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Indigenous Nationalism in the American South, 1820-1877

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Indigenous Nationalism in the American South, 1820-1877 UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE ROBERT M. JONES AND THE CHOCTAW NATION: INDIGENOUS NATIONALISM IN THE AMERICAN SOUTH, 1820-1877 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By JEFFREY LEE FORTNEY, JR. Norman, Oklahoma 2014 ROBERT M. JONES AND THE CHOCTAW NATION: INDIGENOUS NATIONALISM IN THE AMERICAN SOUTH, 1820-1877 A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY _______________________ Dr. Fay A. Yarbrough, Chair _______________________ Dr. Joshua Piker _______________________ Dr. R. Warren Metcalf _______________________ Dr. Cathy Kelly _______________________ Dr. Robert Rundstrom © Copyright by JEFFREY LEE FORTNEY, JR. 2014 All Rights Reserved. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank those people whose advice, encouragement, support, and, frankly, unwarranted confidence along the way made this project possible. At several points in this process, I wished for a Rocky-style montage in which chapters would come together and arguments would appear within a three minute span. No matter how many times I listened to “Eye of the Tiger” or went jogging up stairs, this project refused to complete itself. Without assistance from the following people, I would still be longing for the montage to start. As a confused, bright-eyed student at a community college, Jennifer O’Loughlin Brooks planted in my head the absurd notion that I could do something beyond a bachelor’s degree. Her persistence and faith inspired me to seek an advanced degree. While at University of North Texas, Randolph “Mike” Campbell served as a fantastic mentor inside and outside of classrooms. His dedication to his students and comedic irreverence showed me that it is possible and necessary to insert my personality into both teaching and writing. Harland Hagler was kind enough to serve as advisor for my thesis project. Each of these people imparted their passion to me, which helped get me to this stage. I would like to thank several faculty members at the University of Oklahoma for countless hours of assistance and faith in this project. My committee offered an ideal assortment of strengths and complimentary personalities that greatly contributed to this project’s completion. Fay Yarbrough’s deep knowledge of Southern history and shared interest in Native American history made her the ideal advisor for this project. For several years, she also tolerated my quirks, including many panicked moments, and my iv often crass sense of humor. I have missed our impromptu chats since she moved to Rice University, but appreciate her willingness to advise me from long distance. I could not have asked for a better mentor. Josh Piker has a unique ability to impart constructive criticism in a manner that inspires deeper thought and a desire to work harder. His guidance in multiple seminar discussions and on one-on-one conversations led me to ask important questions and seek difficult answers. Cathy Kelly’s ability to ask pertinent, thought-provoking questions on issues that escaped my purview are very much appreciated. Warren Metcalf’s feedback has led me to more closely examine the human nature of my subjects and find my story. Robert Runstrum’s unique perspective and willingness to help on geographic elements of this project are much appreciated. Along the way, David Wrobel and Terry Rugeley regularly offered sage advice. I hope this final product and future works in some way does justice to these individuals’ investment in me over the past few years. Of course, this dissertation would not have been possible without generous financial aid from research grants and fellowships. The Anne Hodges and Wayne Morgan Fellowship provided substantial funding for this project. As the late Wayne Morgan told me, “we all love having you here, but get this thing done and move on to the next step.” I hope he would agree that I have done just that. The Robberson Research and Creative Endeavors Grant allowed me to explore the Ayers Collection at the Newberry Library in Chicago. Finally, the American Philosophical Society awarded me a grant from the Phillips Fund for Native American Research, allowing me to examine sources at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.; the Gilcrease Museum in Tulsa, Oklahoma; and the Filson Historical Society in Louisville, Kentucky. v I greatly appreciate the patient assistance that the staff at these various archives provided me throughout my research endeavors Friends and family have also been pillars throughout this process. I never had to explain why I was leaving a stable career during the “great recession” to pursue this path. Instead, my parents told me to take pride in hard work and find satisfaction in doing something worthwhile. Bryan and Bridget Rindfleisch have always been willing to grab a beer and escape this project or to let me bounce ideas off them. Bryan’s work ethic continues to inspire me. Doug Miller and Exa von Alt who, among other things, witnessed me watching the 49ers/Saints playoff game and continue to speak to me despite my passionate outbursts. Matt Pearce, Julie Stidolph, Emily Wardrop, Brandi Hilton-Hagemann, and Dustin Mack have all made this graduate school process and Norman, Oklahoma entertaining. I especially appreciated our “research trips” to Chigley mansion. Outside of academia, Mani Afsari, Matt Murray, Bobby Collins, and Anthony and Rachel Salas have always found the right words of support for me to get this project done. Finally, my biggest gratitude goes to my wife, Rowan. She has never once complained that this project has been the topic of countless dinner conversations. Quite the opposite, she insisted on reading drafts, offered creative ideas, worked by my side on late nights, and challenged each of my conclusions. I’d dare say that we are the only married couple who has ever fought over the identity of Robert M. Jones. Every moment of doubt was met with her unwavering faith. Each victory has been made sweeter and each defeat softened because it has been with her by my side. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….iv Abstract………………………………………………………………………………..viii Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...1 Chapter 1: “Let Us Never Despair”: Choctaws in the Age of Removal…………….…20 Chapter 2: “Ignorance Is Our Greatest Enemy”: Choctaw National Schools………….68 Chapter 3: “Rise To Eminence”: Exchange and Exploitation in a Rich Indian Nation………………………………………………………………..114 Chapter 4: “The Indian Politick”: Contested Choctaw Nationhood…………………..157 Chapter 5: “Defense of the Nation:” The Choctaw Cause in the American Civil War….……………………………………………………………204 Chapter 6: “Maintain our National Existence”: Internal Factionalism and the Civil War of Reconstruction…………………………..255 Conclusion: “Rose Hill is but a Dream”……………………........................................303 Bibliography:…………………………………………………………………………..311 vii ABSTRACT This project examines the social, political, and economic transformations that shaped Choctaw nationhood following Indian Removal in the 1830s. Specifically, I argue that, unlike the other Five Tribes, the Choctaw Nation formed a more coherent sense of nationalism which included local education, commercial development, and political consensus which allowed them to remain a united people during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Whereas previous historians contend that a Confederate alliance was thrust upon hapless Choctaws who then joined lockstep with the Southern effort out of their shared interest in slavery, this dissertation demonstrates that Choctaws did not simply co-opt the Confederate cause. Rather, they selectively participated based on their own pragmatic national interests. I use the life of Choctaw Robert M. Jones as an interpretative lens to illuminate these various developments in the Choctaw Nation during the broader Civil War era. Jones, the wealthiest slave-owner in Indian Territory, owned six plantations, more than twenty trading stores, and as many as 500 slaves in the antebellum period. Despite his selective embrace of Southern cultural tenets, he remained an ardent Choctaw nationalist throughout his life. His experiences highlight the process of indigenous nation-building that transformed the Choctaw Nation during the broader antebellum and reconstruction eras. With this study, I reveal the importance of Native American agency and political sovereignty to the history of the Civil War west of the Mississippi and the broader narrative of Southern history. viii INTRODUCTION: “What will the rising generation think and say of us? They will say that we were no patriots, a timid, stupid, money loving worshiping set of beings, scarcely deserving the name of men….Let the Choctaws act like men for once, and not part with their dearest right for filthy money, that white man’s God, and if the US will force us into measures be it so. And let it be handed down in history to future generations, and prove that the Choctaws are true men, and prefer to live and die in poverty, but cannot be bought.” --Robert M. Jones to Peter Pitchlynn regarding the proposed sale of Choctaw lands, August 1, 18551 “No culture…retains its identity in isolation; identity is attained in contact, in contrast, in breakthrough” --Carlos Fuentes2 This dissertation began as an exploration of an anomalous person and morphed into a new understanding of indigenous national development and identity. During the nineteenth century, Choctaw millionaire Robert M. Jones became one of the richest men in the American Southwest. After attending the Choctaw Academy in the late 1820s under the direction of Richard M. Johnson, the future vice president and self-proclaimed Tecumseh killer, Jones and his Choctaw brethren relocated to Indian Territory as part of federal Indian removal. Between the 1830s and the 1860s, he acquired between four and seven plantations, as many as 500 African slaves, multiple mansions, and a fleet of steamships which transported his cotton to markets throughout the United States. Other than these notable facts, historians know very little about Jones. While his name has appeared in nearly every iteration of Choctaw and Five Tribes history as a brief 1 Robert M.
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