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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Lunfardo and Gendered Discourse: Creation and Analysis of a Linguistic Corpus of Tango Lyrics Elaine Newton-Bruzza Ph.D. in Hispanic Studies School of Literatures, Languages and Cultures 2020 Declaration This is to certify that the work contained within has been composed by me and is entirely my own work except where explicitly stated otherwise in the text by reference. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Signed: __________________________________ Elaine Newton-Bruzza 2 Abstract This thesis explores the question of how language is used to construct gender in tango lyrics, and it specifically examines lunfardo cultural markers and explores the ways in which these contribute to gendered discourse in the texts. The purpose of this research is twofold: (1) to create the first ever linguistic corpus of tango lyrics, thereby generating a resource that will stimulate further investigation into this topic, and (2) to analyze the relationship between specific gender-related lunfardo terms and discourse prosodies as identified via a corpus linguistics-based analysis of the texts. The linguistic variety lunfardo has been intrinsically linked with tango from its inception and constitutes the distinctive linguistic feature of the texts. This interdisciplinary study investigates how the use of lunfardo vocabulary provides a type of linguistic scaffolding upon which the cultural construction of gender is erected in tango lyrics. Through the creation of the first linguistic corpus of tango lyrics utilizing Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff and Rychlý) and the analysis of selected terms and their collocates, gendered discourse prosodies are identified in the lyrics and quantified. The data from this research establishes that the effects of linguistic variety (i.e. lunfardo and standard Spanish) and gendered terms in the corpus have a statistically significant impact on the creation of discourse prosodies, and reveals unforeseen ways in which lunfardo is preeminent in the construction of gendered discourse in tango lyrics. This thesis then employs a data-driven approach to facilitate and strengthen an analysis of pragmatic and rhetorical elements in representative lyrics through close readings of those texts, presenting evidence for the gendered discourses derived from both the collocational relationships and the statistical results. Through this methodology, this research contributes to an understanding of lunfardo’s impact on the construction of gendered discourse, and also to a nuanced understanding of representations of men and women in tango lyrics. By creating this initial Tango Lyrics Corpus, this research purports to incentivize and facilitate the development of a comprehensive linguistic corpus of tango lyrics with the goal of expanding knowledge of this unique cultural form. 3 Lay Summary This thesis explores the question of how language is used to construct gender in tango lyrics, and it specifically examines how a particular vocabulary known as lunfardo contributes to gendered discourse in the texts. The purpose of this research is twofold: (1) to create the first ever linguistic corpus of tango lyrics, thereby generating a resource that will stimulate further investigation into this topic, and (2) to analyze the relationship between specific gender-related lunfardo terms and gendered themes by means of corpus linguistics-based tools and analysis of the texts. In this first linguistic corpus of tango lyrics and the analysis of selected terms and their surrounding words, gendered semantic prosodies are identified in the lyrics and quantified. I show how the data establishes that linguistic variety (i.e. lunfardo and standard Spanish) and gendered terms in the corpus have a statistically significant impact on the creation of gendered semantic prosodies, and I reveal unforeseen ways in which lunfardo is critical to creating gendered discourse in tango lyrics. Driven by the data results, this thesis then engages in an analysis of linguistic and literary elements in representative lyrics through close readings of those texts. Through this mixed-methodological approach, this research contributes to an understanding of lunfardo’s impact on the construction of gendered discourse, and also to a nuanced understanding of representations of men and women in tango lyrics. By creating this initial Tango Lyrics Corpus, this research constitutes the preliminary step in the development of a comprehensive linguistic corpus of tango lyrics, having the goal of expanding knowledge of this unique cultural form. 4 Acknowledgements I am immensely grateful to both of my supervisors, Dr. Iona Macintyre and Dr. Fiona J. Mackintosh for their incredible support and unwavering faith in me during this Ph.D. They truly went above and beyond in their encouragement for my work and my personal well-being and I will be forever thankful for this. My gratitude also goes to Dr. Sebnam Susam-Saraeva, Dr. Carlos Soler Montes, Dr. Huw Lewis, and Dr. Michael Ramsammy for their invaluable input, advice, and support, and to the Translation Studies department for giving me opportunities to share my work. Enthusiastic thanks go to Dr. Fang Jackson-Yang and Nikolaus Theodoropoulos from PPLS for pointing me to linear mixed effects models and for getting me oriented with R code. Thanks also to Zander Crook—“Regression is great!”—for his help with my statistics. The folks you meet along the way are the best part of any journey, and I’m grateful for friends both old and new: Barbara, Jennifer (march on!), Raquel, Helena, Charlotte, Clara, Natasha, Charles and our Gaelic clan, Poema de la semana, WOLS (Slàinte mhath!), and Marcela Cinta, whose enthusiasm for my desire to become a translator started me down this amazing path all those years ago. I also thank my friend and life coach, Isabelle Brent, and my trainer, Lynne Pearson, who kept me going and toughened me up throughout. Quiero agradecer a la Academia Porteña del Lunfardo—sobre todo a su presidente Otilia Da Veiga y a su bibliotecario piola Marcos Blum. Ellos me aportaron un apoyo invaluable para mi investigación, inclusive todas las charlas agradables y consultas con Otilia, además del mate cocido que me preparaba Marcos para calentar las horas de trabajo y el corazón. También agradezco muchísimo a Oscar Conde por su generosidad en compartir su obra y sus pensamientos conmigo. Finally, my love and thanks to my family— Mom, Dad, Alicia, Allen, Josh, and Llamile y mi familia argentina—thank you for your encouragement, patience, and support while I went off half way ‘round the world chasing dreams. Especial gratitude is due to my children, Yamile and Matías Bruzza, for their unswerving love and belief in their mom—your faith in me has made it possible to realize this incredible dream. You are my inspiration and my reason for being. 5 Table of Contents ABSTRACT 3 LAY SUMMARY 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5 LIST OF TABLES 12 LIST OF FIGURES 14 NOTES 15 INTRODUCTION 17 RATIONALE 17 THESIS STATEMENT 21 CHAPTER ONE. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND THESIS STRUCTURE 25 1.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 25 1.1.1 CULTURAL MARKERS 25 1.1.2 SOCIOLINGUISTICS 28 1.1.3 GENDER IN TANGO LYRICS 32 1.2 CORPUS AND METHODOLOGY 51 1.3 THESIS STRUCTURE 59 1.4 CONCLUSION 62 CHAPTER TWO. ORIGINS OF TANGO 63 2.1 INTRODUCTION 63 2.2 HISTORY OF THE RIVER PLATE ZONE 65 2.3 AFRO-DESCENDANTS: CANDOMBE, COMPARSA, AND PAYADA 66 2.4 GAUCHOS AND PAYADORES 74 2.5 IMMIGRATION AND TANGO 82 2.6 WOMEN AND MEN IN THE TANGO MILIEU 93 2.7 CONCLUSION 106 CHAPTER THREE. WORDS AND LANGUAGE OF TANGO 107 3.1 INTRODUCTION 107 3.2 EVOLUTION OF TANGO LYRICS 110 3.2.1 EARLY POPULAR SONGS 110 3.2.2 CANDOMBE AND COMPARSA 115 3.2.3 PAYADAS 116 3.2.4 THE THEATER 119 3.2.5 PROTO-TANGO, TEXTOS ERÓTICOS, AND TANGO PROSTIBULARIO 123 3.2.6 LITERARY INFLUENCES 132 3.3 LUNFARDO 136 6 3.3.1 HISTORY 136 3.3.2 ETYMOLOGY AND CREATION OF LUNFARDO TERMS 148 3.4 CONCLUSION 172 CHAPTER FOUR. STATISTICAL RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 175 4.1 INTRODUCTION 175 4.2 METHODOLOGY 175 4.2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE TANGO LYRICS CORPUS 175 4.2.2 SELECTION OF TERMS FOR STUDY 177 4.2.3 USING SKETCH ENGINE TO EXTRACT DISCOURSE PROSODIES 181 4.2.4 DISCOURSE PROSODIES 189 4.3 DISCUSSION 191 4.3.1 TERMS AND THEIR FREQUENCIES 191 4.3.2 DISCOURSE PROSODIES AND AFFECT 197 4.3.3 LINEAR MIXED EFFECTS MODEL 208 4.3.4 STATISTICAL RESULTS 213 4.3.5 PREDICTING THE DISCOURSE PROSODIES 216 4.4 CONCLUSION 234 CHAPTER FIVE. REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN CATEGORY A, AMOR Y DESAMOR: “SE CORTÓ LA REDOBLONA” 235 5.1 INTRODUCTION 235 5.2 DISCOURSE PROSODIES IN CATEGORY A: AMOR Y DESAMOR 238 5.2.1 POWER IN CATEGORY A 238 5.2.2 AMBITION IN CATEGORY A 242 5.2.3 ABANDONMENT IN CATEGORY A 245 5.3 “SE CORTÓ LA REDOBLONA” 257 5.4 CONCLUSION 270 CHAPTER SIX. REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN CATEGORY P, PERSONAJES: “DESDE PIBA” AND “PRIMER AGUA” 273 6.1 INTRODUCTION 273 6.2 DISCOURSE PROSODIES IN CATEGORY P: PERSONAJES 273 6.2.1 ABANDONMENT, AVARICE, AND AMBITION IN CATEGORY P 274 6.2.2 GOODNESS, BADNESS, AND IRONY IN CATEGORY P 280 6.3 “PRIMER AGUA” 295 6.4 “DESDE PIBA” 306 6.5 CONCLUSION 317 CHAPTER SEVEN.