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Traditional Kwakwaka'wakw Harvesting of Ts'áts'ayem

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Traditional Kwakwaka'wakw Harvesting of Ts'áts'ayem Tending the meadows of the sea: Traditional Kwakwaka’wakw harvesting of Ts’áts’ayem (Zostera marina L.; Zosteraceae) By Severn Cullis-Suzuki B.Sc., Yale University, 2002 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE as a Special Arrangement Interdisciplinary Study. © Severn Cullis-Suzuki, 2007 University of Victoria All rights reserved. ii Tending the meadows of the sea: Traditional Kwakwaka’wakw harvesting of Ts’áts’ayem (Zostera marina L.; Zosteraceae) By Severn Cullis-Suzuki B.Sc., Yale University, 2002 Supervisory Committee Dr. Nancy Turner (School of Environmental Studies) Supervisor Dr. John Volpe (School of Environmental Studies) Departmental Committee member Dr. Eric Higgs (School of Environmental Studies) Departmental Committee member Dr. Geraldine Allen (Department of Biology) Outside member Dr. Sandy Wyllie-Echeverria (University of Washington) Outside member iii Supervisor: Dr. Nancy J. Turner ABSTRACT Eelgrass, Zostera marina L. (Zosteraceae), is a flowering marine plant in coastal regions in the Northern hemisphere. Apart from its significance as habitat for a diversity of marine organisms, it has been a direct resource in European and American economies, and once was a food source for people along the Pacific Coast of North America. This interdisciplinary study documented protocols and specifics of the Kwakwaka’wakw ts’áts’ayem (eelgrass) harvesting tradition in British Columbia, and how their methods of harvesting affected the remaining plants’ growth. Through interviewing 18 traditional eelgrass harvesters and participating in six harvesting sampling events, I documented the detailed protocols of the Kwakwaka’wakw eelgrass harvesting tradition. Based on the protocols of traditional ts’áts’ayem harvesting, I developed harvesting removal experiments in a dense Z. marina populations on Quadra Island (2005) and at Tsawwassen (2006) to examine the effects that traditional harvesting of eelgrass would have had on a shoot production and rhizome internode volume, within a growing season. At the Quadra site, a June treatment of between approximately 15 and 56% shoot removal corresponded with shoot regeneration above original numbers. An approximate 60% removal corresponded with the highest new shoot production after treatment, indicating the strong capacity of eelgrass meadows to promote new shoots after removal disturbance. Based on fieldwork with traditional knowledge holders, I estimate that traditionally harvesting would have been between 10-30% removal within areas the size of the experimental plots. Shoot regeneration, net shoot production and rhizome production results at the Quadra site supported the theory that a light amount of harvesting removal such that was conducted by Kwakwaka’wakw harvesters would have been within a level for full regeneration, and possibly even enhanced shoot population and rhizome production (measured by internode volume). Tsawwassen experiment treatment was applied too late in the season to show an effect of harvest, but the design provided efficient methodology for future experiments. Ecology literature substantiated many of the traditional eelgrass protocols documented in this study, strongly supporting the theory that eelgrass harvesting was a sustainable practice. Scientific literature about pollution also corroborated and explained the observations of elders on the state of today’s eelgrass: few locations yielded ts’áts’ayem fit to eat, as specimens were small, had heavy epiphytic growth and dark rhizomes that Kwakwaka’wakw consultants had not seen in their youth. The combination of traditional ecological knowledge and scientific inquiry holds much potential for providing a better understanding of eelgrass ecology and dynamics, and for defining concepts of sustainability and conservation of this important resource. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ii Table of Contents iv Abstract iii List of Figures vi List of Tables vii List of Appendices vii Preface viii Acknowledgments xi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Thesis objectives 1 1.2 Traditional Ecological Knowledge 2 1.2.1 The left eye of TEK and the right eye of science 3 1.3 An Introduction to Eelgrass ( Zostera marina L.; Zosteraceae) 4 1.4 Humans and Eelgras s 9 1.5 Current context: the decline of Eelgrass 22 1.6 Chapter 1 conclusions 24 Chapter 2 Traditional Ecological Knowledge of ts’áts’ayem 25 2.1 The Kwakwaka’wakw 25 2.1.1 Hunting, gathering and keeping it living 27 2.2 Ethnoecology objectives 32 2.3 Ethnographic research methods 32 2.4 Results 37 2.4.1 Cultural significance of ts’áts’ayem 41 2.4.2 Keeping the ts’áts’ayem living: Was eelgrass harvested in a way that enhanced its growth? 72 2.4.3 Documenting change: consultants’ observations of today’s ts’áts’ayem 73 2.4.4 Alienation from the ts’áts’ayem meadows 77 2.5 Discussion 79 2.6 Chapter 2 conclusions 87 Chapter 3 Clonal response of Z. marina L. to harvesting disturbance 90 3.1 Introduction 90 3.1.1 Reproduction of Zostera marina L. 90 3.1.2 Three influences on vegetative growth 93 3.1.3 Experimental questions 97 3.2 Methods 97 3.2.1 Site selection 97 3.2.2 Experimental design 99 3.2.3 Statistical analysis 101 3.3 Results 103 3.3.1 Question 1: How do different intensities of harvesting treatment affect shoot regeneration? 104 v 3.3.2 Question 2: How do different intensities of harvesting treatment affect net shoot production-post treatment (net shoots)? 109 3.3.3 Question 3: How do different intensities of harvest affect internode volume? 111 3.4 Discussion 115 3.5 Chapter 3 conclusions 121 Chapter 4 Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Ecology 123 4.1 Objectives 123 4.2 Methods 123 4.3 Results: TEK inferences and scientific rationale 123 4.3.1 Eelgrass as a food 123 4.3.2 Harvesting techniques and sustainability 128 4.3.3 Eelgrass decline 132 4.4 Discussion 134 4.4.1 TEK and ecosystem monitoring 134 4.4.2 The challenge and importance of different worldviews 138 4.4.3 Potential contributions to Restoration 139 4.5 Chapter 4 conclusions 141 Chapter 5 Conclusions 142 5.1 Summary 142 5.2 Recommendations 145 5.3 Ethnoecology of ts’áts’ayem : final thoughts 146 Cited References 148 Appendix A Human Research Ethics Participant letter of information and consent 158 Appendix B Interview Schedule 162 Appendix C Transliteration of Eelgrass accounts by Dr. Daisy Sewid-Smith 163 Appendix D Regression and ANOVA tables for Chapter 3 (Results 3.3) 175 Appendix E Table 0.1 Description of eelgrass harvested 184 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1 Seri eelgrass doll.............................................................................................. 14 Figure 1.2 Herring roe on eelgrass leaves, British Columbia........................................... 17 Figure 2.1 Traditional territories of Kwakwaka’wakw sub-groups................................. 26 Figure 2.2 A living, culturally modified Western red cedar on Nootka Island ................ 29 Figure 2.3 Map of specific ts’áts’ayem sites in this study................................................ 40 Figure 2.4 Adam Dick uses the k’elpaxu .......................................................................... 50 Figure 2.5 Diagram of the k’elpaxu action ...................................................................... 50 Figure 2.6 The results of the k’elpaxu : coils of ts’áts’ayem ............................................ 50 Figure 2.7 Gathering ts’áts’ayem by hand....................................................................... 53 Figure 2.8 Handful of rhizomes gathered by hand at Grassy Point.................................. 53 Figure 2.9 Adam Dick demonstrates how to peel ts’áts’ayem shoots .............................. 56 Figure 2.10 A plate of peeled ts’áts’ayem ready to eat..................................................... 58 Figure 2.11 Boas’ Map 8a of Cormorant Island, including Wa-‘wa >Exts!a : Grassy Point65 Figure 2.12 Diagram showing the compounding factors for the dietary transformation of First Nations in British Columbia since the arrival of Europeans ............................ 84 Figure 3.1 Anatomy of three eelgrass ramets .................................................................. 92 Figure 3.2 Quadra Experiment design. ............................................................................. 99 Figure 3.3 Tsawwassen Experiment design.................................................................... 100 Figure 3.4 Confidence intervals (95%) and means of number of shoots per plot at the Quadra site for the four treatment groups............................................................... 105 Figure 3.5 Confidence Intervals (95%) for number of shoots/plot at the Tsawwassen site for the treatment groups throughout experiment .................................................... 105 Figure 3.6 Scatterplot and quadratic regression for Quadra shoot regeneration vs. percent removal (treatment)................................................................................................. 108 Figure 3.7 Scatterplot and quadratic regression for Quadra Net shoots (net shoot production post-treatment) vs. Percent removal (treatment) .................................. 109 Figure 3.8 Scatterplot and quadratic regression for Quadra Net shoots (net shoot production post-treatment) vs. Initial post-treatment density (June 13)................. 110 Figure 3.9 Boxplots for net shoots at Tsawwassen site (September 6 – July 24) in the two transects: A) deeper, and B) shallower ..................................................................
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