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Stevens Dissertation Final Staging the Americas in Eighteenth-Century France and its Colonies By April E. Stevens Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in French May 2014 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Jérôme Brillaud, Ph.D Lynn Ramey, Ph.D Paul Miller, Ph.D Holly Tucker, Ph.D Lauren Clay, Ph.D Copyright © 2014 By April Eileen Stevens All Rights Reserved To my beloved husband, David, who supported me every step of the way. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without the support of the Department of French and Italian. I am also thankful for the additional support provided by the College of Arts and Sciences Summer Research Award and the Vanderbilt Graduate Dissertation Enhnacmeent Grant which enabled me to expand and enhance this dissertation. I am especially indebted to my advisors, Dr. Jérôme Brillaud and Dr. Lynn Ramey who have supported not only this dissertation but my career goals acting as both advisors and mentors. I am grateful to all the members of my Dissertation Committee, Dr. Paul B. Miller, Dr. Holly Tucker, and Dr. Lauren R. Clay, who each provided excellent guidance sharing their particular expertise on this work. No one has been more important to the pursuit of this project than the members of my family. I would like to thank my parents who have unceasingly encouraged me to follow my dreams and pursue excellence. Finally, I would not have been able to complete this work without the daily support of my loving husband David, who sacrificed so much to make my dreams a reality. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv Introduction Historical Background ............................................................................................................5 The Social and Political Role of Eighteenth-Century Theater ............................................7 Methodology and Corpus......................................................................................................10 The Theater as Part of Colonial and Enlightenment Discourse........................................12 Chapter Preview.....................................................................................................................19 Chapter 1. Philosophical America on the Stage .......................................................................................21 Introduction............................................................................................................................21 America Lands on European Shores ...................................................................................28 The Colonies Imagine Reverse Migration ...........................................................................46 Venturing to the New World.................................................................................................55 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................69 2. Imagining Hybrid Societies on the Stage...............................................................................72 Introduction............................................................................................................................72 The Union of the Noble Savage and the Erudite European...............................................77 Reversing the Stereotype: Joining Native American Society.............................................93 Imagining a Colonial Utopia.................................................................................................97 Voices from the Colonies: Contemplating Hybrid Societies from Within..................... 101 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................109 3. The Female Protagonist.........................................................................................................112 Introduction..........................................................................................................................112 The Powerful “Bonne Sauvagesse” ....................................................................................116 A Tale of Two Zélia’s: The African and the Noble Savage..............................................121 Contrasting White and African Women in the Colonies .................................................136 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 152 4. From the Noble Savage to the “Bon Nègre” ........................................................................155 Introduction..........................................................................................................................155 v The Emerging Category of Race ....................................................................................... 161 The “Bon Nègre” and Négresse on the French Stage....................................................... 165 Contrasting French and French Colonial Depictions of Black Society ..........................180 “Revolutionizing” the Image of the “Bon Nègre” ............................................................ 188 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................198 5. French Identity and Politics in Colonial Theater............................................................... 201 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 201 The Colonies Invade the Motherland: French Plays on Conflicts in the Colonies ........210 Political Theater in the Colonies.........................................................................................226 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................235 Conclusion: A Glance at Revolutionary Plays ........................................................................237 Appendix A. Corpus of Plays .....................................................................................................................249 References...................................................................................................................................250 vi INTRODUCTION One description of a French soldier in the 1779 comedy Les Français à la Grenade reads: “il est valeureux, comme notre Général, il a la douceur d’un Parisien, la vivacité d’un Provençal, la franchise d’un Picard & la bonté d’âme d’un Flamand” (D’Herbois 12). The heroic Chevalier is praised by an English colonist of the recently captured island of Grenada, not only for his valor, but his various French qualities. This exemplary Chevalier incarnates all the best parts of the French nation in one person, the model Frenchman. He represents a united French nation that is no longer divided by regional differences, but united by common goals to further the French empire. More important for this study, the character’s French identity is founded on France’s military prowess in the Americas. The heroic Chevalier is but one example of how French theater attempted to assert an idealistic French identity in opposition to its colonial rivals and American societies. Throughout the eighteenth century, French theater and French colonial theater interrogated the complex and dynamic relationship between France and its colonies. While trying to understand and depict the Americas on the stage, French playwrights also questioned their own changing culture, reassessing what it meant to be French in the eighteenth century, both in the metropole and the colonies. Early on, playwrights who wrote about the New World and French colonies focused on a general comparison of Native American and French societies, but in the last quarter of the century, they began to directly question the relationship between France and the French colonies. By the beginning of the French Revolution the tension between France and its colonies had reached a boiling point. This tension was reflected on the stage where playwrights questioned notions of identity, asking what it meant to be French and also what it meant to be a French colonial subject. The continually evolving relationship between France and its colonies 1 forced playwrights and citizens alike to reconsider French identity and how the French colonies fit into or were separate from this identity. Colonial discourse, and consequently colonial theater, has long been relegated to the sidelines of French history and literary criticism. However, in this dissertation I will argue that French theater about the colonies and French colonial theater not only helps scholars understand the complex relationship between France and its colonies; these plays reveal a struggle to understand what it meant to be French in the eighteenth-century. The comparisons made on the stage between France and the Americas spoke to greater concerns playwrights had about French society, its morals, and its future. I contend that depictions of the Americas on the stage were not peripheral to mainstream
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