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Avengers of the New World: the Story of the Haitian Revolution

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Avengers of the New World: the Story of the Haitian Revolution Avengers of the New World laurent dubois Avengers of the New World the story of the haitian revolution the belknap press of harvard university press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 2004 Copyright © 2004 by Laurent Dubois All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dubois, Laurent, 1971– Avengers of the New World : the story of the Haitian Revolution / Laurent Dubois. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-674-01304-2 (alk. paper) 1. Haiti—History—Revolution, 1791–1804. I. Title. f1923.d83 2004 972.94Ј03—dc22 2003063010 For Haiti acknowledgments My greatest debt is to the many historians whose research and writing made this book possible. Some are ancestors, like Beaubrun Ardouin, Ga- briel Debien, and C. L. R. James, the others part of a small and scattered group who often work in isolation. John Garrigus was encouraging about the project throughout, and our conversations were crucial in determining the final shape of the book. David Geggus, whose writings have trans- formed the study of the Haitian Revolution, has been a supportive and in- sightful interlocutor over the years. Malick Ghachem has taught me a great deal through his work and our conversations. Stewart King played a crucial role in my early research on the Caribbean. Michel Rolph Trouillot and Carolyn Fick have profoundly influenced the way I think about the revolu- tion. Laennec Hurbon and Michel DeGraff shaped my ideas on Haiti’s cultural history. Richard Turits read some early chapters of the book and gave me encouragement and good advice. And Julius Scott has been a con- stant inspiration because of his passion for reconstructing the lives of the often-elusive figures who built the Haitian Revolution. I must also thank Julius, and Ada Ferrer, for having—over a greasy breakfast in Ann Arbor years ago—first planted in my mind the idea of writing this book. I owe a debt to three early mentors who guided my first research on Haiti: Barbara Browning, Joan Dayan, and Peter Johnson. I am grateful to Robert Bonner, who read many of the chapters of this book, as well as Christine Daniels and the students in our Atlantic history semi- nar for their comments. I thank Monique Dubois-Dalcq for having read and commented on the manuscript. The members of the “Club Littéraire du Gentilsart,” André and Marie-Claude Dubois, were avid readers and in- sightful critics throughout. A grant from the Intramural Research Grant Program at Michigan State University funded research in the United States, France, and Haiti, as well as the work of my extremely able research assistant, Marco Meniketti. The Comparative Black History Program helped me to cover the cost of illus- trations. Marcel Chatillon kindly gave me permission to reprint some of the images from his collection Images de la Révolution aux Antilles, and Peter Berg helped me to track down and reproduce several engravings. Parts of the manuscript were presented at Yale and Vanderbilt universities, and some material from Chapters 4 and 5 was included in “Our Three Colors: The King, the Republic and the Political Culture of Slave Revolu- tion in Saint-Domingue,” in Historical Reflections, 29:1 (Spring 2003): 83– 102. I wrote much of this book while I was a visiting scholar at the Clark Center for Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles. I thank Lynn Hunt and Peter Riell for having given me this home in Los Angeles. And I am grateful to Christine Lazaridi for our lunches spent discussing the different stories we were tracking down and weaving together. In Haiti, Chantalle Verna was a generous host and made much of my research possible. I thank the Fouchard family for their generosity in giv- ing me access to their library. Philippe Cherdieu, of the Bibliothèque Haïtienne, enthusiastically showed me some of the treasures of this collec- tion. And I cannot thank Erol Josué enough for the amazing journey we took to visit Le Cap, and for showing me Gallifet, Sans-Souci, and the Citadel. Two anonymous reviewers for Harvard University Press gave me en- couragement and helpful advice. Ann Hawthorne’s expert copyediting was much appreciated. And through her enthusiasm for the project and her guidance, Joyce Seltzer was crucial to making this work what it is. It was Katharine Brophy Dubois who showed me how to write this book. I thank her, and I thank our son, Anton, who arrived just as I was fin- ishing the manuscript, and who has made everything, once again, into an adventure. viii acknowledgments contents Prologue 1 1. Specters of Saint-Domingue 8 2. Fermentation 36 3. Inheritance 60 4. Fire in the Cane 91 5. New World 115 6. Defiance 132 7. Liberty’s Land 152 8. The Opening 171 9. Power 194 10. Enemies of Liberty 209 11. Territory 231 12. The Tree of Liberty 251 13. Those Who Die 280 Epilogue: Out of the Ashes 302 Notes 309 Index 349 ATLANTIC SAINT-DOMINGUE Gulf of B OCEAN a (FRANCE) Mexico Nassau h a m Havana a s Spanish MÔLE SAINT-NICOLAS C u b a Santo Domingo Cap-à-Foux Hispaniola Jamaica Kingston French 0 300 miles Saint-Domingue Caribbean Sea Parishes of the North Province Saint-Domingue ne rg L Le Cap CAP FRANÇAIS o P Baie de N la (LE CAP) I B Port i H e i n Mancenille P ) L e U É Margot in A RT d D E m u or T IB Petite- e L N M R A d O T o Anse r Terrier F R r e b a c i O d t r n (F u Gulf of a o Rouge P u é l m l ns Q i a atio L Fort Gonâve i nt Pla M s Gallifet Dauphin a a n M Citadelle Laferrière s c Le Trou Ounaminthe sa a c e Dondon r r Grande- e m C Rivière R an e . a l l a de d Vallière Île e d Saint e l Raphael Ouinaminthe a G onâ Saint Michel ve (de l’Attalaye) Ca na e l d rémi u S Jé yemite ud Grande Ca SOUTH Tiburon Les Platons LesCayes Aquin Plain LES CAYES Po Île à Vache int e-à-G ravois 0102030 miles Cari 01020 30 40 50 kilometers ÎledelaTortue(Tortuga) Atlantic Ocean IX PORT-DE-PA Ba ie d e M CAP FRANÇAIS an (LE CAP) ce ni lle NORTH FORT DAUPHIN Gallifet Plantations Northern Yaque del N Plain (FORT LIBERTÉ) ort M e a s Citadelle Laferrière s Ounaminthe a c r e GONAÏVES R Ennery . Saint-Raphael Saint-Michel (de l’Attalaye) Ester R . Artibonite Plain Fort Crête-à-Pierrot Petite Rivière SANTO SAINT-MARC Verrettes DOMINGO Artibonite R. WEST (SPAIN) S ain t-M Mirebalais a rc Arcahaye CulDeSac PORT-AU-PRINCE Croix-des-Bouquets (PORT RÉPUBLICAIN) Plain Léogane -Goâve Petit L. Enriquillo Grand-Goâve JA CM EL Bahoruco Mountains bbean Sea I saw on a magnificent pedestal a negro, his head bare, his arm outstretched, with pride in his eyes and a noble and imposing demeanor...Athisfeet were the words: To the Avenger of the New World! —Louis Sebastien Mercier, L’An deux mille cent quarante: Rêve s’il en fût jamais (1771) I have avenged America. —Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1804) Prologue n new year’s day 1804, a group of generals gathered in Saint-Domingue to create a new nation. Their leader, Jean- OJacques Dessalines, had once been a slave. So, too, had several of the men who joined him in signing their declaration of independence. Some had been born in Africa and survived the middle passage; others, in- cluding Dessalines, had been born into slavery in the French colony. They signed their names next to those of men who had once been slave owners, including one apparently was nicknamed “the good white.” Many were men of mixed European and African descent who had been free long be- fore the Revolution began, several of whom had fought against Dessalines in a brutal civil war a few years earlier. Now, however, they stood behind him to declare that they had forever renounced France, and would fight to the death to preserve their independence and freedom. Haiti was founded on the ashes of what had been, fifteen years before, the most profitable slave colony in the world, its birth premised on the self-evident truth that no one should be a slave.1 It was a dramatic challenge to the world as it then was. Slavery was at the heart of the thriving system of merchant capitalism that was profit- ing Europe, devastating Africa, and propelling the rapid expansion of the Americas. The most powerful European empires were deeply involved and invested in slavery’s continuing existence, as was much of the nation to the north that had preceded Haiti to independence, the United States. For decades Saint-Domingue had been the leading example of the massive profits that could be made through the brutal institution. Then, in 1791, the colony’s slaves began a massive uprising. It became the largest slave re- volt in the history of the world, and the only one that succeeded. Within a few years these Caribbean revolutionaries gained liberty for all the slaves in the French empire. The man who came to lead Saint-Domingue in the wake of emancipation, Toussaint Louverture, had once warned the French that any attempt to bring slavery back to the colony was destined to fail.
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