Renaissance From , the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the European of the 14th –17th centuries. For the earlier European Renaissance, see Renaissance of the 12th century . For other uses, see Renaissance (disambiguation) .

David , by Michelangelo (Accademia di Belle Arti , Florence , ) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art. The Renaissance (UK : /r ɪˈneɪsəns/ , US : /rɛnəˈsɑːns/ )[1] is a period in European history , covering the span between the 14th and 17th centuries. It is an extension of the ,[2] and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to modern history . It grew in fragments, with the very first traces found seemingly in Italy , coming to cover much of Europe, for some schola rs marking the beginning of the modern age . The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own invented version of humanism , derived from the concept of Roman Humanitas and the rediscovery of classical Greek , such as that of Protagoras , who said that "Man is the measure of all things." This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, and literature. Early examples were the development of in and the recycled of how to make concrete . Although the invention of metal sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe: the very first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings of Dante and the paintings of Giotto . As a , the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of and literatures, beginning with the 14th -century resurg ence of learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited to Petrarch ; the development of linear perspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting ; and gradual but widespread educational reform . In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy , and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning . Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as and Michelangelo , who inspired the term "Renaissance man". [3][4] The Renaissance began in Florence , Italy, in the 14th century. [5] Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteri stics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time: its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici ;[6] [7] and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks .[8][9][10] Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as , Genoa , Milan , Bologna , and finally during the Renaissance Papacy . The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography , and, in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations , there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th- century glorification of the "Renaissance" and individual culture heroes as "Renaissance men", questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation. [11] The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of "Renaissance": It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of the has been most vigorously questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of civilization—historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science—but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art. [12] Some observers have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity ,[13] while social and economic historians, especially of the longue durée , have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras, [14] which are linked, as Panofsky observed, "by a thousand ties". [15] The Renaissance , literally meaning "Rebirth" in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. [16] The word also occurs in Jules Michelet 's 1855 work, Histoire de France . The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century .[17] The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the . Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art. [18] Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe's monastic libraries the Latin literary, historical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity , while the Fall of Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of émigré Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek , many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century , who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural , philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Portrait of a Young Woman (c. 1480-85) ( Simonetta Vespucci ) by Sandro Botticelli In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists did not reject ; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and the Church patronized many works of . However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. [19] In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus , would help pave the way for the Protestant . Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano , Florentine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the human form realistically, developing techniques to render perspective and light more naturally. Political philosophers , most famously Niccolò Machiavelli , sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text "De hominis dignitate" (Oration on the Dignity of Man , 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular languages; combined with the introduction of , this would allow many more people access to , especially the Bible. [20] In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark ,[21] play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city-states in the High Middle Ages , which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism . This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and ) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution that preceded and financed the Renaissance.

Origins Main article: Italian Renaissance

View of Florence , birthplace of the Renaissance Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th- century Florence , in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) and Petrarch (1304–1374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337). Some date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won). [22] Others see more general competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello , and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades , increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice. [23] Jules Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. [24] Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism See also: Transmission of the Greek Classics In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages , when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, [25] Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such as Petrarch , Coluccio Salutati (1331– 1406), Niccolò de' Niccoli (1364–1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero , Lucretius , Livy and Seneca .[26] By the early 15th century, the bulk of the surviving such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts. [27] Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in ), but Greek literary, oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides ) were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant . Their and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Iberia and Sicily , which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. From the 11th to the 13th century, many schools dedicated to the translation of philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic to were established in Iberia. Most notably the Toledo School of Translators . This work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history. [28] This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras (c.1355–1415) to teach Greek in Florence. [29] This legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek scholars, from Basilios Bessarion to Leo Allatius . Social and political structures in Italy

A political map of the Italian Peninsula circa 1494 The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the at the center, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth-century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe. [30] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland. [31] Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114– 1158), a German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti- monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338–1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty such as the Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time". [32] Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics , especially the Republic of Venice . Although in practice these were oligarchical , and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy , they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty. [33][34][35] The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. [36] Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant . Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass , while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study. [36] Black Death/Plague One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation in Florence caused by the Black Death , which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th- century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife .[37] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art. [38] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors. [11] The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most favorable position economically. [39] The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400. [40] Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives. The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases, such as typhus and syphilis, target the immune system, leaving young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy. [41] The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government. [42] Cultural conditions in Florence

Lorenzo de' Medici , ruler of Florence and patron of arts (Portrait by Girolamo Macchietti ) It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence , and not elsewhere in Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici , a banking family and later ducal ruling house , in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission works from the leading artists of Florence, including Leonardo da Vinci , Sandro Botticelli , and Michelangelo Buonarroti .[6] Works by Neri di Bicci , Botticelli, da Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned additionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the Augustinians order in Florence. [43] The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo de' Medici came to power – indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men " were born there by chance: [44] Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany . Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time. [45]

Characteristics Humanism Main article: Renaissance humanism

Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous Oration on the Dignity of Man , which has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance". [46] In some ways humanism was not a philosophy but a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence . Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis', the study of five humanities: poetry , grammar , history , moral philosophy and rhetoric . Although historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome". [47] Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind". [48] Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandola wrote the "manifesto" of the Renaissance, the Oration on the Dignity of Man , a vibrant defence of thinking. Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile ("On Civic Life"; printed 1528), which advocated civic humanism , and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially Cicero , who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also . Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita , but an earlier work, Della vita civile (On Civic Life), is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest. The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation. [49] This ideology was referred to as the uomo universale , an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. Education during the Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human behavior. Humanism and Libraries A unique characteristic of some Renaissance libraries is that they were open to the public. These libraries were places where ideas were exchanged and where scholarship and reading were considered both pleasurable and beneficial to the mind and soul. As freethinking was a hallmark of the age, many libraries contained a wide range of writers. Classical texts could be found alongside humanist writings. These informal associations of intellectuals profoundly influenced Renaissance culture. Some of the richest "bibliophiles" built libraries as temples to books and knowledge. A number of libraries appeared as manifestations of immense wealth joined with a love of books. In some cases, cultivated library builders were also committed to offering others the opportunity to use their collections. Prominent aristocrats and princes of the Church created great libraries for the use of their courts, called "court libraries", and were housed in lavishly designed monumental buildings decorated with ornate woodwork, and the walls adorned with frescoes (Murray, Stuart A.P.) Art Main articles: Renaissance art , Renaissance painting , and See also: Islamic influences on Western art

The tomb of Michelangelo in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337) is credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique. [50] The development of perspective was part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts. [51] Painters developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case of Leonardo da Vinci , human anatomy . Underlying these changes in artistic method was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics , with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and representing artistic pinnacles that were much imitated by other artists. [52] Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli , working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello , another Florentine, and in Venice, among others.

Leonardo da Vinci 's Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) demonstrates the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in Vitruvius ' De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man. In the Netherlands , a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed. The work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck was particularly influential on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation (see Renaissance in the Netherlands ). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life. [53] In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics , Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emulated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathedral .[54] Another building demonstrating this style is the church of St. Andrew in Mantua , built by Alberti. The outstanding architectural work of the was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica , combining the skills of Bramante , Michelangelo , Raphael , Sangallo and Maderno . During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters . One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi. [55] Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault, which is frequently rectangular. Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they admired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220–c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His Annunciation , from the Baptistry at Pisa , demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary movement [56] Science Main articles: in the Renaissance and Renaissance

Portrait of Luca Pacioli , father of accounting, painted by Jacopo de' Barbari , 1495, ( Museo di Capodimonte ).

1543' Vesalius ' studies inspired interest in human anatomy .

Galileo Galilei . Portrait in ink by Renaissance sculptor Leone Leoni The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of more widely distributed ideas. In the first period of the Italian Renaissance , humanists favoured the study of humanities over natural philosophy or applied mathematics , and their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Writing around 1450, Nicholas Cusanus anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Copernicus , but in a philosophical fashion. Science and art were intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Da Vinci set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the "father of modern science". [57] Other examples of Da Vinci's contribution during this period include machines designed to saw marbles and lift monoliths and new discoveries in acoustics, botany, geology, anatomy and mechanics. [58] A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the New World by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and Galen (in ) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). [59] The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements. Some view this as a " ", heralding the beginning of the modern age, [60] others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day. [61] Significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei , Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler .[62] Copernicus, in De Revolutionibus , posited that the Earth moved around the Sun. De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body ), by Andreas Vesalius , gave a new confidence to the role of dissection , observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy. [63] Another important development was in the process for discovery, the scientific method ,[63] focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics , while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon .[64][65] The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy , physics , biology , and anatomy .[66][67] Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century Luca Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping , making him the founder of accounting .[68] Music Main article: From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco-Flemish school. The development of printing made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. Demand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons , motets , and masses throughout Europe coincided with the unification of polyphonic practice into the fluid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina , Lassus , Victoria and William Byrd . Religion Main articles: Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Alexander VI , a Borgia Pope infamous for his corruption The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance . Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church .[19] However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology , particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and God. [19] Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, including Erasmus , Zwingli , Thomas More , Martin Luther , and John Calvin .

Adoration of the Magi and Solomon adored by the Queen of Sheba from the Farnese Hours by Giulio Clovio marks the end of the Italian Renaissance of illuminated manuscript together with the Index Librorum Prohibitorum . The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy , culminating in the Western Schism , in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome .[69] While the schism was resolved by the Council of Constance (1414), a resulting reform movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI , who was accused variously of simony , nepotism and fathering four children (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a cardinal. [70] Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament .[19] In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses , challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences .[note 1] The 95 Theses led to the Reformation , a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe . Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts. Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (1534–1549) after the sack of Rome in 1527 , with uncertainties prevalent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal) , who had paintings by Titian , Michelangelo , and Raphael , as well as an important collection of drawings, and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio , arguably the last major illuminated manuscript , the Farnese Hours . Self-awareness

Leonardo Bruni

• By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in Italy were well aware of the transformations that were taking place and were using phrases such as modi antichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (ancient) Home • Share Your Knowledge • Content Quality Guidelines • Disclaimer • Privacy Policy • Contact Us Renaissance in Europe: Meaning, Causes and Results of Renaissance

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Putting an end to the medieval age, the Renaissance blew the trumpet of modem age. In the fifteenth century A.D. people of Europe developed interest for the literature, art, architecture, painting and and Rome.

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The beacon light of Renaissance which first appeared in Italy travelled to other countries of Europe in due course of time. The expanded horizon of human knowledge was reflected in various fields including art, literature and science.

Image Source: letmeknow.in/images/Renaissance_logo.jpg Meaning of Renaissance: ‘Renaissance’ means ‘Rebirth’ or ‘New Birth’. Analysed from the point of history, ‘Renaissance’ means the love, eagerness and interest which were shown towards the art and literature of Greece and Rome in the fifteenth century A.D. In medieval times, the Church regulated education and cast its influence upon the society. When human mind wanted to be free from that bandage and welcomed new light. Renaissance took place.

Causes of Renaissance:

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There were many causes behind ‘Renaissance’. The fall of Constantinople was its main cause. It was the centre of learning. Although, it was under the clutches of the Christians, many Greek scholars were living there. They became famous by teaching and literature to the people.

In 1453 A.D., Muhammad II of Ottoman Empire occupied Constantinople and devasted it. Out of fear, the Greek intellectuals left Constantinople and entered into different cities of Italy like Venetia, Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Rome etc. They taught mathematics, history, geography, philosophy, astronomy, medicine etc. to the people of Italy. This gave birth to Renaissance.

Secondly, the invention of printing machine was responsible for Renaissance. In 145 A.D. John Gutenberg of Germany invented printing machine and letters and printed . William Caxton brought this machine to England in 1477 A.D. With the march of time, printing machines were established in Italy, France, Belgium and other European countries. Thus, books could be published very easily with a short span of time. People could easily get books for study and learnt many things. This galvanised Renaissance.

Thirdly, many kings, nobles and merchants encouraged new literature and art. Francis I, the ruler of France, Henry VIII, the king of England, Charles V of Spain, Sigismund I, the king of Poland invited many persons having new ideas to their courts and patronised them. Loronjo-de- Medicci, the ruler of Florence invited many artists to his court and decorated his palace with new paintings. The progressive idea of these rulers galvanised Renaissance.

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Finally, the men with new thoughts paved the way for Renaissance. They advised not to accept anything blindly which is not proved properly. Peter Abelard of the University of Paris inspired his contemporaries to create enthusiasm among themselves for research. He advised his students not to accept any doctrine blindly as God’s version.

They should accept anything if it is convinced by reason. His book ‘Yes and No’ inspired the youths as it revealed the defects of church system. He was compelled by Christian Priests to withdraw his view and he did it.

Another wiseman of the time was Roger Bacon of Oxford University who said that nothing should be accepted without proper experiment and observation. He had to spend some years in the Church prison because of his radical view. Thus, these persons with new ideas paved the way for Renaissance.

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Results of Renaissance: The results of the Renaissance were far reaching. This gave birth to new literature, art and science.

Literature: The had its birth in Italy. The first notable creation in this direction was Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy’. This book was written in and it was meant for the common people. In the book he describes about the heaven, hell and the other world. It introduced new themes like love of one’s country, love of nature as well as the role of individual. Another pioneer of Renaissance thought was Francesco Petrarch. The medieval thought was monastic, ascetic and other worldly. In contrast, Petrarch glorified the secular or Worldly interests of life and humanism through his ‘Sonnet’, a form of poetry. His notable works were ‘Familiar Letters’ and ‘Lovers of Illustrious Man’. Another great writer of Italy during that period was Boccaccio.

In his world famous book ‘Decameron’ (Ten Days), he denounced God which brought a revolutionaiy change in the Christian World. The famous philosopher of Italy was Machiavelli who in his famous book ‘The Prince’ described the principle of the ‘Lion and the Fox’. Aristo’s ‘Orlandofuriso’ and Tasso’s ‘Jerusalem Delivered’ were two other great works for the Italian literature.

In other countries of Europe different kind of humanism spread in Renaissance period. In England Thomas Moore’s ‘Utopia’, Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’ and ‘Paradise Regained’ were very famous which were created during this period. During Renaissance, William Shakespeare, the great playwright of England became famous for his plays like ‘Julius Caesar’, ‘Othello’, ‘Macbeth’, ‘As you Like it’, ‘Romeo and Juliet’, ‘Hamlet’, ‘Merchants of Venice’, ‘King Lear’, ‘Mid- summer Night’s Dream’, ‘The Tempest’ etc. Christopher Mario of England wrote his famous drama ‘Doctor Frastress’.

During this period, the Spanish writer Cerventis ‘Don Ruixote’ the works of Lope de Vaga and Calderon were very famous. By this time Martin Luther of Germany translated the ‘Bible’ into . The writings of famous Dutchman Desiderious Erasmus like ‘In Praise of Folly’, ‘Handbook of a Christian Soldier’ and ‘Familiar Colloquies’ gave new dimension to the literature. Robelai’s ‘Ganganchua’ and the writings of Racine, Sevigne and La Fontain created ‘Golden Age’ in the French literature. The Portuguese writer Camoen’s ‘Lusaid’ was admired by the people to a great extent.

Art: The bold departure from medieval tradition was nowhere more clearly revealed than in Art of Renaissance period. Before Renaissance, the chief art of the middle age was essentially Christian. Art was intimately associated with religion. The artists used to draw the pictures of monks, bishops and priests and the church had restricted their freedom of thought and action.

One example of such unrealistic representation was of the priests who were carved with long necks to prove that they had easy access to heaven. However, the Renaissance artists and painters developed a growing interest in classical civilisation and accordingly, the European art of fifteenth and sixteenth centuries underwent a great transformation and became more and more secular in spirit.

Architecture: The Architecture of Italy was largely influenced by the spirit of Renaissance. The builders of this time constructed many churches, palaces and massive buildings following the style and pattern of ancient Greece and Rome. The pointed arches of the Churches and Palaces were substituted by round arches, domes or by the plain lines of the Greek temples.

‘Florence’, a city of Italy became the nerve centre of art-world. The ‘St Peter’s Church of Rome’ the ‘Cathedral of Milan’ and the ‘Palaces of Venice and Florence’ were some of the remarkable specimens of Renaissance architecture. In due course of time, Renaissance architecture spread to France and Spain.

Sculpture: Like architecture, Sculpture also underwent a significant change during the Renaissance Period. The famous sculptor of Italy during this period was Lorenzo Ghiberti, who carved the bronze doors of the Church at Florence which was famous for its exquisite beauty. Another Italian Sculptor named Donatello is remembered for his realistic statute of ‘St. George’ and ‘St. Mark’.

As a Sculptor Luca delia Robbia was famous for his classic purity and simplicity of style who had established a school of sculpture in glazed terracotta. Michel Angelo’s huge marble statute of ‘David’ at Florence speaks of his greatness as a Sculptor. He had also made the grand statute of ‘Moses’. He had also completed the construction of ‘Basilica of St. Peter’ at Rome.

Painting: In Painting, the painters of Italy during Renaissance brought excellence and became world famous. Among the painters of the world, ‘Leonardo-da-Vinci’ occupied a unique position. The hidden expression in his paintings made them attractive. Leonardo has become immortal for his famous painting of ‘Monalisa’.

The smile on the lips of Monalisa is so mysterious that it is beyond the comprehension of man. ‘The Holy Supper’, ‘The Virgin of the Rock’ and ‘The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne’ are his other immortal paintings which are appreciated all over the world.

Michael Angelo was a painter, sculptor, architect, poet and engineer in one. His paintings like ‘Creation of Adam’ and the ‘Last Judgment’ bear testimony of his superb skill. He was invited and rewarded by King Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France. His paintings bore the stamp of originality in every aspect.

Another great painter of that time was Raphael. His paintings portray an air of calmness and beauty. His practice Madonna made him world famous painter. The Vatican palace also bears testimony of his paintings.

Titian was the official painter of the city of Venice. His oil painting was very famous. His painting ‘Christ Carrying the Cross’ appeared real and lively.

In due course of time the paintings of Italy became world famous. It entered into Germany and Antwerp. The famous artist of Antwerp was Massy. Another noted German artist was Albert Durer. Among other artists of that period was Holbein of Augusburg.

Fine Arts: During Renaissance, Fine Arts also bloomed. Italy was freed from the clutches of medieval song. The use of Piano and Violin made the song sweeter. Palestrina was a great singer and musician and a composer of new songs. In Churches, old songs were discarded and new songs were incorporated in prayer. Many other countries of Europe also adopted this practice.

Science: In the age of Renaissance, Science developed to a great extent. The development in astrology, medicine and other branches of Science made this age distinct.

The name of Francis Bacon shines like a star in the realm of science. He was a great scientist who advised to explore nature. He advised that truth was to be discerned by experiment. This idea prompted others to regard him as the ‘Father of Modern Science’. While experimenting on the method of preserving food, he breathed his last.

In the realm of scientific discoveries, the name of Copernicus of Poland is chanted with reverence. In his book ‘On the Revolution of the Celestial Bodies’, he opined that Sun is static. The Earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circle. His view was contrary to the medieval belief that the Earth was the centre of the universe. The Christian priests vehemently criticised Copernicus. However, he remind firm in his faith. The view of Copernicus was supported by the famous German Scientist John Kepler. He slightly changed the view of Kepler and opined that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun in ‘elliptical’ rather than ‘circular Path. This created a storm in the field of thinking.

Another great scientist of this age was Galileo of Italy. He had joined as a lecturer of mathematics in the University of Pisa and there he became a professor. He invented Telescope. Through that instrument he proved before his enthusiastic audience that the theory of Copernicus was absolutely true. He further opined and proved that the ‘Milky Way’ consists of stars.

His “Pendulum Theory’ helped later on for inventing clock. For his radical views, he was declared by Pope as ‘Out Caste’. Galelio was compelled to withdraw his view out of fear. However, later on, his views were accepted as true and he became world famous. From the leaning tower of Pisa he also proved that heavy and light objects fall to the ground at the same speed.

A great Scientist of repute of that age was Sir Issac Newton of England. In his famous book ‘Principia’, he stated about the ‘ of Gravitation’. His ‘Theory of Motion’ also made him famous as a great scientist. The ‘Causes of tide’ were also discovered by him.

Progresses also made in the field of Chemistry. Cordus made ‘ether’ from sulphuric acid and alcohol which was another astonishment of Science.

Another Scientist of that time Helmont had discovered ‘Carbon Dioxide’ gas. He explained that there are gases distinct in kind from atmospheric air. Later on, this Carbon Dioxide was used to extinguish fire and to prepare cake and cold drinks.

In case of human anatomy, the Science of the Renaissance period brought revolutionary change. Vesalius, a medical scientist described about various parts of human body like skeleton, cartilage, muscles. Veins, arteries, digestive and reproductive systems, lungs and brain.

William Harvey of England had discovered The ‘Process of blood Circulation’. He pointed out that blood circulates from heart to the arteries and then to veins and back to heart. His contribution was undoubtedly a boon to the modem medical science. Infact, the Renaissance had created humanism in man. It increased the desire in men to know more and more. This Renaissance galvanised the development in the field of literature, art and science. It illumined the world with new Knowledge.

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• Suggest Us and to the Christian period as nova (new). [71] From Petrarch's Italian perspective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse. [71] Leonardo Bruni was the first to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People (1442). [72] Bruni's first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453). Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named for the first time the " Middle Ages ". The term first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle times). [73] The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists , 1550, revised 1568. [74][75] Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue , Giotto , and Arnolfo di Cambio ; the second phase contains Masaccio , Brunelleschi , and Donatello ; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo . It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature. [76]

Spread

Château de Chambord (1519–1547), one of the most famous examples of Renaissance architecture In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the by German printer allowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements. Northern Europe Main article: Northern Renaissance The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance". While Renaissance ideas were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music .[77] The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders , as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the of Gregorian Chant in the 9th century. [77] The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer Palestrina . At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School , which spread northward into Germany around 1600.

Pieter Bruegel 's The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague that devastated medieval Europe. The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer . Later, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries. [78] A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin. [79] The spread of the printing press technology boosted the Renaissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice becoming a world center of printing. England Main article:

"What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!" — from William Shakespeare 's Hamlet . In England, the sixteenth century marked the beginning of the English Renaissance with the work of writers William Shakespeare , Christopher Marlowe , Edmund Spenser , Sir Thomas More , Francis Bacon , Sir Philip Sidney , as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis , John Taverner , and William Byrd . France Main article: The word "Renaissance" is borrowed from the , where it means "re-birth". It was first used in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) in his 1855 work, Histoire de France (History of France). [80][81] In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the inability of the Church to offer assistance against the Black Death . Francis I imported Italian art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci , and built ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais , Pierre de Ronsard , Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne , painters such as Jean Clouet , and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance. In 1533, a fourteen-year-old Caterina de' Medici (1519–1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry II of France , second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her role in France's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet ) to the French court from her native Florence. Germany Main article:

The Arnolfini Portrait , by Jan van Eyck , 1434 In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance spirit spread to Germany and the Low Countries , where the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395–1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410–1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457–1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455–1521) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute. [82] However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (ruling 1493–1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire . Netherlands Main articles: Renaissance in the Netherlands and Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting

Erasmus of Rotterdam in 1523, as depicted by Hans Holbein the Younger Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th century was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges , which made Flanders wealthy. Its nobles commissioned artists who became known across Europe. [83] In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way; in cartography , Gerardus Mercator 's map assisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of Hieronymus Bosch [84] to the everyday life depictions of Pieter Brueghel the Elder .[83] Spain Main article: The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the city of Valencia . Many early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon , including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell . In the Kingdom of Castile , the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such as the Marquis of Santillana , who introduced the new Italian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writers, such as Jorge Manrique , Fernando de Rojas , Juan del Encina , Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega , kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes 's masterpiece Don Quixote is credited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives , grammarian Antonio de Nebrija and natural historian Pedro de Mexía . Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León , Teresa of Ávila and , and treated issues related to the exploration of the New World , with chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and Bartolomé de las Casas , giving rise to a body of work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature . The late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón . Portugal Main article:

São Pedro Papa , 1530-1535, by Grão Vasco Fernandes . A pinnacle piece from when the Portuguese Renaissance had considerable external influence. Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview, [85] stimulating humanist inquiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer headquarters of European exploration , Lisbon flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology, including Pedro Nunes , João de Castro , Abraham Zacuto and Martin Behaim . Cartographers Pedro Reinel , Lopo Homem , Estêvão Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on plants and , soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Carolus Clusius . In architecture, the huge profits of the spice trade financed a sumptuous composite style in the first decades of the 16th century, the Manueline , incorporating maritime elements. [86] The primary painters were Nuno Gonçalves , Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes . In music, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas . In literature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse. Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance , plays by Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusíadas . Travel literature especially flourished: João de Barros , Castanheda , António Galvão , Gaspar Correia , Duarte Barbosa , and Fernão Mendes Pinto , among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press. [85] After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the term New World ,[87] in his letters to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici . The intense international exchange produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda , André de Resende and Damião de Góis , a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I . Diogo and André de Gouveia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More [88] and Dürer to the wider world. [89] There, profits and know-how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age , especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal. Hungary After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared. [90] The Renaissance style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships – not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations – growing in strength from the 14th century. The relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason – exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. Large-scale building schemes provided ample and long term work for the artists, for example, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, the castles of Visegrád, Tata and Várpalota. In Sigismund's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hungary. [91] The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda , helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János , archbishop of Esztergom , one of the founders of Hungarian humanism. [92] During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages . King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it. [93][94] After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples , Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps .[95] The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius .[95] András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana , was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second only in size to the . (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.) [96] In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Heritage. [97] Other important figures of Hungarian Renaissance include Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist), and Master MS (fresco painter). Poland Main article: Renaissance in Poland

Poznań Town Hall rebuilt from the Gothic style by Giovanni Batista di Quadro (1550–1555) An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi . Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518. [98] This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities. [99] The Polish Renaissance lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and was the Golden Age of Polish culture . Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty , the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the Polish– Lithuanian Commonwealth ) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi- national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thanks in part to a century without major wars – aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish Brethren ), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the nobility ( szlachta ) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty . The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of development. The greatest monument of this style in the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in Szczecin . Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways. Their influence was rather limited, however, due to the large distances between Russia and the main European cultural centers and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy . Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy , who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of . In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the , which had been damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th- century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and he produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.

The on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of the royal residence, , within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano as the architect of the first three floors. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small banquet hall of the Russian Tsars , called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario , and shows a more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including the Cathedral of the Archangel , a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery , another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served as an inspiration for the so-called octagon-on-tetragon architectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.

Theotokos and The Child , the late 17th century Russian icon by Karp Zolotaryov , with notably realistic depiction of faces and clothing. Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, an original tradition of stone tented roof architecture developed in Russia. It was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some research terms the style 'Russian Gothic' and compares it with the European Gothic architecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their advanced technology, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye , one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches. [100] By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons , as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov , Simon Ushakov , Gury Nikitin , Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, called parsúna (from "persona" – person), which was transitional style between abstract iconographics and real paintings. In the mid 16th-century Russians adopted printing from Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century. A number of from the European Renaissance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th century. The , which is the world's largest bombard by caliber , is a masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief . Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by the Italians , resulted in the development of vodka , the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the first aqua vitae ("water of life") to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy . The Genoese likely developed this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence , who used an Arab -invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol . A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430. [101] Further countries

• Renaissance in Croatia • Renaissance in Scotland

Historiography Conception

A cover of the Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) first used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break with the barbarities of gothic art : the arts (he held) had fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue (1240–1301) and Giotto (1267–1337) began to reverse this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central to the rebirth of Italian art. [102] However, only in the 19th century did the French word Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self-conscious cultural movement based on revival of Roman models that began in the late-13th century. French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) defined "The Renaissance" in his 1855 work Histoire de France as an entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense. [17] For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a development in science than in art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo ; that is, from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century. [80] Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal Republican , chose to see in its character. [11] A French nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement. [11] The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) in his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period between Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality , which the Middle Ages had stifled. [103] His book was widely read and became influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance .[104] However, Buckhardt has been accused [by whom? ] of setting forth a linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world. [14] More recently, some historians have been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph Starn, of the University of California Berkeley , stated in 1998: "Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in between, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a movement of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in different times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a single, time-bound culture". [14] Debates about progress See also: Continuity thesis

Painting of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre , an event in the French Wars of Religion , by François Dubois There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern age . Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly. [44] In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within as that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues. [105]

— Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy On the other hand, many historians now point out that most of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval period – poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example – seem to have worsened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian politics , the Wars of Religion , the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the " golden age " imagined by certain 19th-century authors, but were concerned by these social maladies. [106] Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages. [74] Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic trend from feudalism towards capitalism , resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts. [107] Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Ages , he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages , destroying much that was important. [13] The Latin language , for instance, had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession .[108] Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed. [109] Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages. [110] Some historians have begun to consider the word Renaissance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive " Dark Ages ", the Middle Ages . Most historians now prefer to use the term " early modern " for this period, a more neutral designation that highlights the period as a transitional one between the Middle Ages and the modern era.[111] Others such as Roger Osborne have come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great innovation. [112]

Other • The term Renaissance has also been used to define periods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century .[113] Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century. [114] Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances", such as the Bengal Renaissance , Tamil Renaissance ,

Literature Network » Literary Periods » Renaissance Literature

Renaissance Literature The Renaissance in Europe was in one sense an awakening from the long slumber of the Dark Ages. What had been a stagnant, even backsliding kind of society re-invested in the promise of material and spiritual gain. There was the sincerely held belief that humanity was making progress towards a noble summit of perfect existence. How this rebirth – for Renaissance literally means rebirth – came to fruition is a matter of debate among historians. What cannot be debated is that humanity took an astounding leap forward after hundreds of years of drift. The fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries in Europe witnessed a deliberate break with feudal modes of living. Aristocratic landowners lost their hegemony over the lower classes, as opportunities for growth and enrichment beckoned from the swelling urban centers. In Italy, for example, educated citizens rediscovered the grace and power of their classical, pagan traditions. Greek and Roman mythologies and served as the inspirational material for a new wave of artistic creation. Intellectuals adopted a line of thought known as “humanism,” in which mankind was believed capable of earthly perfection beyond what had ever been imagined before. The overwhelming spirit of the times was optimism, an unquenchable belief that life was improving for the first time in anyone’s memory. Indeed, the specter of the Dark Ages and the Black Death were still very fresh in people’s minds, and the promise of moving forward and away from such horrors was wholeheartedly welcome. Several threads can be said to tie the entire European Renaissance together across the three centuries which it spanned. The steady rise of nationalism, coupled with the first flourishing of democracy, were traits common to the entire Continent. The first inklings of a middle class began to gain power in the cities, as trade and commerce became full enterprises in their own right. With the fear of contagion a distant bad memory, and people eager to get out of their homes and see more of the world, international and even global trade began to surge forward. Along with products and wealth, ideas also spread from one nation to another. Fashions in Venice soon became the fashions in Paris and eventually London. Speaking of the British Islands, the well-known practice of young privileged men “touring” the continent first began during the Renaissance. The ideas these travelers brought back to their homelands would influence culture, government, literature and fashion for many years thereafter. Until the Renaissance, Britain was regarded as something of a wilderness, lacking culture and refinement. Even the was disdained. The preeminent English philosopher Thomas More published his Utopia in Latin, and a vernacular English translation did appear until decades afterward. The single greatest innovation of the Renaissance era was the printing press, put into service around 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg. Rudimentary presses had existed for a long time, but Gutenberg’s design maximized printing efficiency in a way that changed the world of arts, letters, and ideas forever. His greatest innovation was a means to rapidly produce movable typesets, meaning that new sheets of text could be set in place and printed with far less effort than had previously been the case. The revolutionized printing press allowed for the fast and relatively cheap reproduction of work. Certainly it is no coincidence that literacy rates saw a measurable uptick in the decades following the press’s invention. The religious upheaval known as the Protestant Reformation would not have been possible without the capacity to make many copies of a document quickly and with minimal effort. Martin Luther’s famous “95 Theses” spread like wildfire through Continental Europe thanks to the newfound ease of reproduction. Even more so than easy reproduction, printing changed the whole social economics of reading and learning. No longer was literature a rarefied, privileged domain. The effect of having readily available literature was almost inconceivably profound in its democratization of the written word. Another overlooked aspect of this innovation is the effect that it had on the act of reading. Previously, one document was read aloud to a group of people. In the oral tradition, biblical or humorous stories were memorized and then passed down. Thanks to the sudden increase in printed material, communal reading and the oral tradition gradually gave way to silent, individual reading. At the time, silent reading was considered something of a novelty, and there were even those who looked upon the practice with suspicion. Nevertheless, the image of the individual engaged with the text on a solitary journey of interpretation is a quintessential Renaissance image. Every nation in Western Europe experienced its own incarnation of the Renaissance. In different nations, even different cities within the same nation, the manifestations of Renaissance art and thought were unique. Whereas in one region, architecture might be the most obvious outlet for new creative energies, in other regions literature might take the most prominent position. At every locale, however, the rebirth of passion and creativity had undeniably world-altering effects. Although the Italian Renaissance is most familiar to students, the literary output of Renaissance England rivals anything else of the period. Spanning the years 1500-1660, the English Renaissance produced some of the greatest works of literature the world has known. The spirit of optimism, unlimited potential, and the stoic English character all coalesced to generate literature of the first order. At the same time, England graduated from an overlooked “barbarian” nation to a seat of commercial power and influence. This power naturally translated into a literature that was bold, sweeping, innovative, and trend-setting. Poets experimented with form, and dramatists revived and reinvented the classical traditions of the and Romans. The dominant forms of English literature during the Renaissance were the poem and the drama. Among the many varieties of poetry one might have found in sixteenth century England were the lyric, the elegy, the tragedy, and the pastoral. Near the close of the English Renaissance, John Milton composed his epic Paradise Lost , widely considered the grandest poem in the language. Conventions played a large part in how particular poetic styles were manifested. Expectations about style, subject matter, tone, and even plot details were well-established for each poetic genre. Even the specific occasion demanded a particular form of poetry, and these tried and true conventions were tacitly understood by all. Not infrequently, poetry of the era was intended to be accompanied by music. In any case, the general consensus among critics is that the chief aim of English Renaissance verse was to encapsulate beauty and truth in . English poetry of the period was ostentatious, repetitious, and often betrayed a subtle wit. One attribute that tended to set English letters apart from the Continent was the willingness to intermix different genres into a sort of hodgepodge, experimental affair. This pastiche style is exemplified in Edmund Spenser’s Faerie Queen , a long poem which mingled elements of romance, tragedy, epic and pastoral into an entertaining and still cohesive whole. English court life and the opinions of noble patrons had a profound influence on the direction of the arts. Being close to the king or queen was desirable, but also dangerous. The literature reveals that courtiers were exceedingly clever with their use of language, employing double meanings and sly wit to protect their own interests. The verbal duels one might have overheard in the court naturally found their way into the poetry and drama of the time. The nuanced communication style of Shakespeare’s vivid characters, for example, had its genesis in the court of the English royalty. In the area of drama, no one matched William Shakespeare in terms of variety, profundity, and exquisite use of language. His subject matter ran the gamut, from classical Greco-Roman stories to contemporary tales of unrequited love. Shakespeare is known for his ability to shift between comedy and tragedy, from complex character study to light-hearted farce. He is likewise highly regarded for the exquisite formal structure which all of his plays demonstrate. This goes beyond just acts and scenes, but encompasses the emotional and psychological arc of the action in the drama. More than anyone else, he elevated the English language to a level of sumptuousness that previous generations would not have thought possible. In particular, Shakespeare’s sonnets display a verbal pyrotechnics seldom seen even today, with images layered one on top of another in a kind of sensory collage. Strangely enough, very few details of the playwright’s life are known today. His uncertain biography has led to numerous conspiracy theories, even to the point of questioning whether he was in fact a single person. One of the profound difficulties in ascribing authorship to any piece of literature from so long ago is that copyright, in the modern sense of the term, did not exist. A writer simply did not own his or her own words, an inconceivable state of affairs The theatre in Renaissance England steadily evolved from a village festival attraction to a bona fide cultural institution. During the Middle Ages, troops of vagabond actors would perform morality plays, essentially live-action sermons, to delighted provincial audiences. In 1567, the Red Lion was erected on the outskirts of London, one of the first commercial playhouses. From the very beginning, the theater had its detractors. Locals despised the crowd and the noise that the popular houses attracted, and the pubs and brothels that inevitably cropped up nearby. Many saw the theater as an invitation to laziness, with children abandoning their studies and laborers leaving work to see the plays. Others found the subject matter distasteful and wicked. The Puritans, in particular, aimed their barbs directly at the Elizabethan stage. The intensely conservative offshoot of , the Puritans feared that the cross-dressing and playacting one found at the theater would lead to sexual corruption among the general populace. One of the greatest stumbling blocks for artists and writers during the English Renaissance was the ever-present need to somehow eke a living out of their craft. The system of patronage was one means by which talented and creative individuals sustained themselves. A patron was an independently wealthy noble person who had a taste for the finer things, and lavished money and attention on artists who catered to that taste. In some cases, the patron surrounded themselves with poets and dramatists as a mere pretence. On the other hand, many patrons had a deep and genuine appreciation for artistic creation. From the point of view of the starving artist who reaped the benefits of such generosity, it did not really matter either way. The freedom to pursue one’s craft to the utmost would certainly have been a blessing in sixteenth century England. Original manuscripts which have survived the ravages of time bear witness to the importance of securing the blessings of a wealthy patron. Typically such works are dedicated to the patron who provided the funds for its production. Or, the writer may be seeking the good favor of a patron who has yet to loosen their purse strings. There are even accounts of a single piece of literature being reproduced and dedicated to several potential patrons, a kind of wide net approach that demonstrates the business savvy required of the Renaissance artists. In the majority of cases, artists had to give much of their time to a career in some other more lucrative field and only pursue their craft as a sort of hobby. Four hundred years have done little to change that unfortunate reality. The unbounded optimism and humanist spirit of the Renaissance could not go on forever. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the quest for human perfection had given way to decadence, cynicism, and an introversion which would stifle creativity for a long time to come. In England, the rise of Puritanism, itself an offshoot of , put the brakes on the pursuit of knowledge and aesthetic endeavors. Another factor leading to the end of the English Renaissance was the failure of Queen Elizabeth to produce an heir. All of England adored their Queen, yet she was literally the end of a line. The power vacuum she left behind was immense, and set the stage for shocking violence and intrigue. In a nation fraught with such political uncertainty, the arts invariably suffered a decline. This article is copyrighted © 2011 by Jalic Inc. Do not reprint it without permission. Written by Josh Rahn. Josh holds a Masters degree in English Literature from Morehead State University, and a Masters degree in from the University of Kentucky. Major Writers of the Renaissance Period

• Elizabeth I (1533-1603) • Campion, Thomas (1567-1620) • Donne, John (1572-1631) • Jonson, Ben (1572-1637) • Shakespeare, William (1564-1616) • Marlowe, Christopher (1564-1593) • Milton, John (1608-1674) • Spenser, Edmund (1552-1599) • Sir Philip Sydney (1554-1586) • Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) • Sir Thomas Wyatt the Elder (1503-1542) • Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) • Calvin, John (1509-1564) • Wroth, Mary (ca. 1587- ca. 1651)

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Impact of renaissance on english literature

1. 1. The Renaissance The beginning of the Modern Period A period of transition 2. 2. Major Themes of the Renaissance • Humanism (both secular and religious) – Human potential, human progress, expansion of human knowledge • Secularism-greater emphasis on non-religious values and concerns • Individualism-focus on the unique qualities and abilities of the individual person 3. 3. Background of the Renaissance- High and Late Middle Ages • Increased trade and commercial activity during the High Middle Ages • Urbanization-growth of cities and towns • Commercial and business developments (banking) • Middle class merchant elite developed • Decline in feudalism • A decline in the Church’s hold and control on society and government • Growth in vernacular literature/growing literacy • Rise of universities and the expansion of learning 4. 4. Religious Prose , Instructive Prose , Bible Translation , Drama. ♣Renaissance artists and authors ♣English literary history ♣Beginning of English Renaissance ♣England’s place in the world ♣Investigations about Renaissance ♣Over view of Renaissance ♣What is renaissance? ♣IMPACT of RENAISSANCE on ENGLISH LITERATURE 5. 5. The Coming of the Renaissance • The Renaissance was a flowering of literary, artistic and intellectual development that began in Italy in the fourteenth century. • Renaissance means “Rebirth”/ “Revival” What started the Renaissance • Religious devotion of the Middle Ages gave way to interest in the human being’s place on this earth • Universities introduced a new curriculum. – Humanities: including history, geography, poetry, and languages • Invention of printing made books more available • More writers began using the vernacular 6. 6. Figures of the Renaissance • Mostly Italians • Petrarch, Spenser, Shakespeare (poets) • Leonardo Da Vinci, a painter, sculptor, architect, and scientist Renaissance Man • Da Vinci typifies a Renaissance man—a person of broad education and interests whose curiosity knew no bounds. • A person who encompassed a wide range of interests and abilities. 7. 7. Renaissance: In 1550,the painter George Vasari wrote of a rinascita in his native Florence and in Italy in the 15th century , a ‘rebirth’ .The French 19th century historian Jules Michelet extended this idea of a ‘renaissance’ from the Italian 15th century , the Quattrocento ,to a general cultural renewal in western Europe beginning earlier. Renaissance is sometimes known as the ‘Revival of Learning’ .It can also recall as ‘Death of Medeival Age’ or early beginning of Modern Age. 8. 8. Overview: Def:”The revival of European art and literature under the influence of classical models in the 14th -16th century”. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of early modern age . It is known as a bridge between Middle ages and Modern history . It was a time of great social and cultural change in Europe spanned from 14th -16th century spreading across Europe from its birthplace in Italy . Its influence was felt in literature, art, music, politics, science, religion and other aspect of intellectual inquiry. 9. 9. Change from medieval to renaissance: The change from medieval to renaissance was at first more formal than substantial; literature changed less than art and architecture, although the content of all three remained Christian. Celebrated icons of the . High Renaissance are Michaelangelo ’s gigantic David in Florence, his central design for St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and its Sistine Chapel. In Italy the Renaissance had intellectual origins, drawing on the study of Plato (c.427-348 BC) and his followers. It also found civic expression in the Florence of the Medici and the Rome of Leo X (1513-21). As well as many smaller city-states. 10. 10. Investigations: Contemporary with the renaissance were physical discoveries by Iberians of the West Indies by Christopher Columbus (1492) and of the western sea route to India by Vasco da Gama (1498). Since the Fall of Rome in the 5th century ,historians has found renaissance in the 8th century under Charlemagne,and in the 12th century ,but the 15th century revival of classical models made the Gothic seem deficient .The period betwwen the Fall of Rome and the renaissance was first termed as Middle Age by Neo- Latin writer in1604. 11. 11. England’s place in the world: The Spanish and Protuguese discovery of the New World meant that England was no longer at the end of Europe but at its leading edge.England gained power in in the 16th century.The spring signalled by Mores Utopia (1517) and the verse of Wyatt had been blighted by the disruption of religion in ,its fruition put back forty years. Beginning of English Literature: In 1564,the year of Michaelangelo’s death and Shakespear’s birth the Italian Renaissance was over,but the English Renaissance had hardly begun. 12. 12. By 1579 a renewed cultural confidence was clear in Sir Philip Sidney’s Defence of Poesy;and the achievement of Spencer,Marlowe and Shakespeare followed. English literary history cherishes the poetry of Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) and Henry Howard,Earl of Surrey(1517- 47),and such humanist writings as The Governor(1531) by Thomas Elyot and The School Master (1558) of Roger Ascham,who became tutor to Queen Elizabeth.The achievements of the sixty two years between Utopia and 1579 would include the refoundation of humanist schools,the development of a critical prospectus for english poetry,the establishment of its meter,and the establishment of the first blank verse,some fine lyrics and songs,and the first Elizabethan 13. 13. plays.These preparations eventually led up to that Renaissance man,Sir Philip Sidney.Yet Sidney’s Defence of Poesy(1579) found little praise in English writing to date.The establishment of the Tudor state under Henry VII and Henry VIII and of a national church under Elizabeth I necessitated a consciously national literature,so might english compete with Latin ,Greek,French ,Spanish and Protuguese. It was to late to compete with Latin:as late as 1638,the Puriton John Milton went to Italy to complete his education. By 1579,when English was about to ‘burst out into 14. 14. Du Belly and Ronsard to rival those of Petrarch.English writers had been unlucky under Henry VIII,who beheaded More and Surrey.Wyatt a lover pf Ann Boleyn ,escaped the axe,but his sons rebelled against Mary Tudor and lost his head.Mary burnt many Prostestants as heretics;her father Henry,brother Edward and sister Elizabeth excuted fewer Catholics,including in 1587 Mary Queen of Scots,as Traitors.After 1581 ,Catholicism was considered as treason:Elizabeth also executed four Puritans. 15. 15. The Printing Revolution • Printing Press – allowed new ideas to spread more easily. Spread from China to Middle East to Europe. • Gutenberg: invented a new type of printing press. Used movable type. • Books suddenly within reach of ordinary person. 16. 16. New Perception and Values: The most significant impact of the Renaissance on English Literature was seen in the change of perception of human beings. The wods of Williams, “Now he looked inward into his own soul, seeking the meaning of experience in te- rms of his own free indiduality”.(William:78) The great uprise of secular writings embodied in the poems and sonnets of the Earl of Surrey,Thomas Wyatt and Sidney,Sir Thomas More’s Utopia,John Heywoods Interludes and writings of Thomas 17. 17. Sackville concern with man’s emotion and experiances. So strangely,alas,thy works in me prevail, That in my woes for thee thou art my joy, And in my joys for thee my only annoy. -Sidney’s Astrophel & Stellail Virgil, Plato, Seneca, Terence , Ovid , Petrarch and other great classical masters taught English masters to find the greatest joy . Petrarchan Sonnets are translated by Wyatt and Surrey. …..to heart’s forest he fleeth, Leaving his enterprise with pain and cry.. 18. 18. Classical Elements: Renaissance opened out a great mythical world to English writers.In 1541 Nicholas Udall staged comedy called Ralph Roister Doister modeled on Plautus .Another early comedy was Garmine Gurton’s Needle whose form was borrowed from Latin model. Sonnet was introduced by Wyatt ,and Earl of Surrey from Italian poetry.Among Wyatts,120 surviving poems more than 70 were tranlations from the Latin original.In C.S.Lewis opinion, “Wyatt’s ‘Myne olde dere enmy my forward maister”. 19. 19. Renaissance Artists and Authors: • Leonardo da Vinci (1452) – artist (Mona Lisa, The Last Supper), inventor ( helicopter, weapons, music box, many more), architect, botanist, musician, anatomy, optics, engineering. La Giaconda: The Mona Lisa – Louvre MuseuLa Giaconda: The Mona Lisa – Louvre Museu Helicopter 20. 20. Art-Michelangelo The David –The David – Florence, ItalyFlorence, ItalyThe PietaThe Pieta 21. 21. Italian Genius of Renaissance Writing – Machiavelli: • Machiavelli published a book in 1513, The Prince. Theorized about how a perfect ruler would govern. • Stressed that the end justifies the means. Urged rulers to use whatever means necessary to achieve their goals. 22. 22. Genius Writers of the Northern Renaissance: • William Shakespeare – England. Playwright between 1590-1613. Wrote about the actual human condition of his time. • Cervates – Spain. Novelist. Wrote Don Quixote. 23. 23. The Courtier by Castiglione 1528 • Written in Italian • Treatise on the training of young men in the courtly ideal of a Renaissance gentleman • Stressed the value of education and manners • Influenced social mores and norms during the period 24. 24. Sir Thomas More • Lord Chancellor of England during the reign of Henry VIII- highest political office in England • Lawyer and scholar • Wrote Utopia – explored the idea of a “perfect” society • Eventually executed by Henry VIII for refusing to agree to the king and Parliament’s Act of Supremacy 25. 25. Protestant Reformation: • Selling indulgences - The Church taught that most Christians after death went to purgat ory to suffer a time of punishment for their sins before going to heaven. Indulgences were intended to remit a part of that time. They were granted previous to death by the Church for various good works that came to include monetary offerings. This last be came very controversial because it appeared that the Church was selling the right to avoid all or part of an individual’s time in . 26. 26. Martin Luther • Associated with the Protestant Reformation • Critical of Church corruption and abuses • Sought reform • Wrote the first translation of the Bible in German 27. 27. Elizabethan Poetry • Perfected the sonnet and experimented with other poetic forms • Philip Sidney wrote the first Elizabethan sonnet cycle (a series of sonnets that fit together as a story)— Astrophel an d Stella • Edmund Spenser wrote a long epic, The Faerie Queen, in complex nine-line units now called Spenserian stanzas 28. 28. The Renaissance brought a new way of thinking and living to Europe A new worldview was emerging The medieval Christian worldview was givin g way to a more MODERN (secular and humanistic) view of the world and humanity. Recommended

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HOMEWORK HELP > RENAISSANCE LITERATU RE What were the effects of the Renaissance on English literature?

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JAMEADOWS | CERTIFIED EDUCATOR

The effects of the Renaissance on English literature were an increased emphasis on humanism and individuality, as well as an increased willingness of writers to satirize existing institutions such as the church and state and to write secular rather than religious works. Poetry from the Italian Renaissance such as the sonnets of Petrarch, one of the first humanists, influenced the poetry of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the Earl of Surrey, and Sir Philip Sidney, among others. Wyatt introduced the sonnet into English, and the Earl of Surrey was the first to write in blank verse in English. Sidney and other poets wrote about their experience of love in a way that was individualized and secular, two hallmarks of the Renaissance. The Renaissance, inspired by classical drama by the Greeks and Romans, brought innovation to English drama, which wa s formerly mainly concentrated on mystery plays that were religious in nature. During the Renaissance, drama became secularized. Shakespeare's plays, written during the English Renaissance, are commentaries on the human condition and a reflection of the Re naissance's emphasis on humanism. For example, Hamlet includes the themes of the father-son relationship, of guilt, of women's relationships to men, of mother -son relationships, of madness, and many other themes that define us as humans and that we still w restle with. Other works during the English Renaissance such as More's Utopia were discourses on the components of the ideal society and offered criticism of the current state of England. Writers during this time period were willing to criticize the church and state in search of greater happiness for individuals within the society.

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THANATASSA | CERTIFIED EDUCATOR

The Renaissance had several major effects on English literature.

First, it marked a rediscovery of many classical texts that had been unknown in the Middle Ages. For example, the recovery of Greek novels, and in particular their translation into French by Amyot, led to a certain type of pastoral English novel, exemplifi ed by Lyly's Euphues.

Classical models strongly influenced drama. Seneca's tragedies were models for the Elizabethan and Jacobean genre of revenge tragedy, and Latin versions of Greek New Comedy influenced romantic comedy.

Protestantism, with its emphasi s on reading the Bible in the vernacular, contributed to the growth of vernacular literacy, and thus the audience for literary works in English. FURTHER READING:

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• Science • English • History • Philosophy & Sociology • Earth & Space • Art & Media • Law • Business & Careers • Online Essay Help Impact of Renaissance on Prose, Poetry and Drama You are here: 1. Home 2. English 3. Impact of Renaissance on Prose,… Renaissance and its implications The Revival of Learning denotes, in its broadest sense, the gradual enlightenment of the human mind after the darkness of the Middle Ages. The names Renaissance and Humanism are often applied to the same movement. The term renaissance, which was first used in England, only as late as the nineteenth century, etymologically means “rebirth”. Broadly speaking, the Renaissance implies that re-awakening of learning which came to Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Renaissance was not only English but a European phenomenon, and basically considered, it signaled a thorough substitution of the medieval habits of thought by new attitudes. The dawn of Renaissance came first to Italy and a little later to France. To England it came much later, roughly about the beginning of the sixteenth century. In Italy, the impact of Greek learning was felt after the Turkish conquest of Constantinople the Greek scholars fled and took refuge in Italy carrying with them a vast treasure of ancient in manuscript. The study of this literature fired the soul and imagination of the Italy of that time and created a new kind of intellectual and aesthetic culture quite different from the Middle Ages. Firstly, the renaissance meant the death of the medieval scholasticism which had for long been keeping human thoughts in bondage. The schoolmen got themselves entangled in useless controversies and tried to apply the principles of Aristotelian philosophy to the doctrines of Christianity, thus giving birth to vast literature. Secondly, it signaled a revolt against spiritual authority-the authority of the Pope. The Reformation though not a part of the revival of learning, was yet a companion movement in England. This defiance, of spiritual authority went hand and hand with that of intellectual authority, Renaissance intellectuals distinguished themselves by their flagrant anti- authoritarianism. Thirdly, the Renaissance implied a greater perception of beauty and polish in the Greek and Latin scholars. This beauty and this polish were sought by Renaissance men of letters to be incorporated in their native literature. Further, it meant the birth of a kind of imitative tendency implied in term “classicism”. Lastly, the renaissance marked a change from the theocentric to the homocentric conception of the universe. Human values came to be recognized as permanent values, and they were sought to be enriched and illuminated by the heritage of antiquity. This brought a new kind of Paganism and marked the rise of humanism and also by implication, materialism.

The Impact of Renaissance on Prose, Poetry and Drama Prose The most important prose writers who exhibit well the influence of the Renaissance on English prose are Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, Lyly, Sydney. Erasmus was a Dutchman who, came to Oxford to learn Greek. His chief work was The Praise of Folly which is the English translation of his most important work written in England. Erasmus wrote this work in 1510. Sir Thomas More’s Utopia was the “true prologue to the Renaissance”. It was the first book written by an Englishman which achieved European fame; but it was written in Latin (1516) and only later (1555) was translated into English. The word “utopia” is derived from the Greek word “ou topos” meaning no place. More’s utopia is an imaginary island which is the habitat of ideal republic. By the picture of the ideal state is implied a kind of social criticism of contemporary THE RENAISSANCE - Renaissance Poetry, Renaissance Drama and Prose, Shakespeare, Late Renaissance and 17th Century referat

THE RENAISSANCE

A golden age of English literature commenced in 1485 and lasted until 1660. Malory's Le morte d'Arthur was among the first works to be printed by William Caxton, who introduced the printing press to England in 1476. From that time on, readership was vastly multiplied. The growth of the middle class, the continuing development of trade, the new character and thoroughness of education for laypeople and not only clergy, the centralization of power and of much intellectual life in the court of the Tudor and Stuart monarchs, and the widening horizons of exploration gave a fundamental new impetus and direction to literature. The new literature nevertheless did not fully flourish until the last 20 years of the 1500s, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Literary development in the earlier part of the 16th century was weakened by the diversion of intellectual energies to the polemics of the religious struggle between the Roman Catholic church and the Church of England, a product of the Reformation.

The English part in the European movement known as humanism also belongs to this time. Humanism encouraged greater care in the study of the literature of classical antiquity and reformed education in such a way as to make literary expression of paramount importance for the cultured person. Literary style, in part modeled on that of the ancients, soon became a self- conscious preoccupation of English poets and prose writers. Thus, the richness and metaphorical profusion of style at the end of the century indirectly owed much to the educational force of this movement. The most immediate effect of humanism lay, however, in the dissemination of the cultivated, clear, and sensible attitude of its classically educated adherents, who rejected medieval theological miss teaching and superstition. Of these writers, Sir Thomas More is the most remarkable. His Latin prose narrative Utopia (1516) satirizes the irrationality of inherited assumptions about private property and money and follows Plato in deploring the failure of kings to make use of the wisdom of philosophers. More's book describes a distant nation organized on purely reasonable principles and named Utopia (Greek, “nowhere”).

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The poetry of the earlier part of the 16th century is generally less important, with the exception of the work of John Skelton, which exhibits a curious combination of medieval and Renaissance influences. The two greatest innovators of the new, rich style of Renaissance poetry in the last quarter of the 16th century were Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser.

Sidney, universally recognized as the model Renaissance nobleman, outwardly polished as well as inwardly conscientious, inaugurated the vogue of the sonnet cycle in his Astrophel and Stella (written 1582?; published 1591). In this work, in the elaborate and highly metaphorical style of the earlier Italian sonnet, he celebrated his idealized love for Penelope Devereux, the daughter of Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex. These lyrics profess to see in her an ideal of womanhood that in the Platonic manner leads to a perception of the good, the true, and the beautiful and consequently of the divine. This idealization of the beloved remained a favored motif in much of the poetry and drama of the late 16th century; it had its roots not only in Platonism but also in the Platonic speculations of humanism and in the chivalric idealization of love in medieval romance.

The greatest monument to that idealism, broadened to include all features of the moral life, is Spenser's uncompleted Faerie Queene (Books I-III, 1590; Books IV-VI, 1596), the most famous work of the period. In each of its completed six books it depicts the activities of a hero that point toward the ideal form of a particular virtue, and at the same time it looks forward to the marriage of Arthur, who is a combination of all the virtues, and Gloriana, who is the ideal form of womanhood and the embodiment of Queen Elizabeth. It is entirely typical of the impulse of the Renaissance in England that in this work Spenser tried to create out of the inherited English elements of Arthurian romance and an archaic, partly medieval style a noble epic that would make the national literature the equal of those of ancient Greece and Rome and of Renaissance Italy. His effort in this respect corresponded to the new demands expressed by Sidney in the critical essay The Defence of Poesie, originally Apologie for Poetrie (written 1583?; posthumously published 1595). Spenser's conception of his role no doubt conformed to Sidney's general description of the poet as the inspired voice of God revealing examples of morally perfect actions in an aesthetically ideal world such as mere reality can never provide, and with a graphic and concrete conviction that mere philosophy can never achieve. The poetic and narrative qualities of The Faerie Queene suffer to a degree from the various theoretical requirements that Spenser forced the work to meet.

In a number of other lyrical and narrative works Sidney and Spenser displayed the ornate, somewhat florid, highly figured style characteristic of a great deal of Elizabethan poetic expression; but two other poetic tendencies became visible toward the end of the 16th and in the early part of the 17th centuries. The first tendency is exemplified by the poetry of John Donne and the other so-called metaphysical poets, which carried the metaphorical style to heights of daring complexity and ingenuity. This often-paradoxical style was used for a variety of poetic purposes, ranging from complex emotional attitudes to the simple inducement of admiration for its own virtuosity. Among the most important of Donne's followers, George Herbert is distinguished for his carefully constructed religious lyrics, which strive to express with personal humility the emotions appropriate to all true Christians. Other members of the metaphysical school are Henry Vaughan, a follower of Herbert, and Richard Crashaw, who was influenced by Continental Catholic mysticism. Andrew Marvell wrote metaphysical poetry of great power and fluency, but he also responded to other influences. The involved metaphysical style remained fashionable until late in the 17th century.

The second late Renaissance poetic tendency was in reaction to the sometimes-flamboyant lushness of the Spenserians and to the sometimes-tortuous verbal gymnastics of the metaphysical poets. Best represented by the accomplished poetry of Ben Jonson and his school, it reveals a classically pure and restrained style that had strong influence on late figures such as Robert Herrick and the other Cavalier poets and gave the direction for the poetic development of the succeeding neoclassical period.

The last great poet of the English Renaissance was the Puritan writer John Milton, who, having at his command a thorough classical education and the benefit of the preceding half-century of experimentation in the various schools of English poetry, approached with greater maturity than Spenser the task of writing a great English epic. Although he adhered to Sidney's and Spenser's notions of the inspired role of the poet as the lofty instructor of humanity, he rejected the fantastic and miscellaneous machinery, involving classical mythology and medieval knighthood, of The Faerie Queene in favor of the central Christian and biblical tradition. With grand simplicity and poetic power Milton narrated in Paradise Lost (1667) the machinations of Satan leading to the fall of Adam and Eve from the state of innocence; and he performed the task in such a way as to “justify the ways of God to man” and to express the central Christian truths of freedom, sin, and redemption as he conceived them. His other poems, such as the elegy Lycidas (1637), Paradise Regained (1671), and the classically patterned tragedy Samson Agonistes (1671), similarly reveal astonishing poetic power and grace under the control of a profound mind.

Renaissance Drama and Prose

The poetry of the English Renaissance between 1580 and 1660 was the result of a remarkable outburst of energy. It is, however, the drama of roughly the same period that stands highest in popular estimation. The works of its greatest representative, William Shakespeare, have achieved worldwide renown. In the previous Middle English period there had been, within the church, a gradual broadening of dramatic representation of such doctrinally important events as the angel's announcement of the resurrection to the women at the tomb of Christ. Ultimately, performances of religious drama had become the province of the craft guilds, and the entire Christian story, on of the world to the last judgment, had been reenacted for secular audiences. The Renaissance drama proper rose from this late medieval base by a number of transitional stages ending about 1580. A large number of comedies, tragedies, and examples of intermediate types were produced for London theaters between that year and 1642, when the London theaters were closed by order of the Puritan Parliament. Like so much non-dramatic literature of the Renaissance, most of these plays were written in an elaborate verse style and under the influence of classical examples, but the popular taste, to which drama was especially susceptible, required a flamboyance and sensationalism largely alien to the spirit of Greek and Roman literature. Only the Roman tragedian Lucius Annaeus Seneca could provide a model for the earliest popular tragedy of blood and revenge, The Spanish Tragedy (1589?) of Thomas Kyd. Kyd's skillfully managed, complicated, but sensational plot influenced in turn later, psychologically more sophisticated revenge tragedies, among them Shakespeare's Hamlet. A few years later Christopher Marlowe, in the tragedies Tamburlaine the Great, Part I (1587), and Edward II (1592?), began the tradition of the chronicle play of the fatal deeds of kings and potentates. Marlowe's plays, such as The Tragical History of Dr. Faustus (1588?) and The Jew of Malta (1589?), are remarkable primarily for their daring depictions of world-shattering characters who strive to go beyond the normal human limitations as the Christian medieval ethos had conceived them; these works are written in a poetic style worthy in many ways of comparison to Shakespeare's.

Shakespeare

Elizabethan tragedy and comedy alike reached their true flowering in Shakespeare's works. Beyond his art, his rich style, and his complex plots, all of which surpass by far the work of other Elizabethan dramatists in the same field, and beyond his unrivaled projection of character, Shakespeare's compassionate understanding of the human lot has perpetuated his greatness and made him the representative figure of English literature for the whole world. His comedies, of which perhaps the best are As You Like It (1599?) and Twelfth Night (1600?), depict the endearing as well as the ridiculous sides of human nature. His great tragedies — Hamlet (1601?), Othello (1604?), King Lear (1605?), Macbeth (1606?), and Antony and Cleopatra (1606?) — look deeply into the springs of action in the human soul. His earlier dark tragedies were imitated in style and feeling by the tragedian John Webster in The White Devil (1612) and The Duchess of Malfi (1613-1614). In Shakespeare's last plays, the so-called dramatic romances, including The Tempest (1611?), he sets a mood of quiet acceptance and ultimate reconciliation that was a fitting close for his literary career. These plays, by virtue of their mysterious, exotic atmosphere and their quick, surprising alternations of bad and good fortune, come close also to the tone of the drama of the succeeding age.

Late Renaissance and 17th Century

The most influential figure in shaping the immediate future course of English drama was Ben Jonson. His carefully plotted comedies, satirizing with inimitable verve and imagination various departures from the norm of good sense and moderation, are written in a more sober and careful style than are those of most Elizabethan and early 17th-century dramatists. Those qualities, indeed, define the character of later Restoration comedy. The best of Jonson's comedies are Volpone (1606) and The Alchemist (1610). Professing themselves his disciples, the dramatists Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher collaborated on a number of so-called tragicomedies (for example, Philaster,1610?) in which morally dubious situations, surprising reversals of fortune, and sentimentality combine with hollow rhetoric.

The outstanding prose works of the Renaissance are not so numerous as those of later ages, but the great translation of the Bible, called the King James Bible, or Authorized Version, published in 1611, is significant because it was the culmination of two centuries of effort to produce the best English translation of the original texts, and also because its vocabulary, imagery, and rhythms have influenced writers of English in all lands ever since. Similarly sonorous and stately is the prose of Sir , the physician and semi scientific investigator. His reduction of worldly phenomena to symbols of mystical truth is best seen in Religio Medici (Religion of a Doctor), probably written in 1635. island. More’s indebtedness to Plato’s Republic is quite obvious. However, More seems also to be indebted to the then recent discoveries of the explorers and navigators like Vasco da Gama- who were mostly of Spanish and Portuguese nationalities. In Utopia, More discredits medievalism in all its implications and exalts the ancient Greek culture. Passing on to the prose writers of the Elizabethan age- the age of the flowering of the Renaissance- we find them markedly influenced both in their style and thought-content by the revival of antique classical learning. Sydney in Arcadia , Lyly in Euphues, and Hooker in The of Ecclesiastical Polity write the English which is away from the language of common speech; and is either too heavily laden- as in case of Lyly and Sydney- with bits of classical finery, or modeled on Latin syntax. Further in his own career and his Essays, Bacon stands as a representative of the materialistic, Machiavellian facet of the Renaissance, particularly of the Renaissance Italy. He combines in himself the dispassionate pursuit of truth and the keen desire for material advance. Poetry: Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) and the Earl of Surrey (1517-47) were pioneers of the new poetry in England. After Chaucer the spirit of English poetry had slumbered for upward of a century. The change in pronunciation in the fifteenth century had created a lot of confusion in prosody which in the practice of such important poets as Lydgate and Skeleton had been reduced to a mockery. Wyatt had travelled extensively in Italy and France and had come under the spell of Italian Renaissance. It must be remembered that the work of Wyatt and Surrey does not reflect the impact of the Rome of antiquity alone, but also that of modern Italy. So far as the versification is concerned, Wyatt and Surrey imported into England various new Italian metrical patterns. Moreover, they gave poetry a new sense of grace, dignity, delicacy, and harmony, which was found by them lacking in the works of Chaucer and the Chaucerian’s alike. Further, they were highly influenced by the love poetry of Petrarch and they did their best to imitate it. Petrarch’s love poetry is of the country kind, in which the pining lover is shown as a “servant” of his mistress with his heart tempest-tossed by her neglect and his mood varying according to her absence or presence. It goes to the credit of Wyatt to have introduced the sonnet into the English literary, and of Surrey to have first written blank verse, both the sonnet and blank verse were later to be practiced by a vast number of the best English poets. Though in his sonnets, Wyatt did not employ regular iambic pentameters yet he created a sense of discipline among the poets of his times who had forgotten the lesson and example of Chaucer and, like Skelton, were writing “ragged” and “jagged” lines which jarred so unpleasantly upon the ear. Wyatt wrote in all thirty- two sonnets, out of which seventeen are adaptations of Petrarch. Most of them (twenty-eight) have the rhyme scheme of Petrarch’s sonnets; that is, each has the octave a b b a a b b a and twenty-six out of these twenty eight have the c d d c e e sestet. Only in the last three he comes near what is called the Shakespearean formula, that is, three quatrains and a couplet. In the thirteenth sonnet, he exactly produced it; this sonnet rhymes a b a b, a b a b, a b a b, c c. Surrey wrote about fifteen or sixteen sonnets out of which ten use the Shakespearean formula which was to enjoy the greatest popularity among the sonneteers of the sixteenth century. Surreys work is characterized by exquisite grace and tenderness which we find missing from that of Wyatt. Moreover, he is a better craftsman and gives greater harmony to his poetry. Surrey employed blank verse in his translation of the fourth book of The Aeneid , the work which was first translated into English verse by Gavin Douglas a generation earlier, but in heroic couplets. Drama: The revival of ancient classical learning scored its first clear impact on England drama in the middle of the sixteenth century. Previous to this impact there had been a pretty vigorous native tradition of drama, particularly comedy. This tradition had its origin in the liturgical drama and had progressed through the miracle and the mystery, and later the morality, to the interlude. John Heywood had written quite a few vigorous interludes, but they were altogether different in tone, spirit, and purpose from the Greek and Roman drama of antiquity. The first English regular tragedy Gorboduc and comedy Ralph Roister Doister were very much imitations of the classical tragedy and comedy. Gorboduc is slavish imitation of Senecan tragedy and has all its features without much of its life. Like Senecan tragedy it has revenge as the tragic motive, has most of its important incidents, narrated on the stage by messengers, has much of rhetoric and verbose declamation, has a ghost among its dramatis personae, and so forth. It is indeed a good instance of the “blood and thunder” kind of tragedy. Later on, the “University Wits” struck a note of independence in their dramatic work. They refused to copy Roman drama as slavishly as the writers of Gorboduc and Roister Doister. Even so, their plays are not free form the impact of the Renaissance; rather they show it as amply, though not in the same way. In their imagination, they were all fired by the new literature which showed them new dimensions of human capability. In this respect, Marlowe stands in the fore- front of the University Wits. Rightly has he been called “the true child of the Renaissance” • 1.4 ELIZABETHAN POETRY One of the literary historians called Elizabethan age as a nest of singing birds about the composition of poetry in this period. There were many poets who contributed to develop this form of literature and it reached the peak of its development. The poets not 8 only adopted and innovated the forms of poetry and wrote on the varied themes. The poetry of Elizabethan era mirrors the spirit of Age. It reflects the spirit of conquest and self- glorification, humanism and vigorous imagination, emotional depth and passionate intensity. Sublimity was considered to be the essential quality of poverty. Spenser, Shakespeare and Marlowe had the immense power to exalt and sublimate the lovers of poetry. The poetry of his period is remarkable for the spirit of independence. The poets refused to follow set rules of poetic composition. Consequently, new poetic devices and new linguistic modes developed. All varieties of poetic forms like lyric, elegy, eclogue, ode, sonnet etc. were successfully attempted. Thematically, the following main divisions of poetry existed during this period: 1.4.1 Love Poetry The love poetry is characterized by romance, imagination and youthful vigour, Sidney‘s Astrophel and Stella, Spenser‘s Amoretti, Daniel‘s Delia, Marlowe‘s Hero and Leander, Shakespeare‘s Venus and Adonis and his sonnets are noticeable love poems of this period. 1.4.2 Patriotic Poetry The ardent note of patriotism is the distinctive characteristic of Elizabethan poetry. Warner‘s Abbicen‘s England, Daniel‘s Civil Wars of York and Lancaster, Draytron‘s The Barons War and The Ballad of Agincourt are some memorable patriotic poems. 1.4.3 Philosophical Poetry Elizabethan age was a period both of action and reflection. Action found its superb expression in contemporary drama. People thought inwardly. The tragedies of Shakespeare represent this aspect of national life. Brooke‘s poems, On Human Learning, On Wars, On Monarchy, and On Religion have philosophical leanings. 1.4.4 Satirical Poetry It came into existence after the decline of the spirit of adventure and exploration, of youthful gaiety and imaginative vigour towards the end of Elizabeth‘s reign. Donne‘s Satires and Drummond‘s Sonnets are some fine examples of this type of poetry. In the reign of James I life‘s gaiety was lost. A harsh cynical realism succeeded. Poetry had grown self-conscious. Poetry had crept under the shadow of the approaching civil conflicts. 9 The poetry of this age is original. The early classical and Italian influences were completely absorbed and the poetry of this period depicts the typical British character and temperament. 1.4.5 Poets of the Age Wyatt and Surrey traveled widely in Italy. They brought to England the Italian and classic influence. They modeled their poetry on Italian pattern. They are the first harbingers of the Renaissance in English poetry. They are the first modern poets. The book that contains their poems is Songs and Sonnets, known as the Tottle‘s Miscellany. The brief introduction of the major poets of the age is necessary to be discussed along with their remarkable works. I. Sir Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt brought to English poetry grace, harmony and nobility. He followed the Italian models and attempted a great variety of metrical experiment – songs, sonnets, madrigals and elegies. He was the first poet, who introduced sonnet, which was a favorite poetical form in England with Shakespeare, Milton, Spenser, Wordsworth, Keats, Shelley, Arnold and many others. He first of all introduced personal or autobiographical note in English poetry. Wyatt‘s true ability as a poet is revealed not by the sonnets but by a number of lyrics and songs that he composed. II. Earl of Surrey Surrey is a disciple of Wyatt rather than an independent poetical force. His sonnets are more effective than those of Wyatt. The former followed the Petrarchan pattern of sonnet, whereas the latter modified it and made it typical English. The Petrarchan form is perhaps more impressive, the modified English form the more expressive. Shakespeare followed the English pattern of sonnet, introduced by Surrey. He was the first poet to use blank verse in his translation of Aeneid. III. Thomas Sackville Sackville was a great humanist whose only contribution to England poetry is The Induction. He has a sureness of touch and a freedom from technical errors which make him superior to Wyatt and Surrey. IV. Sir Philip Sidney Sidney was the most celebrated literary figure before Spenser and Shakespeare. As a man of letters he is remembered for Arcadia (a romance), Apology For Poetry (a collection of critical and 10 literary principles) and Astrophel and Stella (a collection of sonnets). These 108 love sonnets are the first direct expressions of personal feelings and experience in English poetry. He analyses the sequence of his feelings with a vividness and minuteness. His sonnets owe much to Petrarch and Ronsard in tone and style. V. Edmund Spenser Edmund Spenser is rightly called the poet‘s poet‖ because all great poets of England have been indebted to him. C. Rickett remarks, ―Spenser is at once the child of the Renaissance and the Reformation. On one side we may regard him with Milton as ―the sage and serious Spenser‖, on the other he is the humanist, alive to the finger tips with the sensuous beauty of the Southern romance.‖ Spenser‘s main poetical works are: The Shepherd‘s Calendar (1579), two eclogues, March and December, are prescribed in your syllabus for detailed study. Amoretti (1595), a collection of eighty eight Petrarchan sonnets Epithalamion (1959), a magnificent ode written on the occasion of his marriage with Elizabeth Boyle Prothalamion (1596), an ode on marriage Astrophel (1596), an elegy on the death of Sir Philip Sidney Four Hymns (1576) written to glorify love and homour His epic, The Faerie Queen (1589 – 90). Spenser‘s finest poetry is characterized by sensuousness and picturesqueness. He is a matchless painter in words. His contribution to poetic style, diction and versification is memorable. He evolved a true poetic style which the succeeding generations of English poets used. The introduction of Spenserian stanza is Spenser‘s most remarkable contribution to poetry. He is great because of the extraordinary smoothness and melody, his verse and the richness of his language, a golden diction which he drew from every source – new words, old words, obsolete words. Renwick says, ―Shakespeare himself might not have achieved so much, if Spenser had not lived and laboured.‖ Dryden freely acknowledged that Spenser has been his master in English. Thompson referred to him as ―my master Spenser‖. Wordsworth praises him as the embodiment of nobility, purity and sweetness. Byron, Shelley and Keats are his worthy followers. The PreRaphaelites were inspired by Spenser‘s word-paining and picturesque descriptions. Therefore he is aptly called Poet‘s poet. 11 VI. Christopher Marlowe and George Chapman The Hero and Leander was left incomplete due to Marlowe‘s untimely death. It was completed by Chapman. This poem is remarkable for felicity of diction and flexibility of versification. The poets show great skill in effectively using words and images. Besides completing Hero and Leander, Chapman also translated Iliad and Odyssey and composed some sonnets. VII. William Shakespeare Shakespeare composed many beautiful sonnets and two long poems – Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece . In the former the realistic passions are expressed through equally realistic pictures and episodes. It is remarkable for astonishing linguistic beauty. The latter is a contrast to the former. Having painted the attempts of an amorous woman, Shakespeare now proceeded to represent the rape of a chaste wife. VIII. Ben Jonson Ben Jobson was a pioneer in the field of poetry. His poetic work consists of short pieces, which appeared in three collections – Epigrammes, The Forest and The Underwood. He is a first-rate satirist in Elizabethan poetry. The spirit of satire looms large in these three collections of his poetry. He presents vivid sarcastic portraits in ten or twenty lines. His moral satires were nobler in tone and more sincere in expression than of Hall or Marston. Ben Jonson was the first English poet to write Pindaric odes. His Ode to Himself is a fine example of this genre. His poetic style is lucid, clear and free from extravagances. He is also the forerunner of neo-classicism, which attained perfection in the works of Dryden and Pope. To Celia, Echo‘s Song and A Song are his memorable lyrics. IX. John Donne As the pioneer of the Metaphysical Poetry, Donne stands unrivalled. His contribution to poetry will be discussed along with the metaphysical Poetry. (For detailed study refer unit 2 of this book.) Apart from the above major poets, there are few poets whose names need to be mentioned. They are Joseph Hall, John Marsten, George Wither, and William Browne because they contributed or verse satire to the literature of Elizabethan period. 1.4.6 Songs and Lyrics in Elizabethan Poetry The Elizabethan England was the golden age of songs and lyrics. A number of poetical miscellanies, consisting of short lyrics 12 and songs by various poets, appeared. Some famous anthologies are Tottle‘s Miscellany (1557), The Paradise of Dainty Devices, A Handful of Pleasant Delights, The Phoenix Nest, The Passionate Pilgrim and England‘s Helicon. These collections contain countless songs and lyrics composed by various poets. Nearly two hundred poets are recorded in the short period from 1558 to 1625. Here we can consider only those poets who have infinite riches in a little room. Various factors contributed to the unique development of lyricism during this period. The feeling of stability, peace and contentment enabled poets to compose songs and lyrics full of zest for life. Everybody, down from the flowery courtier to the man in the street, wrote lyrics. Translations from other languages inspired the people to write. The Elizabethans loved music. Music and lyric are closely related. It was an age of romance which also contributed to the development of lyricism. The Elizabethan lyrical poetry seeks expression in a great variety of poetical forms. The lyric itself appears, now under the pastoral convention, now as sonnet and sonnet sequence, now in various composite literary forms. The Elizabethan songs were of various kinds. They were love songs, religious songs, patriotic songs, fantastic songs, war songs, philosophical songs and religious songs. They were composed in every mood, grave, romantic, fantastic, sentimental, mocking and cynical. Even the plays and prose romances are full of songs and lyrics. Form and expression were joined together and the lyrics became an expression of the soul. Love is the main theme of Elizabethan songs and lyrics. It is fanciful love, love that laughs and entreats and sighs. The pastoral elements like shepherds‘ feasts, shepherds‘ loves and joys of countryside characterize most of the songs and lyrics of this period. Sir Philip Sidney wrote many songs which are characterized by depth of passion, exquisite beauty, romance and fancifulness. He inserted songs in the Shepherd‘s Calendar. His songs are characterized by loftiness, sensuousness, picturesqueness and superb musical quality. Marlowe‘s genius was lyrical. He sang songs in the pastoral strain: ―Come with me and be my love.‖ Shakespeare‘s comedies and romances are littered with songs. His songs have rare originality and spontaneity. Freshness and rustic realism runs in many of his songs. Some of his songs are fanciful and fantastic. Some of his songs express the poignant feelings of love. His songs 13 have a magic of their own and are noticeable for spontaneity and sweetness. Shakespeare‘s contemporary dramatists also incorporated songs in their plays. Thomas Dekkar composed two beautiful songs. Beaumont and Fletcher contributed ―Lay a garland on my horse‖ and ―Hence, all our vain delights‖. Ben Jonson‘s masques and comedies have many lovely songs. Lyly‘s songs are remembered for their delicate melody, flawless diction, and light and refined note. Green‘s songs are full of English feelings, pastoral and Renaissance fancies. Peele‘s lyrics survive for their melody and cadence, and Nash‘s are now frolicking and open, and gain musically melancholy. Lodge‘s songs are more varied and more inclined to pastoralism. Breton‘s songs are fresh, copious and are imbued with fine artistic feeling. Thomas Campion deserves praises for his attractive lyrics and songs, which he himself adopted to musical requirement. He was stirred to rapture by sacred and profane love alike. His songs and lyrics are characterized by the deft use of sweet and apt phrases, musical quality of a high order and a mastery of complicated metres. He could express fantastic areas with great ease, spontaneity and felicity. Samuel Daniel has to his credit a sonnet series called Delia, a romance entitled The Complaint of Rosamund, a long historical poem The Civil War and a large number of masques. Daniel is a master of closet lyric. Drayton wrote many lyrics, verse tales and pastorals. Purity of his poetic style is admirable. He simplified English language by removing eccentricities and arbitrary inventions. The Elizabethan lyric is light and airy. It is an expression of the holiday mood of its author. What distinguishes the lyrics of this period is their musical quality, the flight of fancy and the note of gay and joyous abandonment. 1.4.7 Elizabethan Sonnets and Sonneteers The sonnet originated in Italy in the fourteenth century. It is particularly associated with the name of Petrarch, though it had been used before him by Dante. It was originally a short poem, recited to the accompaniment of music. The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word ―sonnetto‖, meaning a little sound or strain. In course of time it became a short poem of fourteen lines with a set rhyme scheme. The sonnets of Petrarch and Dante were love sonnets. Petrarch addressed his sonnets to Laura and Dante to 14 Beatrice. It enjoyed great popularity in Italy during the fifteenth century. (You have studied sonnet form in detailed in paper 2: Reading Poetry at SYBA last year.) In England Wyatt and Surrey began sonnet writing in imitation of the Italian sonnet. Wyatt introduced the Petrarchan model. He wrote 31 sonnets on the theme of love of rare beauty. Surrey gave a new turn to sonnet writing by introducing a new pattern which Shakespeare used later. His love sonnets were addressed to Lady Geraldine. They were marked by a note of melancholy and sadness. Wyatt and Surrey introduced the personal note in English sonnet. Thomas was the earliest Elizabethan to make a reputation as a sonneteer. In 1582 he published one hundred ―passions‖ or ―poems of love‖ which were described as sonnets, though many of them were of eighteen lines long. However, Watson‘s second volume of poems entitled The Tears of Fancy or Love Disdained were strictly confined to fourteen lines. The publication of Sidney‘s Astrophel and Stella marks the real beginning of Elizabethan sonnet. His sonnets clearly show the influence of Petrarch, Ronsard and Watson. Petrarch wrote his sonnets for his beloved Laura. Sidney‘s sonnets express his ardent passion for his beloved Penelope, the Stella of his sonnets. His sonnets are effusions of personal passion. These sonnets are remarkable for their sincerity. He was the first English poet to indicate the lyric capacity of the sonnet. Sidney followed the Petrarchan scheme of sonnet. His example was followed by Daniel in Delia, Constable in Diana, Drayton in Idea and Spenser in Amoretti. Spenser‘s Amoretti, a collection of 88 sonnets is memorable contribution to the art of sonnet writing. They are addressed to Elizabeth Boyle, whom he married. So an intimate, personal or autobiographical note runs in all of them. Spenser‘s sonnets are unique for their purity. They tell a story of love without sin or remorse. Shakespeare is the greatest writer of the sonnet form. His sonnets are the most precious pearls of Elizabethan lyricism, some of them unsurpassed by any lyricism. The form he chose was not the Italian or the Petrarchan form. He preferred the Spenserian pattern, consisting of three quatrains, each rhyming alternately, and rhyming couplet to conclude. Thomas Thorpe printed a collection of 154 sonnets of Shakespeare in 1609. It was dedicated to a ―Mr. W.H.‖ and to a Dark Lady. The poet loved both of them dearly. The poet makes every allowance for the man, his youth, his attraction, his inexperience. He feels more bitterly towards the 15 woman. She, he feels had turned his friend from him in sheer wantonness of spirit. He prefers the companionship of his friend to the company of the mistress. Some of his sonnets are conventional literary exercises on conventional themes. His sonnets are noticeable for rare beauty of images and the flawless perfection of style and versification Henry Constable‘s sonnets are remarkable for melody, beauty and sensuousness. Daniel‘s collection of sonnets, known as Delia, is based on the conventional theme of love and has stock devices of contemporary sonnet writing. The language of his sonnets is pure and versification is correct. Drayton is a distinguished sonneteer of Elizabethan Age. His sonnet sequence, known as Idea represents Platonic idea of beauty. He wrote fifty two sonnets. He uses typical stock devices. Dryton for the first time imparted dramatic element to sonnet writing. His sonnets suffer from lack of sincerity and artificiality. The other sonnet writers are Lodge, Fletcher and Percy. The Age of Shakespeare was the golden age of sonnet. Each poet contributed something new to the art of sonnet writing. The average Elizabethan sonnet illustrates the temper of the age. It bears graphic witness to the Elizabethan tendency to borrow from foreign literary sources. 1.5 ELIZABETHAN PROSE The Age of Elizabeth was also conspicuous for the remarkable development of prose, which was variously written with great stylistic and linguistic excellence. The following prose genres developed during this period. 1.5.1 Prose in Early Renaissance The prose of early Renaissance consists largely of translations. The writers of this period were educationists and reformers rather than creative writers. The following major writers need to be considered in a nutshell: Sir Thomas More He was one of the early humanists and the first prose writer of great literary significance. His famous work Utopia was written in Latin, but it was translated into English in 1551 by Ralph Robinson. It is the ―true prologue of Renaissance.‖ It shows the influence of 16 Plato. Utopia has been called ―the first monument of modern socialism.‖ Thomas More extols democratic communism – people‘s state, elected government, equal distribution of wealth and nine hours‘ work a day. In it we find for the first time the foundation of civilized society, the three great words – Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. More advocates religious tolerance. In English literary history Thomas More is not remembered for his contribution to style but for the originality of his ideas. Roger Ascham He was a great educationist. His first work The School of Shooting was written in English. Commenting on the state of English language he writes: ―Everything has been done excellently well in Greek and Latin, but in the English tongue so meanly that no man can do worse.‖ But ―I have written this English matter, in the English tongue for Englishmen.‖ His second work, The School Master contains intellectual instructions for the young. Ascham‘s prose style is conspicuous for economy and precision. He was the first writer who wrote ―the English speech for the Englishmen.‖ He is ―the first English stylist.‖ Sir Thomas Elyot and Sir John Cheke Elyot‘s the Governor is a treatise on moral philosophy and education. His prose does not concern the common man but it is restrained and classical. Cheke was a teacher of Greek art at Cambridge. He wrote The Heart of Sedition which shows the influence of classicism and antiquity. To him both form and matter were equally important. His prose is vigorous, argumentative, eloquent and humorous. 1.5.2 The Essay The Essay, which Montaigne began in France, was a very popular prose form during this Age. It has been variously defined. An essay is a short composition more or less incomplete. It is like lyric in poetry. It may be written on any subject under the sun. The year 1597, when Bacon published his ten essays, marks the beginning of essay writing in English literature. Sir Francis Bacon Bacon occupies a dominant place in English prose. He wrote varied type of prose. He is philosophical in The Advancement of Learning, historical in the History of Henry VII, and speculative in New Atlantis. 17 Bacon occupies a permanent place in English prose due to his Essays, ten in number, which appeared in 1597. The second edition and the third edition raised the number to 38 and 58 respectively. They are on familiar subjects and they represent the meditations of trained and learned mind. They contain utilitarian wisdom and are written in lucid, clear and aphoristic style. Bacon began the vogue of essay writing in English. His essays introduced a new form of literature into English literature. He was the first English writer who employed a style that is conspicuous for lucidity, clarity, economy, precision, directness, masculinity and mathematical plainness. His images and figures of speech are simple and clearly illustrate the ideas that he wishes to communicate. Ben Jonson Ben Jonson wrote aphoristic essays which are compiled in The Timber of Discoveries which was published posthumously about 1641. His essays are moral and critical. Jonson‘s style is noticeable for lucidity, terseness and strength. He treats a subject in a simple and plain manner. John Selden John Selden‘s Table Talk abounds in sharp, acid-natured aphorisms, exhibiting tough common sense and little imagination. As a practitioner of aphoristic essay he stands next to Bacon and Ben Jonson. He also wrote The Titles of Honour and The History of Titles. 1.5.3 Character Writers The seventeenth century witnessed the origin and development of another kind of essay, known as character writing. The character writers were influenced by Theophrastus, Seneca and dramatists. They are also highly indebted to Bacon who provided them with a pattern of style – concise, pointed and sententious. The following are the character writers: I. Thomas Dekkar wrote the Bellman of London and A Strange Horse Race which are noticeable for the portrayal of vivid character sketches. In character sketch the sentences are unusually short. II. Joseph Hall wrote the Good Magistrate and Virtues and Vices. He was endowed with the qualities required for character writing. Satire distinguishes his character sketches. 18 III. Thomas Overbury‘s Characters is a collection of numerous well – portrayed characters. He usually packs the characters to some trade or occupation. The character takes colour from the occupation from which it draws its virtues and vices. His style is artificial and he subordinates substance to form, matter to manner. IV. Earle is superior to both Hall and Overbury as a character writer. His Microcosmography is his collection of well portrayed characters. It is written in a delightful and witty style. His style is easy, vigorous and fluent. V. George Herbert differs from all other character writers of his time. His famous work A Priest in the Temple or A Country Parson is not a collection of unconnected sketches, but a short treatise in thirty seven chapters. Each of the characters delineates a phase of parson‘s life – his knowledge, his praying, his preaching, his comforting etc. He aims at imparting reality to his character. His aim is to recommend religion by the portrayal of a charming and saintly life. VI. Thomas Fuller in his Holy War and Profane State does not follow the Theophrastian model. He belongs to a school of his own. What distinguishes Fuller is his boundless humanity which is visible in every page. He mixes his character sketches with interesting stories. He also imparts personal touch to his essays. His characters of virtues and vices are not merely fanciful exercises but they are real and concrete. His style is condensed and discursive. 1.5.4 Religious Prose During this period religious controversy was in vorgue. It gave rise to fine English prose and it also contributed to the evolution of English prose style. The religious prose writers are as under: I. Sir John Tyndale is remembered for the Translation of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. This translation formed the basis for The Authorized Version of the Bible (1611). It is written in traditional prose, purged from, ornateness and triviality. Its style is remarkable for simplicity, clarity, lucidity and directness because Tyndale‘s aim was to make the Bible readable even to peasants. II. Latimer‘s Sermon on the Ploughers and others were written in plain and straightforward English. 19 III. Richard Hooker wrote The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity which is an outstanding contribution in the field of theology and prose style. Hooker‘s style is highly Latinished but it is free from pedantry and vulgarity. It is logical and convincing, musical and cadenced, clear and vigorous. 1.5.5 Prose Romances The writing of prose romances is a remarkable development of this period. They anticipated novel which came into being during the eighteenth century. The prose romances of this period consisted of tales of adventure as well as of romance. They dealt with contemporary life and events of the past, with the life at the court and the life of the city. It was by turns humorous and didactic, realistic and fanciful. In short, it represented the first rough drafts of English novel. The prose romances of varied forms and shapes were written by many writers. I. George Gascoigne wrote the Adventures of Master E.J. which depicts a lively sketch of English country – house life. It has well-portrayed characters. II. John Lyly is the pioneer of the English novel, the first stylist in prose, and the most popular writer of the age. His famous work Euphues is incidentally ―the first novel‖ in English language. It deals with love and romance. It foretells the rise of the novel of manners. It moves away from the fanciful idealism of medieval romance of manners. It moves away from the fanciful idealism of medieval romance and suggests an interest in contemporary life. Euphues is especially remarkable for its style, which is based on alliteration, play upon words, and antithesis. Lyly aimed at precision and emphasis by carefully balancing his words and phrases. III. Sir Philip Sidney wrote a prose romance arcadia (1590) which represents the restless spirit of adventure of the age of chivalry. It is a dream world compounded of sidney‘s knowledge of classicism and Christianity, medieval chivalry and Renaissance luxury. Its style is full of affectations and artificiality. It is highly poetical. IV. As a writer of prose romances, Robert Greene is remembered for Pandosta, Mamitia and Menaphone. His romances are in moral tone and their style is imitative of Lyly. He has a sense of structural unity, restraint and verisimilitude. What distinguishes Greene is the skilful portraiture of women characters. Besides, these romances, Greene strikes a realistic note in Mourning of Garment and Never Too Late. 20 V. Lodge‘s Rosalynde (1590) is a pastoral romance, written in imitation of the ornate style of Eupheus. It is considered to be the source of Shakespeare‘s As You Like It. VI. Thomas Nashe is the first great realist who graphically depicted contemporary London life and its manners. His descriptions of respectable roguery are tinged with satire. Nash‘s memorable work is The Unfortunate Traveler or The Life of Jack Wilton (1594) which has the rare distinction of being the first picaresque or rogue novel. It combines both comedy and tragedy. It may also be called the first historical novel. His prose style is clear, lucid, simple and forceful. VII. Thomas Deloney was a realist, who in his works Thomas of Reading, Jack of Newbury and the Gentle Craft, realistically depict contemporary bourgeois life. His style is remarkable for simplicity, clarity, directness and spontaneity. His prose runs easily into spirited dialogue. VIII. Robert Burton was a humanist whose The Anatomy of Melancholy (1621) is a distinguished work of philosophical prose. His style changes with the subject. It is lucid, tense, precise and rhetorical. 1.6 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA The period marks the real beginning of drama. It is the golden age of English drama. The renewed study of classical drama shaped English drama in its formative years. Seneca influenced the development of English tragedy, and Plantus and Terence directed the formation of comedy. The classical drama gave English drama its five acts, its set scenes and many other features. Regular English tragedy, comedy and historical play were successfully written during this period. Nichola Idal‘s Relph Roister Doister (1553) is the first English comedy of the classical school, which is divided into acts and scenes. Gamar Gurton‘s Needle (1575), written by an unknown writer is another comedy in the classical style. The first complete tragedy of the Senecan type is Gorbaduc (1562), which was written by Thomas Morton and Thomas Sackville. The example of Gorbaduc was followed by Thomas Hughes in The Misfortunes of Arthus (1588) and George Gascoigne‘s Jocasta (1566). All these tragedies were influenced by Seneca both in style and treatment of theme. Another dramatic genre, which emerged during this period, is tragic-comedy, which mixes lamentable tragedy with pleasant mirth. Some memorable plays of this type are Whetstone‘s Right 21 Excellent and Famous History, Preston‘s A Lamentable Tragedy, Richard Edward‘s Demons and Rithias and R.B.‘s Apius and Virginia. Historical plays too were written during this period. Famous among the early historical plays are – The Troublesome Reign of John, King of England (1590), Tragedy of Richard, the Third (1590 – 94), The Victories of Henry the Fifth (1588) and the Chroniete History of Lear (1594). 1.6.1 The University Wits Lyly, Peele, Greene, Lodge, Nashe, Kyd and Marlowe are known as the university Wits because they came either from Cambridge or from Oxford. They were romantic by nature and they represented the spirit of Renaissance. The great merit of the University Wits was that they came with their passion and poetry, and their academic training. They paved the way for the successive writers like Shakespeare to express his genius. The contribution of the university Wits to the development of drama needs to be highlighted: I. John Lyly: Lyly wrote eight comedies, of which the best are Campaspe, Endymion, Grallathia, Midas and Love‘s Metamorphosis. He wrote for the private theatres. His writing is replete with genuine romantic atmosphere, homour, fancy for romantic comedy, realism, classicism and romanticism. Lyly established prose as an expression of comedy. He deftly used prose to express light feelings of fun and laughter. He also used a suitable blank verse for the comedy. High comedy demands a nice sense of phrase, and Lyly is the first great phrase maker in English. He gave to English comedy a witty phraseology. He also made an important advance at successful comic portrayal. His characters are both types and individuals. Disguise as a devise was later popularized by Shakespeare in his plays especially in his comedies. The device of girl dressed as a boy is traced back to Lyly. The introduction of songs, symbolical of the mood owes its popularity to Lyly. II. George Peele: His work consists of The Arraignment of Paris, The Battle of Alcazar, The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe and The Old Wives‘ Tales. He has left behind a pastoral, a romantic tragedy, a chronicle history and a romantic satire. He juxtaposes romance and reality in his plays. As a humorist he influenced Shakespeare. In The Old Wives‘ Tales he for the first time introduced the note of satire in English drama. 22 III. Robert Greene: Greene wrote The Comical History of Alphonsus, King of Aragon and Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay. Greene was the first master of the art of plot construction in English drama. In his plays Greene has three distinct words mingled together – the world of magic, the world of aristocratic life, and the world of the country. There is peculiar romantic humour and rare combination of realism and idealism in his plays. He is the first to draw romantic heroines. His heroines Margaret and Dorothea anticipate Shakespeare‘s Rosalind and Celia. IV. Thomas Kyd: Kyd‘s The Spanish Tragedy, a Senecan tragedy, is an abiding contribution to the development of English tragedy. It is a well constructed play in which the dramatist has skillfully woven passion, pathos and fear until they reach a climax. Kyd succeeded in producing dialogue that is forceful and capable. He introduced the revenge motif into drama. He, thus, influenced Shakespeare‘s Hamlet and Webster‘s The Duchess of Malfi. The device of play within play, which Shakespeare employed in Hamlet, is used for the first time in The Spanish Tragedy. He also introduced the hesitating type of hero, suffering from bouts of madness, feigned or real, in the character of Hieronimo, who anticipates the character of Hamlet. V. Christopher Marlowe: Marlowe‘s famous plays Tamburlaine, the Great, Dr. Faustus, Edward II and The few of Malta give him a place of preeminence among the University Wits. Swinburne calls him ―the first great poet, the father of English tragedy and the creator of blank verse.‖ He is, indeed, the protagonist of tragic drama in English and the forerunner of Shakespeare and his fellows. Marlow provided big heroic subjects that appealed to human imagination. He for the first time imparted individuality and dignity to the tragic hero. He also presented the tragic conflict between the good and evil forces in Dr. Faustus. He is the first tragic dramatist who used the device of Nemesis in an artistic and psychological manner. Marlowe for the first time made blank verse a powerful vehicle for the expression of varied human emotions. His blank verse, which Ben Jonson calls, ―Marlowe‘s Mighty Line‖ is noticeable for its splendour of diction, picturesqueness, vigour and energy, variety in pace and its responsiveness to the demands of varying emotions. Marlowe has been termed the father of English tragedy. He was in fact the first to feel that romantic drama was the sole form in harmony with the temperament of the nation. He created authentic romantic tragedy in English and paved the way for the full blossoming of Shakespeare‘s dramatic genius. 23 1.6.2 Dramatic Activity of Shakespeare William Shakespeare was not of an age but of all ages. He wrote 37 plays, which may be classified as tragedies, comedies, romances or tragic-comedies and historical plays. The period of Shakespeare‘s dramatic activity spans twenty four years (1588 – 1612) which is divided into the following four sub-periods: i) The First Period (1588 – 96): It is a period of early experimentation. During this period he wrote Titus Andronicus, First Part of Henry VI, Love‘s Labour Lost, The Comedy of Errors, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, A Midsummer Night‘s Dream, Richard II and Richard III and King John. His early poems The Rape of Lucrece and Venus and Andonis belong to this period. ii) The Second Period (1596 – 1600): Shakespeare wrote his great comedies and chronicled plays during this period. The works of this period are The Merchant of Venice, The Taming of the Shrew, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing As You Like It, The Twelfth Night, Henry IV, Part I & II, and Henry V. iii) The Third Period (1601 – 08): It is a period of great tragedies Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear Othello, Julius Caesar, and of somber and better comedies All‘s Well That Ends Well, Measure For Measure and Troilus and Cressida. iv) The Fourth Period (1608 – 1613) : Shakespeare‘s last period begins with Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, Timon of Athens, Henry VII and Pericles. What distinguishes Shakespeare‘s last period is the reawakening of his first love romance in Cymbeline, The Tempest and The Winter‘s Tale. Shakespearean Comedy Shakespeare brought perfection to the writing of romantic comedy. His comedies are classified into the following three categories. i) The Early Comedies: They are The Comedy of Errors, Love‘s Labour Lost and The Two Gentlemen of Verona. The plays show sings of immaturity. The plots are less original, the characters are less finished and the style is also vigorous. The homour lacks the wide human sympathy of his mature comedies. 24 ii) The Mature Comedies: Shakespeare‘s comic genius finds expression in Much Ado About Nothing. Twelfth Night, The Merchant of Venice and As You Like It. These plays are full of love and romance, vigour and vitality, versatility of homour, humanity and well-portrayed characters. iii) The Somber Comedies: All‘s Well That Ends Well, Measure for Measure and Troilus and Cressida belong to the period of great tragedies. These comedies have a serious and som from the creati