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Home , Battle of La Forbie, Knights Hospitaller, Margat

The Hospitaller in the , c.1070–1309 IN PARENTUM MEORUM PIAM MEMORIAM

Also by Jonathan Riley-Smith

The Knights of St John in and , c.1050–1310 The Feudal Nobility and the , 1174–1277 What Were the ? The First and the Idea of Crusading The Crusades: A Short History The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 Hospitallers: The History of the of St John The Crusades, Christianity and Islam Crusaders and Settlers in the East Templars and Hospitallers as Professed Religious in the The in the Levant, c.1070–1309

Jonathan Riley-Smith

Palgrave macmillan © Jonathan Riley-Smith 2012 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2012 978-0-230-29083-9 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2012 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in , company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the , the , Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-33162-8 ISBN 978-1-137-26475-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137264756 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Contents

Explication and Acknowledgements viii Abbreviations xi Maps xv

Prologue 1 An Authentic 1 Background 4

Part I Inception 1 Origins, c.1070–1160 15 A Voice from the Past 15 Foundation 16 Gerard 18 Independence 20 The Care of Pilgrims 22 Who Succeeded Gerard? 23 Raymond of Puy 23 The Rule 24 2 Militarization, 1126–1182 27 Milites ad terminum 27 The First Stage 28 Crisis 32 Resolution 36 3 Reaching Maturity, 1177–1206 38 The Order and the Settlements in the Levant 38 Hattin 41 The Aftermath 43 The 45 The Order in Disarray 47 The Statutes of 50

4 The Order and the Politics of the Latin East, 1201–1244 52 Responsibility without Power 52 Taking Sides 53 The Barons’ Crusade and the 62

v vi Contents

Part II The Mission 5 Nursing the Sick and Burying the Dead 69 Servitude 69 Nursing 70 Burials 76 The Cost of Ambivalence 78 6 Defending Christians 81 Caravans 81 The Components of a Hospitaller Force 82 Advice 85 89 Turning to the Sea 92 Part III The Order 7 Members 97 Reception 98 Brother Priests 99 Brother Knights 101 Brother Sergeants 104 Sisters of St John 105 Confratres 107 8 Conventual Life 110 Levantine Communities 110 Buildings 111 Living Conditions 114 Justice 119 9 The Master, His Convent and the General 126 The Master 126 The Master’s Convent 128 Tongues 128 Chapters and the Chapter General 129 Constitutional Conflict 133 10 The Conventual Bailiffs and Their Departments 140 The Cure of Souls 141 The Providers 142 The Functionaries 145 Part IV Assets 11 An Exempt Order of the 155 Exemptions 155 Reaction 157 The Latin East 161 Some Case Studies 163 Contents vii

12 The Estate in the Levant 171 The Estate 171 Exploitation 174 Management 178 Competition 180 13 Provincial Government and the Estate in Europe 185 Necessity 185 The Origins of the Provincial Structure 187 Hospitaller Officers 189 191 , Capitular Commanderies and Capitular Castellanies 193 Grand Commanderies 199 Part V The End of the Beginning 14 The Loss of the Mainland, 1244–1291 205 After La Forbie 205 The Defence of the South-Eastern Frontier 207 Hugh Revel 208 The Last Years of the Settlement 210 Roger of Stanegrave 213 15 Interlude on Cyprus, 1291–1309 215 After the Fall of Acre 215 Criticism and the Projected Union of the Orders 216 Internal Trouble 218 Constitutional Conflict in the Kingdom of Cyprus 220 The Fall of the Templars 222 223 The Crusade of 1310 224 Epilogue 229

Appendix: Masters of the 233 Notes 234 Bibliography 302 Index 318 Explication and Acknowledgements

When I began research 50 years ago, the early history of the Knights Hospitaller of St John of Jerusalem had not been seriously considered since the turn of the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries.1 My book2 was intended to be the first in a series of volumes, each by a different author, covering the history of the Hospital from the eleventh century to the present. The other contributions were never written, but a revival of interest has led to more being published on the military orders in the last 25 years than had been in the previous 70. We are now better informed about the Order’s origins3 and its roles as a military phenomenon, an international corporation, an economic powerhouse and a landowner in the West.4 Some atten- tion has been paid to its nature as a religious institution5 and the re-editing of the of the kings of Jerusalem and the letters of the twelfth-century has refined our understanding of its privileges.6 New material has come to light on the conventual hospital.7 The castles of Belmont, Bethgibelin and Margat have been excavated and Crac des Chevaliers has been re-surveyed.8 We know much more than we did about the Order’s headquarters in Jerusalem and in Acre, where a spectacular programme of excavation has revealed the central compound.9 After working for many years on other aspects of the histories of the crusades and the Latin East, I view the Hospital from a somewhat different standpoint than I did. I have decided, therefore, to reorganize my original book radically and to rewrite large parts of it. I have given it a new title, because I am offering more than a second edition. Two major themes run through this account of the Order’s history in the cen- tral . The first is a tension, which was never resolved, between its com- mitments to nursing and to warfare. The Hospital was founded by or their associates to care for the poor. Many of the brothers, who expressed very radical ideas about their relationship to their patients, found it hard to come to terms with the adoption of military functions and an internal crisis in 1171 was resolved only by linking nursing conceptually to warfare. This meant that the Hospitallers never embraced their military role as single-mindedly as did the Templars and the Hospital continued to share many features with more conven- tional religious institutes. The second is the effect on the Order of its development into a wealthy and powerful international corporation. Some contemporaries con- sidered that it had betrayed its original ideals, but it showed itself to be innovative and adaptable, and it would never have been able to create its own state in the Aegean in the fourteenth century without the experience its brothers had gained of large-scale management. I cannot avoid occasionally referring to sums of money, usually expressed in Saracen besants. The figures I give have some comparative value, but I recognize that without a means of conversion they are otherwise meaningless. Only a few examples of exchange rates survive,10 but it may be helpful to draw attention to

viii Explication and Acknowledgements ix the fact that in the middle of the thirteenth century, after a period of inflation, a mercenary in Acre had a basic stipend of c.120 besants a year.11 I have tried to be consistent in my use of titles. The Hospitallers were not very systematic in this respect. They used the title of when referring to priests, local commanders and provincials. Capitular bailiffs could be entitled , castellans or commanders. It is noticeable, however, that the titles of officers fall into two categories, interchangeably applied to the same . The first group – servus, minister, prior, magister, gubernator and preceptor or comandour or comendator – denoted the government of people and the second – procurator or procurator domus, dominus, bajulus, provisor – the management of property. I distinguish the unavoidable use of ‘Hospital’, with reference to the Order, from ‘hospital’, with reference to the great hospital for the care of the sick poor, by employing a capital H in the first instance and a lower case h in the second. I have used the English form of Christian names and I have replaced the preposition ‘de’ or ‘von’ with ‘of’. I have employed a standard English system of transliteration for Arabic personal names, but places present more difficulties. The Western settlers had their own names for them and alternatives are to be found in Greek, Latin, Arabic, Turkish and Hebrew. I have followed common practice when referring to better-known towns, such as Tyre and Sidon, and I have retained the Hospitaller forms Margat for Marqab, Bethgibelin for Bait Jibrin/Bet Guvrin, Belvoir for Kaukab al-Hawa/Kokhav ha-Yarden and Belmont for Suba, but tourists may want to visit the lesser-known sites and I have decided to use with respect to them the names in the Hachette World Guides to The Middle East (Paris, 1966) and (Paris, 1970). I have adopted the forms that are most generally in use for places in . I place in inverted commas the names given to villages that have not been identified. The maps in the original book, on which I had tried to locate almost every Hospitaller estate in , , Cilicia and Cyprus, were too cluttered to be helpful. I have decided to map only places referred to in the text, including the castles and commanderies in the Levant that housed communities of brothers. One cannot exaggerate the importance of the subject chosen for research lead- ing to a PhD dissertation. Students need projects which everyone agrees ought to be undertaken and for which the materials are accessible, and many promising young historians have come to grief because unsuitable topics were suggested to them by their supervisors. My first expression of gratitude, therefore, must be to Otto (R. C.) Smail of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, who provided me with the ideal topic. I must also mention Lionel Butler, who spent a lifetime at work on the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes, although he died before publishing anything substantial on them. He persuaded the publisher Macmillan to commit itself to a four-volume history of the Order, for which he would provide the second volume and perhaps the third. When he heard of me he realized that here was someone who could write the first. And so I found myself in the extraordinarily favourable position of having a book based on my dissertation commissioned long before I had completed my doctorate. The preface to the original book contains other expressions of gratitude. I would like to record again the debt I owe to Anthony Luttrell. Dr Luttrell, who knows x Explication and Acknowledgements more about the sources for the history of the Order than any living scholar, read and commented on a draft of this book. His knowledge and expertise, which he generously shared, was especially valuable to someone like myself who had strayed into other fields of history in recent decades and was not au fait with all the latest research. I owe more than I can say to my research students, who contributed to my understanding of crusading and the settlements in the Levant. They are Thomas Asbridge, Bruce Beebe, Judith Bronstein, Marcus Bull, Cassandra Chideock, Nicholas Coureas, Claire Dutton, Peter Edbury (whose official super- visor was Butler), Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Norman Housley, Lower, Joyce McLellan, Christoph Maier, Christopher Marshall, Marwan Nader, Gregory O’Malley, Aphrodite Papayianni, Peter Pattinson, Nicholas Paul, Jonathan Phillips, William Purkis, Rebecca Rist, Jochen Schenk, who has been particularly helpful about confratres, Elizabeth Siberry, Caroline Smith, Julie Taylor, Susanna Throop and Steven Tibble. I should add to the list some American students to whom I acted as adviser – Deborah Gerish, Christopher Libertini, Jennifer Price and Myra Struckmeyer – and Axel Ehlers, Sarah Lambert, Tom Licence and Gerard Sheehan, who studied for the MA or MPhil and went on to work in related fields. My son Tobias provided additional insurance by storing all back-up copies of my drafts on his computer. I would like to thank Professor Ronnie Ellenblum for allowing me to employ the expert cartographers in the Hebrew University in Jerusalem to draw the maps. I am grateful to my publisher Palgrave Macmillan for agreeing so promptly to the new book’s publication and to Jenny McCall, Clare Mence and Eric Christianson for overseeing its production. Abbreviations

AOL Archives de l’Orient latin BEC Bibliothèque de l’Ecole de Chartes Cart Hosp Cartulaire général de l’ordre des Hospitaliers de St Jean de Jérusalem, ed. Joseph Delaville Le Roulx, 4 vols (Paris, 1894–1906) HME The Hospitallers, the Mediterranean and Europe: Festschrift for Anthony Luttrell, ed. Karl Borchardt, Nikolas Jaspert and Helen Nicholson (Aldershot, 2007) IAJ Itinéraires à Jérusalem et descriptions de la Terre sainte rédigés en français, ed. Henri Michelant and Gaston Raynaud (Geneva, 1882) MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica, ed. Georg Pertz et al. (Hanover/Weimar/Berlin, Stuttgart/Cologne, 1826–) MGH Epistolae saeculi XIII Epistolae saeculi XIII e regestis pontificum Romanorum selectae, 3 vols (1922–34) MGH Epistolae selectae 5 vols (1916–52) MGH Libelli Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saec. XI et XII conscripti, 3 vols (1891–97) MGHS MGH Scriptores in Folio et Quarto, 38 vols so far (1826–) MGHS rer. Germ. MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum schola- rum…separatim editi, 61 vols (1839–1935)

MGHS rer. Germ. NS MGH Scriptores rerum Germanicarum. Nova Series, 12 vols (1922–) MO 1 The Military Orders. Fighting for the Faith and Caring for the Sick, ed. Malcolm Barber (Aldershot, 1994) MO 2 The Military Orders. Volume 2. Welfare and Warfare, ed. Helen Nicholson (Aldershot, 1998) MO 3 The Military Orders, Volume 3. History and Heritage, ed. Victor Mallia-Milanes (Aldershot, 2008) MO 4 The Military Orders, Volume 4. On Land and by Sea, ed. Judi Upton-Ward (Aldershot, 2008) MO 5 The Military Orders, Volume 5. Politics and Power, ed. Peter Edbury (Farnham, 2011) RHC Recueil des historiens des croisades, ed. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (Paris, 1841–1906)

xi xii Abbreviations

RHC Arm Documents arméniens, 2 vols (1869–1906) RHC Lois Lois. Les Assises de Jérusalem, 2 vols (1841–43) RHC Oc Historiens occidentaux, 5 vols (1844–95) RHC Or Historiens orientaux, 5 vols (1872–1906) RHGF Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la , ed. Martin Bouquet et al., 24 vols (Paris, 1737–1904) RIS Rerum Italicarum scriptores, ed. Ludovico Muratori et al., 25 vols (Milan, 1723–51) RISNS Rerum Italicarum scriptores. Nuova edizione, ed. Giosuè Carducci et al., 34 vols (Bologna, 1900–) ROL Revue de l’Orient latin PC Projets de croisade (v.1290–v.1330), ed. Jacques Paviot (Paris, 2008) PL Patrologiae Cursus Completus. Series Latina, comp. Jacques Migne, 217 vols and 4 vols of indexes (Paris, 1841–64) PTJ Papsturkunden für Templer und Johanniter, ed. Rudolf Hiestand, 2 vols (Göttingen, 1972–84) UKJ Die Urkunden der lateinischen Könige von Jerusalem, ed. Hans Mayer, 4 parts (Hanover, 2010) WSSR William of Santo Stefano, ‘Recueil’, Paris: Bibl. Nat. MS Fr. Anciens fonds no. 6049

Hospitaller Legislation

With the exception of the Rule, esgarts and usances, all statutes are to be found numbered after the date of the issuing chapter general. Jobert’s privileges of 1176 and customs of 1177 are for convenience treated as though they were capitular decisions. Roger of Moulins’s customs are not distinguished from the statutes of 1182 to which they were appended.

Rule Cart Hosp 1:62–8, no. 70 Esg. (esgarts) Cart Hosp 2:536–47, no. 2213 Us. (usances) Cart Hosp 2:547–61, no. 2213 1176 Cart Hosp 1:339–40, no. 494 1177 Cart Hosp 1:345–7, no. 504 1182 Cart Hosp 1:425–9, no. 627 1206 Cart Hosp 2:31–40, no. 1193 Abbreviations xiii

1262 Cart Hosp 3:43–54, no. 3039 1263 Cart Hosp 3:75–7, no. 3075 1264 Cart Hosp 3:91, no. 3104 1265 Cart Hosp 3:118–21, no. 3180 1268 Cart Hosp 3:186–8, no. 3317 1270 Cart Hosp 3:225–9, no. 3396 1278 Cart Hosp 3:368–70, no. 3670 1283 Cart Hosp 3:450–5, no. 3844 1288 Cart Hosp 3:525–9, no. 4022 1292 Cart Hosp 3:608–9, no. 4194 1293 Cart Hosp 3:638–40, no. 4234 1294 Cart Hosp 3:650–1, no. 4259 1295 Cart Hosp 3:673–4, no. 4295 1300 Cart Hosp 3:810–16, no. 4515 1301 Cart Hosp 4:14–23, no. 4549 1301 Germ. Cart Hosp 4:23–4, no. 4550 1302 Cart Hosp 4:36–41, no. 4574 1303 Cart Hosp 4:57–8, no. 4612 1304 Cart Hosp 4:93–8, no. 4672 1305 Cart Hosp 4:120, no. 4703 1306 Cart Hosp 4:136–7, no. 4734 This page intentionally left blank Maps

Biaus amis, vos requeres la compaignie de la maison et aves raison, car mostz de gentis homes font grans prieres et ont grant joe quant it pont metre aucuns de leur enfanis ou de leur amis en ceste religion. Et si vous aves volonte d’estre en si belle et si honorable compaignie, et en si sainte religion com cele del Hospital es, vos aves raison.

– Usances