, such appropriated differ from its native speaker counterpart as regards both its linguistic properties language obviously ceases to be the exclusive property of its native speakers. and its communicative purposes. As Graddol observes, “[a]n ‘English factor’ is found in virtually every key macro trend: whether it is business process outsourcing [... or] the development of Functioning as it does in multilingual settings, ELF is, by definition, a site of lan- new communications technology” (Graddol 2006:20). It is our purpose to analy- guage contact. It is part of an increased communicative resource to be drawn se how ELF is actually used, what forms it acquires, the ways it is co-constructed upon and combined with other languages when contextually appropriate (cf. by the participants in a given interaction, and how its specific manifestations Mondada 2005), and so can be perceived as one of several components of a emerge and develop in particular settings – in the case of DYLAN represented speaker’s multilingual repertoire. Viewed in this way, as a complementary lin- by the three ‘terrains’ companies, EU institutions and educational systems. Our guistic means, ELF does not represent a threat to other European languages, investigations focus specifically on ELF since it represents the most prominent codes or repertoires but on the contrary serves as a ‘partner language’ to them manifestation of lingua franca use at this point in European history (cf. Seidlho- (cf. Hülmbauer, Böhringer & Seidlhofer forthc.). fer, Breiteneder & Pitzl 2006). For if cross-cultural communication is to be successful, Europe’s linguistic But at the same time our analysis of ELF data is also intended to provide in- diversity has to be complemented by some further means of communication. sights about ways in which language repertoires in general can be used to work ELF has the potential of extending the linguistic repertoire to cater for this need as efficient means of international communication, and how any lingua franca for intercultural communication without undermining multilingual diversity. Rat- use is likely to exhibit features similar to those observed in ELF, in particular with her, by entering “into a relationship with other languages” (House & Rehbein regard to processes of simplification, the exploitation of redundancy (cf. e.g. 2004:2), it helps to sustain linguistic plurality. Indeed, traces of other languages Breiteneder 2005) and the heavy reliance on communication strategies such

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as mutual accommodation (cf. Jenkins 2000) that realize the ‘virtual’ meaning Workshop 3.3 potential of the language (cf. Widdowson 1997) in unconventional ways. The Dylan Project References Böhringer, Heike/Hülmbauer, Cornelia/Seidlhofer, Barbara, 2008. The language policy of the Dylan project. In: Hochgerner, Josef; Čornejová, Irena (eds.). Communication in international R & D projects. Brno: Společnost pro odbornou literaturu, Barrister & Principal, 41-52. The Dylan Project – The Ljubljana team’s Breiteneder, Angelika, 2005. The naturalness of English as a European lingua franca: the case of the research task ‘third person -s’. Views 14/2, 3-26. http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/Views0502ALL.pdf. Cook, Vivian, 2002. Background to the L2 user. In: Cook, Vivian (ed.). Portraits of the L2 user. Cleve- don: Multilingual Matters, 1-31. Marko Stabej, University of Ljubljana Dylan project http://www.dylan-project.org. Jordi Magrinyà i Domingo, University of Ljubljana Graddol, David, 2006. English next. Why global English may mean the end of ‘English as a Foreign Language’. London: British Council. http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf. House, Juliane/Rehbein, Jochen, 2004. What is multilingual communication? In: House, J./Rehbein, J. (eds.), Multilingual communication. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1-19. Hülmbauer, C., 2007, You moved, aren’t? – The relationship between lexicogrammatical correctness and communicative effectiveness in English as a lingua franca. Views 16/2, 3-35. 1. The task. Our task is to examine the compatibility between language poli- http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/Views_0702.pdf. cies in favor of multilingualism and political will to promote lesser used languages, Hülmbauer, C./Böhringer, H./Seidlhofer B. (forthc.), Introducing English as a lingua franca (ELF): especially within the frame of the EU institutions. Precursor and partner in intercultural communication. In: Cali, Chantal/Stegu, Martin/Vetter, Eva (eds.): Enseigner – apprendre – utiliser le français langue internationale en Europe aujourd’hui: pour une perspective comparatiste. Synergies Europe 3/2008. 2. The research. Aiming at obtaining insights about this compatibility Ljubljana Jenkins, Jennifer, 2000. The phonology of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford team started its research by observing the EU institutions themselves, namely the University Press. Jenkins, J; 2007. English as a lingua franca: attitude and identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EU Parliament and the Council of the EU. In first step we made a case study on the Klimpfinger, Theresa. 2007. Mind you sometimes you have to mix – The role of code-switching in Slovene language and speakers within the EU institutions, in further steps we will English as a lingua franca. Views 16/2, 36-61. http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/Views_0702.pdf. Mondada, Lorenza, 2005. Ways of ‘doing being plurilingual’ in international work meetings. In: Gard- widen our research scope by targeting at the official languages and their speakers ner, Rod/Wagner, Johannes (eds.). Second language conversations. London: Continuum, 18-39. of some other EU Member States. Seidlhofer, Barbara, 2007. Common property: English as a lingua franca in Europe. In: Cummins, So far, our research work has consisted of the following steps: Jim/Davison, Chris (eds.). International handbook of English language teaching. New York: Springer, 137-153.  Bibliographic research on Slovene linguistic bibliography and media as well as Seidlhofer, B./Breiteneder, Angelika/Pitzl, Marie-Luise, 2006. English as a lingua franca in Europe. participation in debates and similar activities dealing with linguistic issues of Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26, 1-34. our interest. Widdowson, Henry G., 1997. EIL, ESL, EFL: global issues and local interests. World Englishes 16, 135-146.  An interview to a Slovene Interpreter who is working within the institutions of www.dylan-project.org the European Union (Int1).  A cluster of seven interviews to the Slovene members of the European parliament (MEP1-MEP7).  Two interviews to the people in charge of the translation and interpretation affairs of the Slovene Government Office for European Affairs (SVEZ1 and SVEZ2).  Two interviews to the Slovene civil servants, engaged within two Working Groups of the Council of the European Union (SCS).  A cluster of questionnaires (23 were assembled) from the Slovene civil servants working within the working parties of the Council of the European Uni- on.

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3. Some results. So far we have obtained no data from ethnographic research Linguistic practices. All of the MEPs but one state that they make more use or direct observation of the studied institutions. Hence, every description of the of foreign languages, mostly English, than of Slovene, the other one says to use environment or the language practices within them must be understood solely as both equally. The case of the Council seems a little bit different since only two of the interviewees’ representations of their environment and language practices as the asked SCS really speak Slovene in this institution. well as our interpretation of the bibliographic sources. 4. Conclusions so far. The current language regime in the EU institutions Environment. The possibilities of speaking Slovene are rather small both in seems to be quite satisfactory for the informants, although some of them claim the European Parliament and in the working groups, committees and for informal that would reduce the number of working languages to an “English only” system, contexts of the Council of the EU. In some contexts there are no interpretation and some also claim having problems with the impossibility of Slovene in some services from and into Slovene although they should be present (e.g. committee contexts. meetings of the Parliament). The MEPs say that the translation of working documents into Slovene is usually received later than its translation into other languages. The situation in the Council of the EU is a little bit different since the interim documents are mainly in English, French and German. Just some of the SCSs receive these documents in Slovene and moreover most of these SCSs receive the Slovene version only seldom. Translations and interpretations are not always satisfactory for the MEPs. Some SCSs had some communicational problems due to the interpretation/translation services, however they state to be basically satisfied with both the translation and the interpretation services.

Representations. All the MEPs disapprove of a potential reduction of both the number and the official uses of the EU official languages. However, one of them would eventually accept a monolingual system with Esperanto or English. Similarly, most of the SCS are against a monolingual system of official and working languages and defend a multilingual system. However, more than a quarter of them advocate a monolingual regime of working communication. All the MEPs defend the possibility of being able to use Slovene within the Parliament for symbolical and political reasons and some of them for functional reasons as well. Similarly, most of the SCSs consider the impossibility of using Slovene in some contexts as problematic for similar reasons. Regarding the actual use of the Slovene within the institutions, all the MEPs are ok with the fact that Slovene is not a working language, that it is not interpreted and translated at all levels including informal communication. However, all of them but one would like that the use of Slovene was really possible in more contexts than it is now (at least in those where it should be granted). The case of the SCSs is a little bit different, since about a half of them say not to miss interpretation/ translation services, whereas the other half say not to do so for at least one of the contexts they work in.

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concluding Panel discussion Dementsprechend stellte auch Moderator Georg Gombos zum Auftakt einige Grundsatzfragen: Was haben wir infolge dieser Konferenz für „demands“ an AbschlieSSende Podiumsdiskussion die Politik? What should be the next steps? What promotes multilingualism on the society and individual level? Die Experten seien sich ja weitgehend einig, aber die Außenwelt sehe die Dinge manchmal anders, sodass Mehrsprachigkeit It is easy enough to say … oft als Bedrohung gesehen werde. Was können wir dagegen tun? Welche Wis- Die Konfrontation von Theorie, Ideologie und sensinhalte sollten wir von dieser Konferenz in die Außenwelt tragen? Menschen Alltagsrealität ist eine Herausforderung brauchen knowledge („Wir müssen in unserem Leben viel lernen“), trust („relationships in which we can develop peacefully“) and structures („we must build structures to help these two things on their way“). Klaus-Börge Boeckmann, Universität Wien Deshalb schlug Gombos für die Diskussion drei „central topics“ vor: a) empo- Susanna Buttaroni, Integrationshaus Wien werment, b) access, c) economy: Erstens müsse es in einer Demokratie möglich Anton Dobart, Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Kunst, Wien sein, dass Individuen ungestört ihre mehrsprachige Identität entwickeln; zwei- Hanna Komorowska, Universität Warschau tens, dass sie ihr Recht wahrnehmen, am demokratischen Prozess teilzuneh- David Little, Trinity College Ireland, CoE men; und drittens entstehe durch Mehrsprachigkeit auch materieller und kultu- Susanne Pirstinger, VS Grundsteingasse, Wien reller Profit. Mauro Rosi, UNESCO, Intersectoral Platform for Languages and Multilingualism Ja, tatsächlich, „Sprachen zahlen sich aus“, brachte Klaus-Börge Boeckmann Shrishail Sasalatti, Jawharlal Nehru University, New Delhi den Slogan „languages matter“ auf den Punkt. Sprachen von Individuen seien keine isolierten Systeme, sondern „bilden gemeinsame multilinguale Repertoires“, Moderation: Georg Gombos, Universität Klagenfurt weshalb es wichtig sei, Sprachkompetenzen auf allen Niveaus anzuerkennen Rapporteur: sabine E. Dengscherz, Zentrum für Translations- und „traditionelle Konzepte der Reinheit, Geschlossenheit und Vollständigkeit wissenschaften, Universität Wien von Sprachen zu überwinden“, denn „wir wissen, dass Sprachen ein geeignetes gesellschaftliches und ökonomisches Bildungsumfeld für ihre Entwicklung brauchen“. Man müsse innovative Möglichkeiten finden, nicht dominantenS prachen – also allen Sprachen außer Englisch – einen Platz im Bildungssystem, in Gesell- „Guten Morgen – Dobar dan – Dober dan – Dzień dobry – Jó napot kivánok schaft und Wirtschaft, in Lebenswelt und Alltagskommunikation zu sichern. – Bounjorno – Buenos dias – Bonjour – et cetera.“ In Georg Gombos’ Begrü- Den DiskussionsteilnehmerInnen stand es frei, Deutsch oder Englisch zu ßung zur Abschlussdiskussion spiegelte sich noch einmal das Thema der Ta- sprechen. Boeckmann blieb, offensichtlich aus Überzeugung, bei Deutsch. Auch gung – lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit. Auch das Podium war international Susanne Pirstinger äußerte ihre Statements auf Deutsch. Alle anderen entschie- besetzt, und wie es Lebenswelten und Lebenswege mit sich bringen, sprachen den sich – aus verschiedenen Gründen – für Englisch: David Little’s Erstsprache die Diskussionsteilnehmer und Teilnehmerinnen verschiedene Sprachen. Sie ist Englisch; für Susanna Buttaroni „seems the atmosphere of this conference diskutierten ein wenig auf Deutsch, großteils jedoch auf Englisch – eine Kon- rather English“, wobei Deutsch und Englisch ihre „second languages“ sind. An- zession an die Pragmatik: ohne Lingua franca wäre die Kommunikation deut- ton Dobart hingegen wählte eher augenzwinkernd das Englische, „because then lich komplizierter. Wie schon während der ganzen Konferenz gab es zusätzlich I’m shorter“. Auch Hanna Komorowska, Mauro Rosi und der aus Neu Delhi ange- eine Simultandolmetscherin für Deutsch/Englisch und zwei Gebärdesprachen- reiste Shrishail B. Sasalatti nahmen auf Englisch an der Diskussion teil. dolmetscherinnen. Von der Abschlussdiskussion wurde einiges erwartet – eine Quintessenz, eine „summary“, einige Konklusionen zum Mitnehmen, Fragen zum Mother tongues und other tongues. Für Sasalatti – wie uns Gombos Weiterdenken oder Querverbindungen zwischen den Vorträgen, Workshops und informierte, wird der Name wie im Ungarischen auf der ersten Silbe betont –, ist Pausengesprächen. Englisch eine seiner „other tongues“, ein Begriff, den er dem Terminus „foreign

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language“ vorzieht. Die Sprachen, die wir lernen, bleiben uns ja schließlich Sprache(n) lehren und verstehen. Pirstinger fordert eine Aufhebung der nicht fremd, deshalb sollten wir sie auch nicht „Fremdsprachen“ nennen, lieber Trennung „zwischen PflichtschullehrerInnen, die sozusagen nur für die Praxis da von „mother tongues“ und „other tongues“ sprechen, schlägt er vor. Sasalatti sind, und den AHS, die auch Theorien haben dürfen“, und spricht damit einen stammt aus einem Land mit großem Sprachenreichtum, er selbst ist in fünf bis ähnlichen Problemkreis an wie Susanna Buttaroni, die für einen verstärkten Dialog sechs „tongues“ zu Hause. In Indien gebe es 1.652 Sprachen und Dialekte, 290 zwischen Wissenschaft und Praxis plädierte. Wissen über Sprache sei für Lehren- davon seien als Sprachen anerkannt, 22 von ihnen in der Verfassung verankert. de sehr wichtig, betonte Buttaroni, das praktische Feld brauche klare Bilder und Aber „social multilingualism does not guarantee automatically the individual plu- Vorstellungen davon, was Sprache ist und wie Sprache funktioniert. Dabei sollten rilingualism“: Erst wenn das gesellschaftliche Sprachenrepertoire auch an die In- die Nachbardisziplinen der Psycholinguistik und Systemlinguistik ebenfalls einbe- dividuen weitergegeben werde, könne man wirklich von Mehrsprachigkeit reden, zogen werden, denn Kommunikationsprozesse werden auch von unserem (unbe- nämlich auf gesellschaftlicher und individueller Ebene. Das wäre wohl für Indien wussten) Wissen über Sprache gesteuert. Wenn wir über Sprache reden, sind also ebenso ein Ideal wie für Europa. immer mehrere Aspekte zu berücksichtigen. Lehrende sollten über wissenschaft- Mehr als die halbe Welt sei multilingual, wir sollten stolz und glücklich darü- liche Fortschritte informiert werden, die Möglichkeit erhalten, über das, was sie ber sein, der mehrsprachigen Welt anzugehören. Auch Boeckmann hatte betont: tun, zu reflektieren und es nicht nur mechanisch zu tun. „Wir wissen, dass Multilingualismus von Gesellschaften und Plurilingualismus Ein weitreichender Vorschlag kommt von David Little: Er spricht von der Idee, von Individuen universelle Phänomene sind und keine Abweichungen von einer Lehrende nicht als LehrerInnen für Einzelsprachen auszubilden, sondern als Spra- monolingualen Norm.“ Und auch keine Bedrohung, sondern eine Chance. chenlehrerInnen schlechthin, als „languages teacher“, die Lernenden die nötigen Aus einer weiteren Bedrohung, dem „threat of the English language“, habe Strategien vermitteln könnten, Sprachen zu lernen und ihr Sprachenbewusstsein Indien bereits einen Nutzen gezogen. Englischkenntnisse seien in Indien sehr zu vertiefen. Bislang sei Lehrautonomie zwar oft in aller Munde, werde aber selten verbreitet und auch sehr nützlich für die Kommunikation zwischen Europa und in die Realität umgesetzt. Indien. Man habe Globalisierung und Lokalisierung auf eine gemeinsame Formel Zustimmung kommt nicht nur aus dem Publikum, sondern auch aus dem Bil- gebracht, die „Glokalisierung“. dungsministerium: Da eine Vernetzung zwischen den Sprachen der Arbeitsweise Aber nicht nur die Sprachen der Gesellschaft mögen das Individuum errei- unseres Gehirns entspricht, würden wir, so Anton Dobart, ausgehend von den Er- chen, sondern umgekehrt auch die Sprachen der Individuen die Gesellschaft kenntnissen über „learning and networking in the brain“, tatsächlich Sprachen- – Hanna Komorowska betrachtet Sasalattis Ausführungen aus einem anderen lehrer und nicht Lehrer für Einzelsprachen brauchen. Leider sei der plurilinguale Blickwinkel: Was kann man tun, um durch individuellen Plurilingualismus der Zugang an österreichischen Schulen aber (noch) nicht so präsent. Gesellschaft die Augen zu öffnen? An erster Stelle seien Bildungssystem und Dobart sieht deshalb die Notwendigkeit einer regen öffentlichen Diskussion Bildungspolitik gefragt, vor allem in Bezug auf die „primary education“. Schon – und zwar unter positiven Aspekten und nicht, wie meist bisher, bestimmt von als Kinder müssen wir das Lernen und Strategien für das Lernen lernen; Mehr- Ängsten und der Sorge um die öffentliche Sicherheit. Auch bedürfe es verstärkten sprachigkeit sei auch eine Frage des Selbstbewusstseins und des Glaubens da- Austauschs zwischen Politik und Forschung – wie zum Beispiel hier auf dieser ran, was man kann, was besonders wichtig für die mittlere und höhere Bildung Konferenz. sei. Der Grundstein dafür werde früh gelegt. Nicht zuletzt müssen wir uns sicher fühlen in der oder den „mother tongue(s)“, um auch souverän in „other tongues“ Trust, respect, peace? Der Dialog zwischen Politik und Wissenschaft ist auch sprechen zu können. Darauf hatte auch Sasalatti hingewiesen. der UNESCO ein Anliegen. Denn Mehrsprachigkeit ist nicht nur „a technical Deshalb wünscht Susanne Pirstinger sowohl das Recht auf Muttersprache question“, sondern ein Problem auf ethnischer und politischer Ebene, so Mauro als auch das Bildungsziel Mehrsprachigkeit gesetzlich zu verankern. Auch solle Rosi, Mehrsprachigkeitsbeauftragter der UNESCO. ein bestimmtes Grundwissen über Mehrsprachigkeit verstärkt in die Lehreraus- Hanna Komorowska sprach dieses Thema ebenfalls an: In unterschiedlichen und -fortbildung einbezogen werden: „Wenn es schon verpflichtende Fortbildung historischen Kontexten sei es gefährlich gewesen, „to represent oneself as a Pole, gibt, dann muss jeder Mensch zumindest einmal etwas über Mehrsprachigkeit Ukrainian or a Jew or a German“. Deshalb müsse gesichert sein, dass durch die gehört haben.“ Preisgabe einer kulturellen Identität keine Nachteile entstehen, im Gegenteil,

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„other people must see the value“. Die Realität sieht leider oft anders aus, auch Strukturelle Herausforderungen. Schwierigkeiten und Meinungsver- heutzutage. Rosi weist darauf hin, dass Menschen noch immer wegen ihres ethni schiedenheiten ergeben sich aber nicht nur auf der ideologisch-politischen Makro- schen kulturellen Hintergrunds getötet werden. Im Sinne der Forderung nach einer ebene – die eigentliche Herausforderung für Gesellschaft und Bildungssystem sei Atmosphäre des Vertrauens (trust) wäre der erste Schritt, Menschen, und zwar die Umsetzung in die Praxis, die alltäglichen Details, die vielen kleinen Entschei- alle Menschen, zu respektieren. dungsprozesse, die Positives im großen Ganzen bewirken sollen. Für Susanne Pirstinger beginnt dieser Respekt mit dem Bemühen, Namen rich- David Little bringt die Problematik auf den Punkt: „It is easy enough to make tig auszusprechen, oder dass wir Vielsprachigkeit auch an Wänden und Schildern pronouncements, such, that democracy is possible only, when multilingual mat- sehen, dass „Neugierde in diese Richtung“ animiert und belohnt wird. ters in society are fully respected and responded to. (…) The really difficulty is to Das wäre immerhin ein Anfang. Für eine tatsächlich mehrsprachige Gesell- know, what we do structurally, clearly as an issue of policy.“ Den Bildungsministe- schaft braucht es aber mehr. Im Burgenland werden Minderheitensprachen etwa rien stehe wenig Geld zur Verfügung, sie operierten innerhalb enger Rahmenbe- aktiv gefördert. Für manche Familien kommen diese Initiativen aber bereits zu dingungen, eine große Zahl unterschiedlicher Interessenvertretungen müsse zu- spät. Aus dem Publikum meldet sich ein Sprecher der Burgenlandkroaten zu Wort: sammenarbeiten, transparent und sensibel („comprehensive and comprehensible Ja, im Burgenland herrsche eine friedvolle Atmosphäre, es gebe keine „Raufereien frameworks“). Man müsse Strategien entwickeln, die tatsächlich Schritt für Schritt um Ortstafeln“, aber trotzdem würden immer weniger Menschen die Minderhei- implementiert werden könnten, denn es sei nicht alles auf einmal zu schaffen. tensprachen sprechen, die Kinder lernen diese Sprachen zwar in der Schule, ha- Das alles muss in einem „spirit of trust“ geschehen, um alle Betroffenen in diesen ben aber nicht mehr die Kompetenz, sie an ihre Kinder weiterzugeben. Die zentrale Prozess einzubeziehen. Da starre Strukturen unangebracht sind, wäre es wün- Frage für das Überleben der Minderheitensprachen laute also: „Warum bin ich schenswert, „to have an implementation strategy, which is sufficiently flexible to stolz darauf, diese Sprache weiter zu verwenden und was gibt sie mir?“ recognise, when things are not going quite right and to change direction“. All das In Kärnten sei das alles ein bisschen härter: Eine Vertreterin der Kärntner sei aber sehr, sehr schwierig. Slowenen spricht von „increasing intolerance“ und wünscht sich starke Zeichen Georg Gombos konstatiert die Notwendigkeit „a constant change in the sy- vonseiten der UNESCO. Wenn Bilingualismus bei jeder Gelegenheit unterbunden stem of education“. Wir hätten unsere LehrerInnen „in a certain kind of learning werde, sei es unmöglich, effektiv Slowenisch zu lernen. Kärnten sei ein Bundes- arrangement“ ausgebildet; auf der anderen Seite stehe als anzustrebendes Ziel land mit monolingualer Politik, mit aktiver Politik gegen die Minderheit und ihre die Vielsprachigkeit, wobei den LehrerInnen noch nicht klar sei, wie sie dieses Ziel Sprache. Man möge den Worten dieser Konferenz Taten folgen lassen, damit in erreichen können. Österreich Multilingualismus Wirklichkeit werden könne. Es sei oft die Rede davon, mit dem Sprachenlernen immer früher anzufangen, Im Bildungsministerium ist man sich der Problematik bewusst, ortet aber auch so Anton Dobart schmunzelnd, in der Volksschule, im Kindergarten, pränatal … positive Ansätze. Anton Dobart berichtete von einem konstruktiven Treffen mit Auch eine immer größere Sprachenvielfalt werde gefordert. In der Praxis wählen offiziellen MinderheitenvertreterInnen im Frühjahr 2008, von einem Lösungspro- die Eltern aber dann meist doch Englisch als erste Fremdsprache für ihre Kinder. zess, der im Gange sei, und von Gesprächen über Erfahrungen mit bilingualem Auf der anderen Seite bestehe nicht zuletzt vonseiten der Wirtschaft starkes Unterricht: „Maybe this is not satisfying yet, but my feeling is, we are on the way.“ Interesse an mehr Sprachenkompetenz. Auch sind wir durch die Fortschritte der Auf bundesländerspezifische politische Interessen und Probleme habe das Minis Gehirnforschung und Psycholinguistik zu einem tieferen Verständnis von Spra- terium aber kaum Einfluss. chenlernen gelangt und wir wissen heute, dass Sprache eine ungeheure Bedeu- Immer wieder sind wir also mit einer Außenwelt konfrontiert, die viele Dinge tung beim Lernen hat, nicht nur beim Sprachenlernen. ganz anders sieht, als wir das tun, wie Georg Gombos bereits früher am Tag einmal meinte: Wir kommen hier zusammen, sprechen über Ideen und Konzepte, fahren Kleine Schritte, Kompromisse und Geduld. Fazit: Es ist noch viel zu tun. nach Hause, freuen uns, dass wir so viele Menschen getroffen haben, die ähnlich Vorhanden sind Forschungsergebnisse und Forschungsfragen, guter Wille bei vie- denken wie wir – und werden dann wieder mit der Realität konfrontiert und finden len Beteiligten bzw. Entscheidungsträgern, Gesprächsbereitschaft und Initiativen. heraus, dass wir eine Minderheit sind. Gebraucht werden noch mehr Forschungsergebnisse und Forschungsfragen, noch mehr guten Willen bei noch mehr Beteiligten bzw. Entscheidungsträgern, noch

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mehr Gesprächsbereitschaft und noch mehr Initiativen. Und ein erfolgreiches Marketing. Wie Klaus-Börge Boeckmann eingangs meinte: „Wir müssen deshalb in Forschung, Ausbildung und öffentlicher Diskussion die Wahrnehmung und das Verständnis, die theoretische Durchdringung von Mehrsprachigkeit weiter voran- treiben.“ Dafür werden auch finanzielle Mittel gebraucht. Und Kompromissbereitschaft. Es sei sehr einfach, für Demokratie und auf einem abstrakten Level einer Meinung zu sein, merkt David Little an. Aber „the implementation of democracy is always approximative. The progress is slow and partial, and it contains always compromise and disappointment.“ Demokratie braucht Vertrauen und Risikobereitschaft. Wir fühlen uns an Winston Churchill erinnert, als Little fortfährt: „That is, what democracy is about. Unfortunately it is not about perfection.“ Basis des Dialogs sind die Menschenrechte, so der breite Konsens. Basis des Dialogs muss ein Miteinander sein, in dem auch der von David Little erwähnte „plurilingualisme sauvage“ als Wert erkannt und geschätzt wird, ganz im Sinne der Forderung Klaus-Börge Boeckmanns. Mehrsprachigkeit ist keine Bedrohung, sondern ein kultureller Schatz. Alle Sprachkompetenzen sind wertvoll. Èrtekeljük a nyelveket és tanuljuk is … mert: Znajomość języków się liczy, le lingue contano, les langues comptent. Hay que contar con los idiomas. Wirtschaft- lich und kulturell: Sprachen zahlen sich aus. Govoriti mnogo jezikov se računa. Und Sprachen liegen uns am Herzen. Jeziki nam ležu na srce. It is a matter of fact: languages matter.

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1. languages of Education and Everyday Multilingualism Congress Programme unterrichtssprache(n) und Lebensweltliche Tagungsprogramm Mehrsprachigkeit

13.30 – 15.30  Workshops | Workshops

WS 1.1  Towards an European framework document for Friday, 13 June | Freitag, 13. Juni languages of, in and for school education Waldemar Martyniuk | University of Cracow Klaus-Börge Boeckmann | University of Vienna 09.30 – 10.30  Opening ceremony | Eröffnung WS 1.2  Using the European language portfolio to promote and validate plurilingualism Damir Dijakovic | Representative of the UNESCO Director-General | David Little | Trinity College Ireland, CoE in Vertretung des UNESCO Generaldirektors Wolfgang Moser | Austrian Centre for Language Competence Anton Dobart | Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture, WS 1.3  Linguistic otherness in education – linguistic Director-General | Sektionschef im Bundesministerium für Unterricht, behaviour and ethnic identity across students Kunst und Kultur Csilla Bartha | Academy of Science, Budapest Hans Niessl | Governor of Burgenland | Landeshauptmann Burgenland WS 1.4  Forum: Multilingualism in diverse contexts Claudia Schmied | Federal Minister for Education, the Arts and Culture | Hanna Komorowska | University of Warsaw Bundesministerin für Unterricht, Kunst und Kultur Shrishail Sasalatti | Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi

10.30 – 11.00  Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag 2. Everyday Multilingualism and Minorities lEbensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit und Minderheiten Street and standard: managing language in contemporary Africa 16.00 – 18.00  Workshops | Workshops Neville Alexander | Praesa | University of Cape Town WS 2.1  Romani language, public life and education Dieter W. Halwachs | University of Graz 11.30 – 12.30  Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Yaron Matras | University of Manchester WS 2.2  Languages of minorities and lifelong learning – The Council of Europe and language education policies: language transmission outside formal plurilingualism as a fundamental issue Educational settings David Little | Trinity College Ireland Georg Gombos | University of Klagenfurt WS 2.3  Understanding sign languages as minority Defining “Everyday Multilingualism“ languages Yaron Matras | University of Manchester Verena Krausneker | University of Vienna Günter Roiss | Austrian National Association of the Deaf WS 2.4  The Burgenland as an exemplary border region Edith Mühlgaszner | State Education Authority

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Saturday, 14 June | Samstag, 14. Juni 4. Everyday Multilingualism in Media and Cyberspace lEbensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit in Medien und im Cyberspace 3. Economy and Management of Diversity wirtschaft und Diversitätsmanagement 13.00 – 14.00  Panel discussion | Podiumsdiskussion

09.00 – 09.45  Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Multilingualism in the media Jannis Androutsopoulos | Kings College, London In search of the linguistic melting pot? Brigitta Busch | University of Vienna Who needs it? Who cares? Tom Moring | University of Helsinki Michèle Kaiser-Cooke | University of Vienna Helmut Peissl | Austrian Community Radio Federation

Economy of culture, culture of economy Moderation: Petra Herczeg | University of Vienna Mauro Rosi | UNESCO, Intersectoral Platform for Languages and Multilingualism

Moderation: Gabriele Sauberer | University of Vienna 14.00 – 15.30  Workshops | Workshops

WS 4.1  Media for linguistic minorities: 09.45 – 12.00  Workshops | Workshops the challenge of new media Tom Moring | University of Helsinki WS 3.1  Linguistic and cultural diversity within WS 4.2  Languages and media politics the concept of managing diversity Brigitta Busch, Judith Purkarthofer, Petra Pfisterer | University of Vienna Gabriele Sauberer | University of Vienna WS 4.3  The multilingual internet: WS 3.2  Multilingual terminology and structured spotlight on migrant/diasporic communities content Jannis Androutsopoulos | Kings College, London Christian Galinski | International Information Centre for Terminology, Vienna WS 4.4  Multilingualism and Cyberspace – how WS 3.3  The DYLAN project Multilingual children can grow up in the Marko Stabej | University of Ljubljana MEdia society WS 3.4  Markets and everyday multilingualism Petra Herczeg | University of Vienna Helen Kelly Holmes | University of Limerick

16.00 – 17.30  Summing-up of the Workshop Sessions Zusammenfassung der Arbeitskreise Moderation: Ulrike Einspieler | European Commission, Representation in Austria | Europäische Kommission, Vertretung in Österreich

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Sunday, 15 June | Sonntag, 15. Juni List of Participants TeilnehmerInnenliste

09.30 – 10.30  Keynote speech | Plenarvortrag Alber, Elisabeth Bandura, Ewa From monolingualism to bilingualism: changing identity Institute for Studies on Federalism and Foreign Language Teacher Training College and linguistic intuition Regionalism Jagiellonian University Anna Verschik | University of Tallinn European Academy Bozen Ul. Mazowiecka 196/53 Viale Druso 1 PL-31-003 Krakow I-39100 Bolzano Tel +48 12 632 63 32 Language, culture and identity among migrants Tel +39 0471 055 211 Fax +48 12 423 23 18 Elizabeth Lanza | University of Oslo Fax +39 0471 055 299 [email protected] [email protected] Bartha, Csilla Moderation: Waldemar Martyniuk | University of Krakow Alexander, Neville Research Institute for Linguistics University of Cape Town Hungarian Academy of Sciences p.o. box 34092 – Rhodes Gift – Benczur u. 33 7707 South Africa H-1068 Budapest  | 11.00 – 12.45 Panel discussion Podiumsdiskussion Tel +2721 650 4013 Tel: +36 1 321 4830 117 Fax +2721 650 3027 Fax +36 1 322 9297 Demands on language policies – Results and future [email protected] [email protected] perspectives Androutsopoulos, Jannis Bataineh, Moh‘d Tawfiq Klaus-Börge Boeckmann | University of Vienna Department of Education and The School of Languages Susanna Buttaroni | Integrationshaus Vienna Professional Studies Salford University Anton Dobart | Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture King‘s College London UK-Manchester 150 Stamford Street [email protected] Hanna Komorowska | University of Warsaw UK-London SE1 9NH David Little | Trinity College Ireland, CoE Tel +44 20 7848 3666 Belluscio, Giovanni Susanne Pirstinger | Elementary School VS Grundsteingasse Fax +44 20 7848 3182 University of Calabria Mauro Rosi | UNESCO, Intersectoral Platform for Languages and Multilingualism [email protected] Arcavacata di Rende Via P. Bucci, Cubo 20 A | Shrishail B. Sasalatti Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi Angerer, Hemma I-87036 Rende CS Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft Tel 0039 098 844 94142 Moderation: Georg Gombos | University of Klagenfurt und Forschung Fax 0039 098 844 94141 Teinfaltstraße 8 [email protected] A-1010 Wien Tel +43 1 5312 5637 Blaziene, Grasilda 12.45 – 13.00  Closing words and farewell Fax +43 1 5312 81 5637 Institute of the Lithuanian Language Abschluss der Konferenz und Verabschiedung [email protected] P. Vileišio st. 5 LT-10308 Vilnius Anton Dobart | Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture Tel +370 5 234 71 94 Fax +370 5 234 72 00 [email protected]

226 227 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit List of Participants | TeilnehmerInnenliste

Boeckmann, Klaus-Börge Brizic, Katharina Buttaroni, Susanna Dobart, Anton Institut für Germanistik (DaF/DaZ) Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Verein Projekt Integrationshaus Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Universität Wien Zentrum für Linguistik und Tondokumenta ENEMU – Projektkoordination Kunst und Kultur Dr. Karl-Lueger-Ring 1 tion/DINAMLEX Engerthstraße 163 Minoritenplatz 5 A-1010 Wien Wohllebengasse 12-14 A-1020 Wien A-1014 Wien Tel +43 1 4277 42173 A-1040 Wien Tel +43 699 121 235 04 Tel +43 1 5312 4311 Fax +43 1 4277 42180 Tel +43 +664 32 68 008 Fax +43 1 212 35 20 30 Fax +43 1 5312 814 309 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Bogenreiter-Feigl, Elisabeth Brunmair, Barbara Chawla, Kapil Dorner, Andrea Verband Österreichischer Volkshochschulen Sprachenzentrum VHS Ottakring Tel +44 750 2412 484 Organization Team Weintraubengasse 13 Ludo-Hartmann-Platz 7 [email protected] Austrian UNESCO Commission A-1020 Wien A-1160 Wien Säulengasse 17/26 Tel +43 1 216 4226 17 Tel +43 1 492 08 8320 Čuláková, Dana A-1090 Wien Fax +43 1 214 38 91 Fax +43 1 492 08 8358 Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic Tel +43 699 106 016 66 [email protected] [email protected] Stromová 1 [email protected] SK-81330 Bratislava Böhringer, Heike Buchholz, Barbara Tel +421 2 593 74368 Dotter, Franz Department of English and American Studies English Department Fax +421 2 593 74458 Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt University of Vienna Private Pädagogische Hochschule [email protected] Zentrum für Gebärdensprache und Universitätscampus AAKH, Hof 8 Wolfgarten Hörbehindertenkommunikation Spitalgasse 2 A-7000 Eisenstadt Cyffer, Norbert Universitätsstraße 65-67 A-1090 Wien [email protected] Institut für Afrikawissenschaften der A-9020 Klagenfurt Tel +43 1 4277 424 53 Universität Wien Tel +43 463 2700 2821 [email protected] Budin, Gerhard Spitalgasse 2, Hof 5 Fax +43 463 2700 2899 Universität Wien A-1090 Wien [email protected] Böszörményi, Jenő Zentrumsleitung für Tel +43 1 4277 43201 State Secretariat for Minority and Translationswissenschaft/Dekan Fax +43 1 4277 9432 Drame, Anja Nation Policy Gymnasiumstraße 50 [email protected] International Information Centre Prime Ministers Office A-1190 Wien for Terminology Bathory u. 12. II. 10. Tel +43 1 4277 58020 Dengscherz, Sabine Mariahilfer Straße 123/3 H-1054 Budapest Fax +43 1 4277 9580 Zentrum für Translationswissenschaften A-1060 Wien Tel +36 30 407 9594 [email protected] Universität Wien T +43 664 344 6181 Fax +36 1 441 2302 Gymnasiumstraße 5 F +43 1 524 0606 99 [email protected] Buligovic, Usnia A-1190 Wien [email protected] Wiener Verein Romano Centro Tel +43 1 4277 580 Botošová, Anina Hofmannsthalgasse 2 [email protected] Ďuranová, Denisa Plenipotentiary of the Slovak government for A-1030 Wien National Institute for Education Roma Communities Tel +43 1 749 6336 Dijakovic, Damir Pluhová 8 Úrad vlády Slovenskej republiky Fax +43 1 749 6336 11 UNESCO Regional Bureau for SK-830 00 Bratislava Nám. slobody 1 [email protected] Science and Culture in Europe (BRESCE) Tel +421 2 492 76119 SK-813 70 Bratislava 1 4930 Castello – Palazzo Zorzi Fax +421 2 492 76195 Tel +421 2 5729 5111 Busch, Brigitta I-30122 Venice [email protected] Fax +421 2 57 295 816 Institut für Sprachwissenschaft Tel +39 041 2601511 [email protected] Universität Wien Fax +39 041 5289995 Egger, Gerlinde Berggasse 11 [email protected] Pädagogische Hochschule Tirol A-1090 Wien Pastorstraße 7 Tel +43 1 4277 417 01 A-6010 Innsbruck Fax +43 1 4277 9417 Tel +43 676 334 288 3 [email protected] [email protected]

228 229 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit List of Participants | TeilnehmerInnenliste

Eichfelder, Dorothée Galinski, Christian Gombos, Georg Halwachs, Dieter International Information Centre International Information Centre for Abteilung für interkulturelle Bildung Institut für Sprachwissenschaft for Terminology Terminology Universität Klagenfurt Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz Mariahilfer Straße 123/3 Mariahilfer Straße 123/3 Universitätsstraße 65-67 Merangasse 70 A-1060 Wien A-1060 Wien A-9020 Klagenfurt A-8010 Graz Tel +43 664 3446181 Tel +43 664 344 6181 Tel +43 463 2700 1233 Tel +43 316 380 2426 Fax +43 1 524 06 06 99 Fax +43 1 524 0606 99 Fax +43 463 2700 1294 Fax +43 316 380 9780 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Einspieler, Ulrike Gärtner-Horvath, Emmerich Götz, Gudrun Härle, Andrea Europäische Kommission, Österreichische Verein Roma-Service Institut für Translationswissenschaft Wiener Verein Romano Centro Vertretung Gartenstraße 3 Universität Graz Hofmannsthalgasse 2 Kärntner Ring 5-7 A-7511 Kleinbachselten Merangasse 70 A-1030 Wien A-1010 Wien, Austria Tel +43 650 427 6062 A-8010 Graz Tel +43 1 749 63 36 Tel +43 1 516 18338 Fax +43 3366 78634 Tel +43 676 306 5848 Fax +43 1 749 63 36 11 Fax +43 1 513 4225 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Girlasu, Mioara Goodenough-Hofmann, Monika Häusler, Pia Elšík, Viktor Interkulturelles Beratungs- und Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Pädagogische Hochschule der Diözese Linz ULUG – Institute for Linguistics Therapiezentrum ZEBRA Kunst und Kultur Salesianumweg 3 Charles University Pestalozzistraße 59/II Abteilung für EU-Koordination A-4020 Linz nám. J. Palacha 2 A-8010 Graz Minoritenplatz 5 Tel +43 699 105 154 36 CZ-116 38 Praha 1 Tel +43 316 835630-14 A-1014 Wien [email protected] Tel +420 221 619 260 Fax +43 316 835630-50 Tel +43 1 5312 4713 [email protected] [email protected] Fax +43 1 5312 81 4713 Helienek, Daniela [email protected] Gerasdorfer Straße 55/202/1 Filipovic, Jelena Gläser, Ursula A-1210 Wien Department of Iberian Studies Romani-Unterrichts! – Verein Roma-Service Grießner, Florika Tel +43 699 192 21126 Belgrade University Gartenstraße 3 Universitas – Austrian Association [email protected] Studenski trg 3 A-7511 Kleinbachselten of Translators and Interpreters SRB-11000 Beograd [email protected] Lindweg 24 Herczeg, Petra Tel +381 63 839 7650 A-8010 Graz Universität Wien [email protected] Gnerre, Maurizio Tel +43 664 255 8430 Institut für Publizistik Università di Napoli L’Orientrale [email protected] Schopenhauerstraße 32 Fischer, Márta Via Vittoria 81 A-1180 Wien Department of Translation and Terminology I-00187 Roma Häfele, Eva Tel +43 1 4277 49301 University of Pécs Tel 0039 06 69920 857 okay. zusammen leben [email protected] Rákóczi út 80 [email protected] Projektstelle für Zuwanderung und Integration H-7622 Pécs Färbergasse 15/304 Holmes, Helen Kelly Tel +36 72 501 500 3188 Godunc, Zdravka A-6850 Dornbirn Department of Languages and [email protected] Ministry of Education and Sport Tel +43 5572 398102 Cultural Studies Masarykova 16 Fax +43 5572 398102 4 Room MC1-002, Millstream Building Friedman, Eben SLO-Ljubljana [email protected] University of Limerick Roma Education Fund Tel +386 1 4005 294 IRL-Limerick Ul. Naroden front 33/48 Fax +386 1 4005 332 Tel +353 61 234 206 MK-1000 Skopje [email protected] [email protected] Tel +389 70 807 352 [email protected]

230 231 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit List of Participants | TeilnehmerInnenliste

Holzinger, Barbara Kert-Wakounig, Sonja Lasselsberger, Anna Matras, Yaron Pädagogische Hochschule Burgenland Rat der Kärntner Slowenen Bundesministerium für Unterricht, School of Languages, Linguistics Wolfgarten Viktringer Ring 26 Kunst und Kultur and Cultures A-7000 Eisenstadt A-9020 Klagenfurt Minoritenplatz 5 University of Manchester Tel +43 2682 64251 24 Tel +43 463 512528 A-1014 Wien Oxford Road [email protected] Fax +43 463 512528 22 Tel +43 1 5312 2528 UK-Manchester M13 9PL [email protected] Fax +43 1 5312 2599 Tel +44 161 275 3975 Hülmbauer, Cornelia [email protected] Fax +44 161 275 3031 Department of English and American Studies Komorowska, Hanna [email protected] Universität Wien Institute of English Little, David Universitätscampus AAKH, Hof 8 Warsaw University Centre for Language and Moring, Tom Spitalgasse 2 Nowy Swiat 4 Communication Studies University of Helsinki A-1090 Wien PL-00-497 Warsaw Trinity College Dublin P.O.Box 33 Yliopistonkatu 4 Tel +43 1 4277 424 68 [email protected] CLCS, Arts Building FIN-00014 Helsinki [email protected] IRL-Dublin 2 [email protected] Krausneker, Verena Tel +353 1 896 1505 Jelaska, Zrinka Institut für Sprachwissenschaft Fax +353 1 896 2941 Moser, Michael Department of Croatian Universität Wien [email protected] Institut für Slawistik University of Zagreb Berggasse 11 Universität Wien Ivana Lucica 3 A-1090 Wien Magrinyà i Domingo, Jordi Spitalgasse 2-4, Hof 3 HR-10000 Zagreb Tel +43 1 4277 417 01 Znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut A-1090 Wien Tel +385 1 6120 074 Fax+43 1 4277 9417 Univerza v Ljubljani Tel +43 1 4277 42801 [email protected] [email protected] Askerčeva 2 Fax +43 1 4277 9428 SLO-1000 Ljubljana [email protected] Jugovits-Csenar, Anita Krek, Janez [email protected] Private Pädagogische Hochschule Faculty of Education Moser, Wolfgang Burgenland University of Ljubljana Marte, Johann Österreichisches Sprachen- Wolfgarten Kardeljeva ploščad. 16 Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission Kompetenz-Zentrum A-7000 Eisenstadt SLO-1000 Ljubljana Universitätsstraße 5/12 Hans Sachs-Gasse 3/I Tel + 43 2682 64251 29 Tel +386 1 5892 253 A-1010 Wien A-8010 Graz Fax + 43 2682 64251 12 Fax +386 1 5347997 Tel +43 1 526 13 01 Tel +43 316 8241 50 21 [email protected] [email protected] Fax +43 1 526 13 01 20 Fax +43 316 8241 56 [email protected] [email protected] Kaiser-Cooke, Michèle Kschwendt-Michel-Bilgir, Ingrid Zentrum für Translationswissenschaft Kirchliche Pädagogische Hochschule in Wien Martin, Ursula Mossakowski, Jan Universität Wien Mayerweckstraße 1 Volksschule Greiseneckergasse Forschungsgruppe Spracherleben Gymnasiumstraße 50 A-1210 Wien Greiseneckergasse 29/2 Universität Wien A-1190 Wien Tel +43 676 7203172 A-1200 Wien Ybbsstraße 23/27 Tel +43 1 427 758 001 Fax +43 1 4799 258 Tel +43 650 721 5902 A-1020 Wien [email protected] [email protected] Fax +43 332 6340 Tel +43 650 866 6844 [email protected] [email protected] Kaufmann, Heidi Lanza, Elizabeth Landesschulrat für Burgenland Lingvistikk Universitetet i Oslo Martyniuk, Waldemar Mühlgaszner, Edith Kernausteig 3 Postboks 1102 Katedra Języka Polskiego jako Obcego Abteilung für Minderheiten A-7000 Eisenstadt Blindern Centrum Języka i Kultury Polskiej w Świecie Landesschulrat für Burgenland Tel +43 2682 710 138 NO-0317 Oslo University of Krakow Kernausteig 3 Fax +43 2682 710 79 Tel +47 2285 6751 ul. Grodzka 64 A-7000 Eisenstadt [email protected] Fax +47 2285 7100 PL-31-044 Kraków Tel +43 2682 710 118 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

232 233 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit List of Participants | TeilnehmerInnenliste

Muzsnai Istvan Pennauer, Elfriede Preisegger, Martina Rannut, Mart Greater Grace International School Innovationszentrum der Universität Wien Pädagogische Hochschule des Bundes Institute of Estonian Language and Culture 22/B Szilagyi Erzsebet fasor Universitätscampus AAKH, Hof 1 in der Steiermark Tallinn University H-1125 Budapest Alser Straße 4 Hasnerplatz 12 Narva mnt 25 Tel +36 1 200 04 58 A-1090 Wien A-8010 Graz EST-10120 Tallinn Fax +36 1 275 47 95 Tel +43 1 4277 24121 Tel +43 316 8067 1617 Tel +372 558 2368 [email protected] Fax +43 1 4277 9241 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Nekvapil, Jiří Prets, Christa Resch, Gerhard Dpartment of Linguistics Petri, Axel MdEP, EU-Büro Landesschulrat für Burgenland Charles University Jüdisches Berufliches Bildungszentrum Marktstraße 3 Kernausteig 3 nám. Jana Palacha 2 Adalbert-Stifter-Straße 18 A-7000 Eisenstadt A-7000 Eisenstadt CZ-116 38 Praha 1 A-1200 Wien Tel +43 2682 7044 50 [email protected] Tel +420 221 619 260 Tel +43 1 33106 123 Fax +43 2682 7044 51 [email protected] Fax +43 1 33106 333 [email protected] Ritter, Monika [email protected] [email protected] AlfaZentrum für MigrantInnen Novak Lukanovic, Sonja Volkshochschule Ottakring Institute for Ethnic Studies Pfisterer, Petra Pühringer-Kriegner, Andrea Ludo-Hartmann-Platz 7 Erjavčeva 26 Austrian Radio Research Group Bundesministerium für Unterricht, A-1160 Wien SLO-1000 Ljubljana Leebgasse 56/17 Kunst und Kultur Tel +43 1 492 08 83 59 Tel +386 1 200 18 83 A-1100 Wien Minoritenplatz 5 Fax +43 1 492 08 83 58 Fax +386 1 251 0964 Tel +43 699 101 033 00 A-1014 Wien [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Tel +43 1 5312 4490 Fax +43 1 5312 4130 Roiss, Günter Palatin, Viktorija Piotrowska, Maria [email protected] Österreichischer Gehörlosenbund ORF Landesstudio Burgenland Pedagogical University of Cracow Waldgasse 13/2 Buchgraben 51 Ul. Karmelicka 41 Purkarthofer, Judith A-1100 Wien A-7000 Eisenstadt PL-31-128 Krakow ARRG Austrian Radio Research Group Tel +43 1 60 30 853 Tel +43 2682 700 27396 Tel +48 12 602 680 482 Institut für Sprachwissenschaft Fax +43 1 60 23 459 [email protected] Fax +48 12 637 2243 Universität Wien [email protected] [email protected] Berggasse 11 Pauer, Stefan A-1090 Wien Rosi, Mauro Burgenland Kroatischer Kulturverein in Wien Pirstinger, Susanne Tel +43 1 4277 417 01 Division of Cultural Expressions Pernerstorfergasse 14/11 VS Grundsteingasse Fax +43 1 4277 9417 and Creative Industries A-1100 Wien Grundsteingasse 56 [email protected] UNESCO Headquarters Tel +43 664 617 8613 A-1160 Wien 7, place de Fontenoy Fax +43 1 93000 31430 [email protected] Pusztay, János F-75352 Paris 07 SP [email protected] Head of Department, Berzsenbyi High Tel +33 1 45 68 10 00 Pletersek, Martin School of Szombathely Fax +33 1 45 67 16 90 Peissl, Helmut Bundesministerium für Unterricht, BDF Uralisztikai Tanszek [email protected] Verband Freier Radios Österreich Kunst und Kultur Berzsenyi ter 2 Klosterneuburger Straße 1 Minoritenplatz 5 H-9701 Szombathely Rossbacher, Bettina A-1200 Wien A-1014 Wien Tel +36 30 204 96 27 Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission Tel +43 1 423 887 05 Tel +43 1 5312 2345 Fax +36 94 504 589 Universitätsstraße 5/12 [email protected] Fax +43 1 5312 4130 [email protected] A-1010 Wien [email protected] Tel +43 1 526 13 01 13 Fax +43 1 526 13 01 20 [email protected]

234 235 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit List of Participants | TeilnehmerInnenliste

Russinov, Rumyan Savic, Svenka Stabej, Marko Tajalli, Elfriede Roma Education Fund NGO Women Studies and Research Oddelka za slovenistiko Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Váci u. 63 Bul.vojvode Stepe 107 Univerza v Ljubljani Kunst und Kultur H-1056 Budapest SRO-21000 Novi Sad Aškerčeva 2 Minoritenplatz 5 Tel +36 1 235 8030 Tel +381 63 8112 412 SLO-1000 Ljubljana A-1014 Wien Fax +36 1 235 8031 Fax +381 21 498 858 Tel +386 1 241 1270 Tel +43 1 5312 4707 [email protected] [email protected] Fax +386 1 425 9337 Fax +43 1 5312 81 4707 [email protected] [email protected] Sajenczuk, Maria-Elzbieta Schmied, Josef School of Polish for Foreigners Verein Roma-Service Steiner, Anna Tarcsiová, Darina Unversity of Lodz Gartenstraße 3 Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Faculty of Edcuation Matejki str. 21/23 A-7511 Kleinbachselten Kunst und Kultur Comenius University PL-Lodz 90-237 Tel: +43 3366 78634 Minoritenplatz 5 Račianska 59 Tel +48 42 635 4700 [email protected] A-1014 Wien SK-813 34 Bratislava Fax +48 42 678 4706 Tel +43 1 5312 4490 Tel +421 907 895 636 [email protected] Schmidtkunz, Renata Fax +43 1 5312 4130 [email protected] Geßlgasse 7 [email protected] Sarvaš, Martin A-1230 Wien Tauschitz, Isolde Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Republic Tel +43 1 526 5158 Stingeder, Heinz Private Pädagogische Hochschule Nam. SNP No. 33. Sprachenzentrum University of Vienna der Diözese Linz SK-813 31 Bratislava 1 Schuster, Walter Seepark 2 Institut für Fortbildung Tel +4212 59 391 304 VHS Brigittenau A-7222 Rohrbach Salesianumweg 3 Fax +4212 59 391 375 Raffaelgasse 11-13 Tel +650 840 7885 A-4020 Linz [email protected] A-1200 Wien [email protected] Tel +43 650 224 69 68 Tel +43 1 330 41 95 Fax +43 732 776 433 1190 Sasalatti, Shrishail. B. Fax +43 1 330 41 95-26 Stromberger, Christine [email protected] Center of German Studies [email protected] Bundesministerium für Unterricht, School of Lang. Lit. and Culture Studies Kunst und Kultur Thornton, Evelyn Jawaharlal Nehru University Slivensky, Susanna Minoritenplatz 5 Kirchliche Pädagogische Hochschule in Wien New Delhi, India-110067 Europäisches Fremdsprachenzentrum Graz A-1014 Wien Mayerweckstraße 1 Tel +91 11 2670 4204 Nikolaiplatz 4 Tel +43 1 5312 4714 A-1210 Wien Fax +91 11 2674 2580 A-8020 Graz [email protected] Tel +43 1 291 08 0 [email protected] Tel +43 316 323 554 Fax +43 664 337 008 Fax +43 316 323 554 4 Szondy, Katalin [email protected] Šatava, Leoš [email protected] Universität Wien Institute of Ethnology Zentrumsleitung für Unterwurzacher, Heidi Charles University Sommer-Palágyi, Zsófia Translationswissenschaft Arbeitskreis BILMIK Celetná 20 ORF Landesstudio Burgenland Gymnasiumstraße 50 Bildung und Migrantenkinder CZ-116 38 Praha 1 Buchgraben 51 A-1190 Wien Wiener LehrerInnen an Schulen im Tel +420 2 612 61149 A-7000 Eisenstadt Tel +43 1 4277 580 01 2. und 20. Bezirk [email protected] Tel +43 2682 700 27400 Fax +43 1 4277 9580 VS Greiseneckergasse 29/2 zsófia.sommer-palá[email protected] [email protected] A-1200 Wien Sauberer, Gabriele Tel +43 699 194 606 98 Termnet – Terminology Network [email protected] Zieglergasse 28 A-1070 Wien Tel +43 1 524 0606 12 Fax +43 1 524 0606 99 [email protected]

236 237 Everyday Multilingualism Lebensweltliche Mehrsprachigkeit

Vasiļjeva, Inese Warga, Muriel State Language Agency Bundesministerium für Unterricht, Lačplēša iela 35/5 Kunst und Kultur LV-Rīga LV-1011 Abteilung für EU-Koordination Tel +371 29126631 Minoritenplatz 5 Fax +371 67201683 A-1014 Wien [email protected] Tel +43 1 5312 2297 [email protected] Veisbergs, Andrejs National Language Commission Winklbauer, Sonja University of Latvia Sprachenzentrum der Universität Wien Visvalza 4a Universitätscampus AAKH, Hof 1 LV-1050 Riga Alser Straße 4 Tel +371 2948 2396 A-1090 Wien Fax +371 7227802 Tel +43 1 427 724 122 [email protected] [email protected]

Verschik, Anna Zabarskaite, Jolanta Institute of Estonian Language and Culture Institute of the Lithuanian Language Tallinn University P. Vileišio st. 5 Narva mnt. 25 LT-10308 Vilnius EST-Tallinn 10120 Tel +370 5 234 0660 21 Tel +372 5 300 9887 Fax +370 5 234 72 00 [email protected] [email protected]

Wágnerová, Margita Zimmermann, Christina Ondříčkova 33 Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und CZ-Praha 3 Forschung Tel +420 728748340 Teinfaltstraße 8 [email protected] A-1010 Wien Tel +43 1 5312 6713 Wagner, Peter Fax +43 1 5312 81 6713 Ondříčkova 33 [email protected] CZ-Praha 3 Tel +420 605227366 [email protected]

Walcher, Maria Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission Universitätsstraße 5 A-1010 Wien Tel +43 1 5261301 14 Fax +43 1 5261301 20 [email protected]

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