Sinkholes and Related Geologic Features in Kansas Author(S): Daniel F

Sinkholes and Related Geologic Features in Kansas Author(s): Daniel F. Merriam and C. John Mann Reviewed work(s): Source: Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science (1903-), Vol. 60, No. 3 (Autumn, 1957), pp. 207-243 Published by: Kansas Academy of Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3626855 . Accessed: 02/02/2012 15:47

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http://www.jstor.org Transactions Kansas Academy of Science Published Quarterlyby the KANSASACADEMY OF SCIENCE(Founded 1868) OFFICERS W. H. Horr, Lawrence, President C. T. Rogerson, Manhattan, Secretary S. V. Dalton, Hays, Treasurer FRANK B. CROSS,Lawrence, Editor

Volume 60, No. 3 Fall, 1957

Sinkholes and Related Geologic Features in Kansas DANIEL F. MERRIAM' and C. JOHN MANN2 ABSTRACT Sinkholes and related features such as caves, natural bridges, and other solution features are numerous in Kansas both on the surface and in the subsurface. Two major types of sinks are recognized, solution- subsidence and solution-collapse, and are classified as simple, complex, or coalescing. Stratigraphically these structures are present in rocks ranging in age from Cambro-Ordovician to Recent. In general, it was found that the geographic distribution of sinks is stratigraphically controlled in the eastern part of the state and structurally controlled in the west. Individual sinks on the surface, as well as subsurface areas of karst development, are described. INTRODUCTION Since 1879 when Mudge published the first description of a sinkhole in Kansas, there has been considerable interest in these and related features, and much has been published about them. These publications deal with a variety of aspects of surface and subsurface sinks, such as physical description, origin, classification, age, and relation to structure. Sinkholes are numerous on the surface throughout the state and locally form an important element of the physiography. They have received some publicity because of their spectacular nature of occurrence. Also, in

Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, Vol. 60, No. 3, 1957. 1 State Geological Survey of Kansas. 2 Department of Geology, University of Kansas. [207] 208 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science recent years with increased data available from wells drilled in search for oil, gas, and water, it has been possible to reconstructburied karst topographic surfaces and locate subsurfacesinks. One of the better known sinkholes in Kansas is the "Meade Salt Sink." This feature, located in Meade County, has been mentioned in many reports and describedin detail by numerous authors. It received considerablepublicity at the time of its formation, when it developed across an often-used cattle trail and wagon road. The sinkhole was filled with salt water, and at one time apparatuswas set up on the rim to recover salt from the brine (Cowgill, 1885). Other well known solution-subsidenceand collapse features in the state are Big Basin and Little Basin with associatedSt. Jacob's Well in Clark County. They are naturalscenic spots becausethey are in Permian redbeds in the region known as the "Gyp Hills." Also in the same area in nearbyBarber County is Natural Bridge, which has become a favorite picnic place and has attainedthe unofficialstatus of a park. Known sinks occur in beds as old as Cambro-Ordovician(Arbuckle group) and affect practicallythe entire overlying geologic column, including Recent deposits. Early in 1956 a drilling rig slumped into a newly formed hole, possibly a sink, 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep, a short distance northeastof Iuka, Pratt County, Kansas (The Kansas City Times, March 2, 1956). If this is a sinkhole, it probably is the most recent which has developed in the state. Distribution and configuration of these features have economic implications,especially in the location of petroleum. It seems that subsurface sinks in oil-producing areas commonly are barren of petroleum. (Ver Wiebe, 1947; Glover, 1953). In the neighboringstate of Missouri, surface sinks have been found to contain such economic products as fire clay and pyrite (Lee, 1913; Keller, Westcott, and Bledsoe, 1953). How- ever, as yet these materialshave not been found in Kansas sinks. In the Tri-Statezinc and lead district, it has been recognizedthat location of ore is, at least in part, controlled by solution features in Mississippianstrata (Smith and Siebenthal, 1904). Location of these structurescould be of importancein an explorationprogram seeking future reservesof these minerals. Sinks, where numerouson the surface, affect local ground-watercon- ditions. General recognition of an area of sinks, solution features, and slumped blocks also is important in structuralgeologic mapping either on the surface or in the subsurface. Many other economicallyvaluable data may be derived from study of these features. Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 209

Acknowledgments.-The authors would like to thank Drs. John C. Frye, Ralph H. King, and A. Byron Leonard for reading the manuscript and offering many helpful criticismsand suggestions. GENERAL FEATURES Terminology The word rim is used to indicate ground surface immediately surrounding the sinkhole on which commonly is developed a series of cracks. Lip refers to the intersectionof rim and wall of the sink. As rock surroundingthe sink is eroded, the lip progressively moves away from the center of the cavity displacing the rim. Lip may be hard to define because no sharp break occurs if the rim area slopes toward the sinkhole and the wall of the sink is gentle. In this case, distinguishing the wall from the floor also may be difficult. Wall is the side of the sink and may be gentle, steep, vertical,or overhanging. The floor is the bottom of the sink. It may be irregular if composed of collapsed broken material from the cavern roof, or smooth if material was let down slowly and continuity of the original surface was maintained, providing the original surface was smooth. Oftentimes the floor is obscured by water. The filling is material deposited in the sinkhole. A cavern, or cavity, is a void formed either by solution of rock or by other means. When the roof of the cavern gives way and overlying rocks collapse or subside into the void, a sinkhole is formed. Physical Characteristics Physical characteristicsinclude such things as size, shape, depth, area, volume of rock involved, and numberof sinks per unit area. Sink- holes range from a few feet to several thousand feet in diameter. Several large ones in Logan County have diametersof more than one-half mile (Carlton R. Johnson, personal communication). Normally, individual sinks have diameters measured in tens or hundreds of feet, but the Ashland-Englewoodbasin is locally more than 12 miles wide. Shapes may be circular, subcircular,oval, elliptical, and irregular. Depth of sinkholes ranges from a few feet to more than 200 feet. Geologic literatureprovides few data on area of a single sink. However, area involved rangesprobably from less than one acre to more than 3,000. The Ashland-Englewoodbasin, for example, coversmany squaremiles and is the largest solution feature in Kansas. Only two estimates are available on volume of rock involved in collapsedsinks. Amount of materialaffected in the Potwin sink was given as 500,000 cubic feet (Gordon, 1938), and 11/2 million cubic feet was quoted for the Smoky Basin cave-in (Moore, 1926). 210 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

Hay (1896) counted 42 sinks in a square mile. However, because this is the only figure found in the literature,it is not known whether it is low, average, or high. Classification Sinks are difficultto classify, becauseof their diverse nature, and it is hard to reduce the numerousvariations to fit a simple usable classification. However, such a classificationhas been proposedby Frye and Schoff (1942) to apply to Kansassinks. They proposea tripartdivision: simple, complex, and coalescing. (1) Simple-Simple sinks have one period of subsidence. Deposits filling the sinkholes are conformable, but dip toward the center of the sink. (2) Complex-Complex sinks have several periods of subsidence. Later subsidencesaffect only parts of the previous one or ones, and as a result, many diverse dips and local unconformitiescharacterize sediments deposited in the hole. (3) Coalescing-Coalescing sinks are the result of two or more sinks which have formed close together and have been joined when their rims either collapsedor were worn away by erosion. The result is a series of connectedsinks, and as might be expected, the outline is irregular. An example of this type is the Ashland-Englewoodbasin in Clark County. In addition, there are two major types of sinks (Thornbury,1954, p. 321): (1) solution-subsidencesinks, those developed by slow downward solution with no physical disturbanceof the rock being let down, and (2) collapsed sinks, those developed by collapse of rock above a previously formed undergroundvoid. Both types occur in Kansas, but the collapsed kind attract more public attention because they are more spectacularin forming. Stratigraphic Distribution Sinks in Kansas occur in beds ranging in age from Ordovician to Recent. Figure 1 is a generalized columnar section of Kansas rocks. As rocks older than Mississippiando not crop out in the state, all sinks occurring in pre-Mississippianrocks are present in the subsurfaceonly. Distribution of the different rock systems roughly parallels precipitation belts. It happens that outcrops of Mississippian and Penn- sylvanian beds occur in the area of greatest rainfall. Farther west, Permian strata crop out in an area of less rainfall than that of Penn- sylvanian rocks; Cretaceous beds are exposed in a belt of moderate precipitation;and Tertiary rocks in an area of least rainfall. Much of z

Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 211

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Figure 1. Generalizedstratigraphic rock column of Kansas. western Kansas receives between 10 and 20 inches of moisture a year and is classed as semiarid. Becauseof differencesin bedrock acrossthe region, form and type of sinks differ. Loosely consolidated Tertiary sediments, thick uniform 212 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

Cretaceousstrata, Permian redbeds,thin alternatingbeds mainly of limestone and shale of the Permo-Pennsylvanian,and massive,cherty limestone of Mississippian age all react differently to formative processes of sink development. The most soluble beds in the geologic section are salt, gypsum, chalk, and limestone. Limestone is present in quantity in Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, Permian, and CretaceousSystems. The Mississippiansurface is a site of pronouncedsink development, and in certain areas this surface is in an advanced stage of karst development. Many sinks and related features have been described in the area of Mississippian outcrop in extreme southeasternKansas (Pierce and Courtier, 1937). In the Pennsylvanian, several formations, Oread limestone, Stanton limestone, and Wyandotte limestone, for example, are noted for having sinks and related solutional features. There are undoubtedlyother Pennsylvanianstratigraphic units in which sinks have formed but have not been reported. The lower part of the Permiansection, which in many respectsis like Pennsylvanian beds, contains many limestones in which sinks form. Some are the Cresswell,Fort Riley, Florence,and Red Eagle. The Fort Riley seemingly is most susceptibleto sinkhole formation. Limestone in the Cretaceous occurs in the Greenhornand Niobrara formations. Chalk is restrictedto the Cretaceous,but is present over much of the western one-third of the state. Caliche, an impure form of calcium carbonate,is present in the TertiaryOgallala formation and younger deposits. Salt deposits are present in the Wellington and other Permian formationsin Kansas, and becauseof the solubility of salt it is important. Salt underlies much of south-central, central, and western Kansas. Gypsum also is a major rock type in the middle and upper parts of the Permian in Kansas. Gypsum is widespread both geographically and stratigraphically,attaining moderate thickness at several stratigraphic positions. The most importantPermian gypsum is probablyin the Blaine formation.

Geographic Distribution Sinkholes have been reported from 26 of the 105 counties in the state. Sinks were describedfrom about one-thirdof the more than 50 counties in which the geology has been worked in detail. More spectacularones in other counties, although not mapped, have received attention and have been discussed in geologic literature (Fig. 2). Geographic distribution of many sinks is controlled by outcrop pattern of different stratigraphicunits, for example, a series of sinks is developed along the outcrop of the Fort Riley limestone through Cowley, i

Sinkholes and Related Features in Kansas 213

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pian surface in southeastern Kansas are controlled to abyi certain extent

moresusceptiblgure 2. Location of some of the better known sinks in Kansas. salPiee andCoutier (1937) foundMississip-. that rent sinks on the G. Butler,InO'Connor,McPherson, personal Harvey, communication)...andWabaunSedgwick Counties. Because theoributcrion of piAreeflikace bedinsoutheastern Kansas thear contRedEagolled to a certaitionof Permiant i b setof sinksincorresponds limKansaseastern to coincidesthe with thisof pattern.mian Wellingto latFiguePlei2.Lstocene depositso overlie deepter early Pleistocene channesas. Mcersoinoed inare sink distribution discussed boe e been agelocationdifferent crossesactorsofunits buriedinvo "fossil"ols sinks.nkdevelopment south distributionSeemingly northernse discussed areasas bands,above ofunty old have (Howardsinks been Kansas,werlte solubleseemingyLohman, beds are 1949).deeply buried, structural control Kaofsinsas, were solublebedKansas arcoincideeply buried, structuralcontrtol seemingly mlatorei Pleistocenptible i deposits ioverlient deeper i te earlyRdchannels.nt. PleistoceneE e f o ThPierelocahage arend onutroe Courtier (oussk s developmen examples off insinks o controlledCountro d by yfaulting. linH. Inssip-Iar

LoganO'Countynor, Carlton R. (personalJohnson communication) states that

probably all larger sinks are controlled by an intricate pattern of normal faults in the Niobrara formation-something like a horst and graben effect. Smith (1940) believes that the Coolidge sink in Hamiltor~Hamilton 214 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

County occurs along a line of post-Ogallala faulting. In Wallace County Elias (1931) gives several examples of linear trends of sinks, which he regardsas arrangedalong faults. Sinks in the Stanton County area near Bear Creek probablybegan to form at the time of folding and faulting of the Syracuse anticline, and the process is still continuing (McLaughlin, 1946). Faulting has played a major role, especially in Meade County, in sink development,according to Frye (1950). Surface water has been allowed accessto deeply buriedsoluble rock of the Permian via fault planes. Without this water circulation, it is doubtful that cavitiescould have been formed with subsequentsubsidence and formation of sinks. For example, the "Meade Salt Sink" appears to be associated with a fault, because it is located a short distance east of the Crooked Creek fault. Insufficient information is available to make any other comparisons,but correlationof structureand sinks is obvious. A generalitycan be given, then, for geographic distributionof sinks in the state. For the most part, in eastern Kansas sink distribution is controlled by stratigraphic considerations and in western Kansas by structuralfactors. This generalization,however, may prove invalid with additional information; and as should be expected, many exceptions are possible.

Origin A distinction should be made between depressions and sinkholes. Sinkholes are formed either by solution-subsidenceor solution-collapse, whereas High Plains depressions,on the other hand, may be formed by compaction, silt infiltration, or animal action as well as solutional processes. In other words, sinkholes are depressions,but not all depressions are sinkholes. Frye (1950) has given an excellent summaryon origin of Great Plains depressionsin which he includes a discussion of sinkholes. According to him there are six causes of these depressions: (1) deep-seated solution, (2) solution of carbonate rocks, (3) eolian action, (4) differentialsilt infiltration, (5) animal action, and (6) faulting. Only deep-seatedsolution, solution of carbonaterocks, and faulting are factors involved in sinkhole development; other causes concern developmentof the High Plains depressionswhich are not true sinkholes. Deep-seatedsolution featurescited by Frye (1950) are in the Meade- ClarkCounty area in the southwesternpart of the state. Specificexamples are the "Meade Salt Sink", Big Basin, Little Basin, Jones Ranch sink, and Ashland-Englewoodbasin. In this area, surface water has gained accessto and dissolved cavities in deeply buried Permiansalt and gypsum Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 215 beds. Subsequentcollapse of the roofs of these cavities has produced sinks. Examples in western Kansas of solution of carbonaterocks are the Coolidge sink and Smoky Basin cave-in. Chalk solution aided by water circulation along fault planes is believed by Frye to result in sinkhole formation. Fault control is important, according to Frye, especially in Meade County. Several other examples of sinks controlled by faulting have previouslybeen mentioned. Three conditions are necessaryfor formation of sinks: (1) soluble beds, (2) water, and (3) time. Other factors also to be consideredare: type of rock, thickness of soluble beds, depth of burial of soluble beds, amount of rainfall and its distribution,and available ground water. All these factors determineconfiguration and distributionof sinks. Depend- ing on circumstances,the result will be solution-subsidenceor solution- collapse structures. SURFACE SINKS Description of Individual Sinks Ashland-Englewood Basin (Ashland Basin) The Ashland basin in southern Clark County, southwesternKansas, forms a large topographic depression. It is a coalescing sink (Frye, 1942). The depression probably was caused by solution of Permian salt and gypsum, which occur less than 1,000 feet below the surface (Frye, 1950; Jewett, 1951; Smith, 1940). This large sink is as much as 12 miles wide and 500 feet below the general level of the High Plains (Schoewe, 1949). The wall is Permianredbeds capped by late TertiaryOgallala. The basin is dissected and drainedby CimarronRiver. As much as 100 feet of late Pleistocene fill has been deposited in the depression. Frye (1950) dates subsidence as mid-Pleistoceneto late-Pleistoceneand believes that solution is directly relatedto faults that formed in Pleistocenetime in the area.

Big Basin and Little Basin Two sinks in western Clark County are well known; the larger, Big Basin, is located just west of the smaller Little Basin, which contains within its boundariesa picturesqueand smaller sink known as St. Jacob's Well (Fig. 3a, 3b). Big Basin is situated in sec. 24 and 25, T. 32 S., R. 25 W. The sink is subcircularand approximatelyone mile in diameter. The floor is 216 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

Figure 3a. Big Basin, Clark County (Ada Swineford, 1951). Figure 3b. Little Basin and St. Jacob's Well, Clark County (1955). Figure 3c. Natural Bridge, Barber County (1955).

relativelyflat and 125 to 150 feet below the rim. Small depressions,or sags, often retaining water, occur on the floor of the basin. The wall Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 217 of the sink is still essentiallyvertical although slightly dissected. Permian, Cretaceous,and Teritaryrocks crop out in the wall on the rim above the basin. Its formation probably occurredfrom several hundred to a few thousandyears ago (Smith, 1940). Little Basin is about one-third mile east of Big Basin. The floor is 35 feet below the rim level. Although Little Basin is shallower than Big Basin, the two sinks are believed to be the same age. St. Jacob's Well, a relatively recent sink, is on the floor of Little Basin. Because water is retainedin this smaller sink, a moist condition forms an "oasis" in the semiaridcountry. Both Big and Little Basins are believed to be due to solution of the underlying soluble Permian beds. CherokeeCounty Sinks Sinkholes are observablewhere rocks of Mississippian age crop out in some areas of southeasternKansas. Sinks have developed in the thick and soluble limestone of the Mississippianin post-Cherokeetime as well as recently. Howe (1954) reports that Pennsylvanianstrata are commonly faulted in older sinks becausecollapse of cavernsin the Mississip- pian limestone occurredafter consolidationof overlying sediments. Some faults have a throw of as much as 6 feet. Pyrite and marcasite are common along fault planes. Nine recent sinks were described by Pierce and Courtier (1937). "Fossil" sinks dated as post-lower Cherokee are exposed in four of the recent sinks. Two of the recent sinks subsided about 1905. One is located in the SW/4 sec. 34, T. 32 S., R. 25 E.; the other is in the NW/4 sec. 28, T. 33 S., R. 25 E. Both sinks are elliptical, 75 to 125 feet across and 30 or more feet deep. Their walls are nearly vertical. Two more sinks are in the W1/2 sec. 34, T. 32 S., R. 25 E. The earlier sink was formed in 1911. A few years prior to 1911 a sag, about 14 feet in diameter, appeared in a corn field, but no water was retained in the depression. In 1911, a larger hole suddenly appearedin the area of the former sag. The wall was vertical and extended down 72 feet; water was present in the bottom. In 1933, the north rim sank approximately20 feet. The second sink in sec. 34 formed in 1922 and was a shallow depressionabout 10 feet in diameter. Two other shallow sinks, about 10 feet in diameter, are located in the NE/4 sec. 9, T. 32 S., R. 25 E. One formed about 1921 and the other in 1929. 218 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

Another sink in the NE/4 sec. 34, T. 32 S., R. 25 E. was reported to have formed in 1911 or 1912. It was filled prior to 1937, and no further data on it are available. In 1924, cracksappeared in the soil in the El/2 sec. 9, T. 32 S., R. 25 E. The area of soil cracks subsided in 1929 to form a vertical- walled, elliptical sinkhole, 75 to 125 feet across and 30 feet deep. All known sinks in Cherokee County are attributedto solution of underlying Mississippian limestone.

Coolidge Sink On December 18, 1926, a hole suddenly appearedin the ground 15 miles south of Coolidge, Hamilton County (NE1/4 sec. 22, T. 25 S., R. 43 W.). On July 1, 1930, the sinkhole was reported to be about 60 feet in diameterand 40 feet deep (Bass, 1931). It was circularwith a steep and undercut wall; the floor sloped at a low angle toward the center of the depression. Three sets of crevices encircled the structure. By August 8, 1930, the sinkhole had enlarged to a diameterof 104 feet and increased in depth to 68 feet (Bass, 1931). The material in which the sinkhole was formed was homogeneoussilt; no stratifiedrock could be seen in the hole. The depressionhad increasedin size to 150 by 200 feet in 1941 and had elongated from its original circular shape, engulfing a nearby county road. It also had filled with water to within 15 feet of the rim (McLaughlin, 1943). Smith reportedthat in 1940 water filled the hole within 10 feet of the surface and that the wall had slumped so that no overhang was visible. Bass attributedthe sink to solution and formation of a cavern with subsequentcollapse of the roof. He reported that bedrock dips at 5? towards the sink, indicating that the entire area of recent subsidencemay be part of a larger and older sink. Landes (1931) studied the area and determinedthat Granerosshale was exposed below the rim. From this, Landes decided the original cavern must have been formed in either salt or gypsum in the Permian section. Smith found that this sink is but one of a linear series and suggests they occur along a post- Ogallala fault.

"Meade Salt Sink" Sudden sinking of a circulararea 150 to 200 feet across took place sometime between the 3rd and 18th of March, 1879, in Meade County, 11/2 miles southeastof Meade. The sink is on the east side of Crooked Sinkholes and Related Features in Kansas 219

Creek, just east of the Crooked Creek fault. The Great Salt Well, as it was called at the time of formation, engulfed a portion of the "Jones A

Figure 4a. HamiltonCounty sink, HamiltonCounty (Ada Swineford,1951). Figure 4b. HamiltonCounty sink, HamiltonCounty (Ada Swineford,1951). 220 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science and PlummerTrail", an often-used wagon road and cattle trail (Cragin, 1884). Mudge (1879) states that by the 18th of March it was 60 feet deep and had a circumferenceof 610 feet; it was nearly circularwith a perpendicularwall. Saline water filled the hole within 17 feet of the land surface. Depth of water ranged from 15 to 27 feet at the edge to 42 feet at the center. Water finally rose to within 14 feet of the ground surface. Concentric sod cracks formed on the rim around the sinkhole. They were 5 to 15 feet deep and 1 to 10 inches wide. The most distant cracks were 126 feet from the hole. From the saline water Mudge (1879) states 1 bushel of salt was recoveredfor every 43 gallons of water, about a 7 percent concentration. At one time salt was produced commerciallyfrom the well. At present, the sink is filling with sediment. Water now in the sink is not saline. In the last few years the sinkhole has been completely dry (Walter H. Schoewe, personal communication). Mudge (1879) thought a cavern had been formed in the Dakota formation, softer material being washed out by subterraneanwater, causing subsequentcaving. Johnson (1901), Smith (1940), and Frye (1942) suggest that the cavern formed in underlying Permian salt beds and that overlying rocks collapsed. Frye (1942) points out that the shallowestsoluble rock is in Permian redbedsseveral hundred feet below the present water table. He believes that Pliocene faulting provided necessary openings for water to have access to soluble beds in the Permian and therefore controlled development of solution caverns. Period of sink formation thus has been limited to post-Pliocenetime. Mitchell County Sink An unusual type of sink developed in Mitchell County in 1927. Subsidenceof a trench in loess, 200 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 18 feet deep, necessitatedmoving a farm house. Landes (1932) reports that flat discoidalpebbles of the Fort Hays limestone (memberof the Niobrara formation, Cretaceous) derived from nearby outcrops are found in loess at the level of the trench floor. He believes that solution of limestone pebbles formed a small cave in the loess. Erosion by circulatingground water enlarged the cave. The result was a collapse of the overlying loess and formation of a sinkhole. A second collapsed cave 40 feet long was formed in 1931 at right angles to the main trench. Sinkholes and Related Features in Kansas 221

Jones Ranch Sink The Jones Ranch sink, 8 miles southeast of Meade, forms a large topographicaldepression in Meade County (T. 32 and 33 S., R. 27 W.). The sink is subcircular,three miles in diameter,and controls a centripetal drainage pattern. It is dissected and partly filled with sediments. Exposed beds of rock dip slightly into the sink. Its origin is attributed to solution and collapse (Smith, 1940; Frye, 1942; Jewett, 1951). Frye and Leonard (1952) have dated the fill as early Wisconsinan from contained molluscan fauna. They point out that such isolated features are dated either by fossils or by intersectionof lines of dissection. Old Maid's Pool This sinkhole in Wallace County (sec. 30, T. 12 S., R. 40 W.) is northwestof Sharon Springs (Fig. 5a). Moore (1926a) describesit as 80 feet in maximum depth and three-eighthsmile in diameter. A small lake 300 feet wide is in the bottom. The hole is circular,and the wall is moderatelydissected. Pierre shale is exposed on the south side of the basin (Elias, 1931). Potwin Sink A recent sink which occurred suddenly near Potwin has been described by Gordon (1938). The hole, located in the SE/4 sec. 24, T. 24 S., R. 3 E., Butler County,was formed on the afternoonof Septem- ber 22, 1937. It was 90 feet by 150 feet, elongated in an east-west direction, and about 45 feet deep. Clear green water filled the hole within 15 feet of the rim. The wall of the sink, which consisted of unstratified loam, was perpendicular. It was estimated that approximately500,000 cubic feet of materialwas involved in the subsidence. The rim was estimated to be about 35 feet below base of the Herington limestone. Winfield limestone, had it been present, would have been near the level of the rim and Towanda limestone would have been a few feet below the bottom of the sinkhole. Gordon believed that solution had taken place in the Fort Riley limestone about 75 feet below base of the sinkhole and that sudden collapse of the cavern roof resulted in the sinkhole. Two older partly filled sinks are found in the vicinity of the Potwin sink. Smoky Basin Cave-in A sudden subsidencewhich took place near Smoky Hill River about 5 miles east of Sharon Springs on March 9, 1926, attractednationwide .

222 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

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- ^li^l^'&~" 4~ : -'- ,:,?- - - - Figure 5a. Old Maid's pool, Wallace County (Grace Muilenburg,1956). Figure 5b. Small sink near Smoky Basin cave-in (Grace Muilenburg,1956). Figure 5c. Smoky Basin cave-in, Wallace County(Grace Muilenburg,1956). attention (Fig. 5c). The sink (sec. 33 and 34, T. 13 S., R. 39 W., Wallace County) had a diameterof about 50 feet. By March 11 it had Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 223 increasedin size to about 125 by 250 feet giving it an irregularelliptical shape (Moore, 1926a). On April 13 dimensions had increased to 150

Figure 6a. Two small sinks in Douglas County (1956). Figure 6b. Close-up of small sink in Douglas County (1956). '':Sw 9...... ,S:,.2 S.'.:ii

224 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science by 290 feet, and still later to about 250 feet north-southby 350 feet east- west. The wall was vertical down to water level 165 to 170 feet below

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Figure 7a. Floor of small sink in Douglas County (1956). Figure 7b. Sinkhole, Douglas County (1956). Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 225 the lip. Water was 50 feet deep in the centerof the hole. Moore (1926) estimatedtotal depth of the sink as 300 to 350 feet and materialinvolved as approximately11/2 million cubic feet. Pierre shale is exposed in the

Figure 8a. Sink in Lyon County (1956). Figure 8b. Sink in Lyon County (1956). 226 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science wall of the sinkhole, and the Niobrara formation is exposed a short distance east of the area. Moore (1926) suggested that because of size and large amount of material involved, the sink was due to roof collapse into a cavity of considerablesize in the upper part of the Niobrara chalk. Chalk was dissolved by eastward-movingground water, which entered the formation at the outcrop fartherwest. Russell (1929) discarded the idea by Moore of solution of the Niobrara and postulated instead that the sink was the indirect result of structuraldeformation. He thought there was too much shale in the Niobrarato be dissolved for cavernformation and also found no evidence that the formation carried water. Clue to the origin of the sink, he believes, lies in the structureof the region because in nearby counties there are many faults, which were formed during pre-Ogallala and post-Ogallala deformation. He believes cavities, strong enough to resist pressuresfor a long time, occurredalong faults, ultimately collapsing as did the Smoky Basin cave-in. Many previously formed sinkholes probably have been obliterated by erosion and deposition so that only recent ones are evident. Russell reports a fault having a throw of 50 feet in the north wall of the cave-in. Elias (1930) is of the opinion that the theory of collapse or subsidence along fault voids is unsound. He suggests that the fault may have aided indirectly in the cave-in by permitting surface water to descend undergroundand gain access to underlying chalk, causing sub- sequent solution in the Niobrara formation. Flint Hills Sinks Hay (1896) describesnumerous sinks on upland areas of the Flint Hills in the Fort Riley Military Reservation,Riley County. Although not large, deep, nor spectacular,they are describedhere because they are representativeof the common upland type in Kansas. Sinks range in diameterfrom 30 to 50 feet and in depth from 8 to 10 feet. All are roughly circular or oval in shape. Hay counted as many as 42 individual sinks in one square mile. Most individual sinks do not retain water. One of the larger sinks in the area contains five smaller ones in its floor. Upland sinks on the Fort Riley Reservationhave been formed by solution and subsidenceof the Fort Riley limestone, which lies near the surface in the region. The Fort Riley is readily soluble and exhibits well defined jointing. Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 227

Figure 9. Two sinks in WabaunseeCounty (H. G. O'Connor,1955). Similar sinks have been reportedin WabaunseeCounty (Fig. 9) by Savage (1881) and in Morris County by William R. Atkinson (personal communication), Hay (1896), and Schoewe (1949). Small, circular, shallow sinks due to solution of the Fort Riley limestone also occur in Cowley County (Bass, 1929) and Butler County (Fath, 1921). SUBSURFACESINKS Some "fossil" sinks have been preserved in the rock record and occur in the subsurface. Inasmuch as we can examine the subsurface record accuratelyonly by well logs, it is evident that our present knowl- edge of subsurfacesinks is limited to areas that have been sufficiently drilled to permit accurateand detailed study of the "hidden"geology. Erosion of overlying strataexposes subsurfacekarst areasthat formed in the past. In the southeasterncorner of the state, sinks that formed in Mississippian rocks during late Mississippian and early Pennsylvanian time, and were buried until recently, are now seen on the surface. Sinks in the subsurface have been described in both central and eastern Kansas, but none are known to have been reported in the far western part of the state. Central Kansai Buried hills and sinks have been recognized from subsurface data in several areas of the Midcontinent region. One area that has been studied in detail and excellently described by Walters (1946) includes 228 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science

Kraft-Prusa, Beaver, and Bloomer oil fields of northeastern Barton County. Oil occurs in sedimentary strata surrounding and covering six buried Precambrianhills. Buried sinks adjacent to the hills were formed in the Cambro-OrdovicianArbuckle dolomite precedingdeposition of Pennsylvaniansediments. Age of sink formation is early Pennsyl- vanian. During this time Precambrianhills were topographicallyhigher than Cambro-Ordovicianrocks, which dip slightly away from the hills. The entire area was above sea-level and was subjectedto weathering and erosion. Solution features that developed on the exposed Cambro- Ordoviciandolomite include solution valleys as well as sinks and resulted in a youthful karst plain. Each of six hills was competely surroundedby solution valleys 20 to 80 feet deep. Each of the valleys surroundingthe low hills had no known surface and outlet and consequentlywas a moat-typefeature. It is interestingto note that the wider and broaderpart of the asymmetrical valley formed on the most gentle slope of the hill, and that the widest valley is around the largest hill and the narrowestvalley surroundsthe smallest hill.

Sinkholes are found on the plain surroundingthe low hills. They are scatteredand abundantbut have limited areal extent. Many wells in the area were drilled on a 10-acre spacing; therefore some of the sinks are known to occupy less than 20 acres. Sinkholes are 10 to 60 feet deep. Valley sinks, believed by Walters to have been formed by closely spaced coalesced sinkholes, also were found on the plain along with individual sinks. Walters calls attention to the fact that valleys surroundingthe hills indicate that these features are solutional, whereas the same physiographiccriteria indicate that sinks are due to solution but do not prove their origin. Evidence that sinkholes and valleys are true solution features is the occurrenceof untransportedresidual weathered productsof the dolomite in the lowest part of the depression. Untransportedweathering products, which Walters calls residuum, are formed from less soluble constitutents of the Cambro-Ordovician dolomite. Residuum material includes chert fragments, clay, sand, silt, quartzcrystals, and shale; the same insoluble residues are obtained in the laboratoryby dissolving the Cambro-Ordoviciandolomite core samples. Gordin reports one well in the Bemis pool of Ellis County that penetrated a sinkhole in the Arbuckle group. This well struck the Arbuckle 270 feet lower than did nearby wells. Another well in the Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 229 same pool encounteredweathered chert derived from Mississippianrocks in a cavern in the Arbuckle. In the Silica pool of Barton County, a well-developed karst topography is reported by Ver Wiebe (1941). In this pool there are 36 known depressionsin the Arbuckle, each filled with detrital material of early Pennsylvanianage. Probably the deepest sink was penetrated by the Lario No. 2 Zohorsky "A" well, which encountered 163 feet of conglomerate. Within the area of the Trapp pool, Russell and Barton Counties, there are at least 12 known subsurface depressions. They are believed to be ancient sinkholes in the Arbuckle. Depressions are a few feet to 168 feet deep. Sinks in the Arbuckle rocks, filled with Simpson sediments, have been described by Redman (1947) in the Ryan oil field Rush and Pawnee Counties, which is on the southwestern flank of the Central Kansas uplift. These remnants of Simpson shale, which are about 20 miles from the paleo-outcrop,have been preserved in sinks by reason of their position. Solution of the Arbuckleto form sinks took place prior to removal of Simpson shale, probably in pre-Pennsylvanianor early Pennsylvaniantime. Eastern Kansas Sinkholes of probable Simpson age occur in the subsurface of Johnson, Miami, Coffey, Linn, and Woodson Counties (Merriam and Atkinson, 1956). Sinks were formed in limestone and dolomite of the Arbuckle group and contain abnormallythick deposits of Simpson age, chiefly St. Peter sandstone. Chert conglomerate and green shale are present in the bottom of six describedsinkholes. Green shale, composed mainly of an illitic clay and quartz,is interpretedas a residualweathering product which formed either in sinkholes or in the near vicinity and washed into the depressions. Although exact age determination is difficultto make, it is believed that these Simpson filled sinkholes formed in pre-Simpsontime and were filled during deposition of Simpson sediments (Merriam and Atkinson, 1956). Smith and Anders (1951) describe a sink in Mississippian rocks in the Davis Ranch oil pool in WabaunseeCounty. An abnormalthickness. of 420 feet of Cherokeesediments is interpretedas fill in a sinkhole on the Mississippiansurface. Rich (1930) and Shenkel (1955) also mention a sinkhole on the Mississippiansurface in Dickinson County that is visible in surface Per- 230 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science mian beds. Another subsurfacesink, in Morris County, also is mappable in surfacerocks. Lee (1940) mentions a sink on the buriedMississippian surface in SumnerCounty. With increased drilling for oil and gas in the state, other buried sinkholes will undoubtedly be revealed. In general, the Arbuckle and Mississippiansurfaces seemingly are more susceptible to sink formation than many other subsurfacerocks.

AGE OF SINKS Age of known Kansas sinks ranges from Ordovician to Recent. Several periods in geologic history seem to have been more favorable for sink formation than others, and several of these time intervalsshould be mentioned. The first is pre-Simpson-post-Arbuckle time, when the low relief surfaceof the Arbucklewas exposed to prolonged weatheringand erosion. It was during this interval that sink formation took place in eastern Kansas, especially on the flanks of the rising Chautauquaarch. Other areas, as on the Central Kansas uplift, must have been subjected to the same processes,but most of the evidence was destroyedby later erosion. The next period especially favorable to formation of sinks was in early Pennsylvaniantime. The surface rock in large areas of Kansas which had low relief, was at that time thick Mississippian limestone. Before complete inundation by Pennsylvanian seas, the region was effectively weathered and eroded and an extensive karst topography developed on this Mississippian surface. On the Central Kansas uplift, Arbuckle rocks were again exposed to erosion processesafter removal of overlying beds. It was at this time that a well-developedkarst topography was formed on the Arbucklesurface locally on the Central Kansas uplift as described by Redman (1947), Walters (1946), and Ver Wiebe (1941, 1947). The next period of comparativelyrapid sink development,which is well recorded, began in the Pliocene and is still in process. This kind of sink development occurring at the present differs somewhat from that in pre-Simpson-post-Arbuckle time and early Pennsylvaniantime. Numerous and varied rock types are exposed on the surface, and thus conditions are not favorable for extensive development of karst topography. Sinks are abundant locally, however. RELATED FEATURES Commonly associated with sink development in Kansas are caves, natural bridges, undergrounddrainages, and soil cracks. These related Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 231 features are more prominent in the western part of the state. For the most part, they are minor and do not form a major part of the physiography. They, like sinks, are restricted geographically and stratigraphicallyto areas and rock formations susceptible to solutional processes. Because Kansas has no extensive limestone plateaus, as do Indiana and Kentucky,well developed karst topographyand karst-relatedfeatures are not present. Lee and Payne (1944) describe an interesting occurrenceof cave deposits in Mississippianrocks found in the subsurfaceof the McLouth gas and oil field, in Jeffersonand LeavenworthCounties. Pennsylvanian deposits occur in the caves, which were found at depths of as much as 150 feet below the top of the Mississippian. No sinkholes were found to be associatedwith the caves. Davis (1955) describes in detail three small caves in the Stanton limestone formation (Pennsylvanian) in Wilson and Montgomery Counties. Caves, presumablyin the Fort Riley limestone (Permian), have been mentioned by Savage (1891) as occurring in Wabaunsee County. Stalactites and stalagmites occur in the caves. William R. Atkinson (personal communication) relates the occurrenceof caves in the Fort Riley limestone in southwesternMorris County. Caves in this part of the geologic section are usually low and narrow but long. The well known Butler County cave in the Fort Riley limestone should also be mentioned (John M. Jewett, personal communication). Solution of the Blaine gypsum (Permian) has resulted in formation of many small sinks, caves, and natural bridges in Barberand Comanche Counties. Caves in this area and adjoining portion of Oklahoma are commonly called "The Bat Caves". These caverns have been described in detail by Twente (1955). Grimsley and Bailey (1899) describe a gypsum cave on Cave Creek, four miles west of Evansville, known as Big Gypsum cave. A streamentered from the west of the 100-foot cave and left by an east opening. The largest and best known natural bridge in Kansas spans Bear Creek 7 miles south of Sun City in BarberCounty (Fig. 3c). The bridge was 12 feet above the small stream, and the 55-foot span was 35 feet wide in May, 1934 (Jewett, 1935). Many other small natural bridges occur in this part of the state, but are not as well known as Sun City Natural Bridge. They also have formed by solution of Permiangypsum. 232 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

Absence of surface drainagecourses may indicate subterraneanwater courses in soluble rocks. In the Bird City area in Cheyenne County, there is an absence of drainage channels. In western Kansas, White Woman Creek offers an excellent example of subsurface water drainage. The stream enters the state in Greeley County and flows east across Wichita County into western Scott County, where the surface water course disappears. No re-entryto the surface is known. The point at which the streamdisappears is a short distancewest of the Modoc basin. McLaughlin (1946) mentions the area of the Bear Creek depression, where Bear Creek crosses the northwesterncorner of Grant County. In places, drainageconsists of a series of sinkholes and short intermittent streams,indicating underground water channels. In southern Kearny County, surface expression of the Bear Creek drainageends abruptly. Many other small streams,especially in Wichita, Scott, Kearny, Finney, Grant, and Haskell Counties, flow for a short distance on the surface and then disappearunderground. Soil cracks commonly are found in a concentricpattern on the rim encircling sinkholes. Their formation is due to subsidence of surface deposits into the sinkhole causing separationand readjustmentof material on the surroundingrim. An interesting man-madesubsidence of considerablesize occurredin Hutchinson in 1924. Removal of salt by five solution wells underlying the city resulted in slight settlement of some buildings in the business district (Young, 1927). SUMMARY It is difficult to concisely summarizeor to make any definite state- ments concerning many varied aspects of sinks or related features. It is possible to make some generalizations,however. In terms of geologic time, sinkholes, as physiographicfeatures, exist for relatively short periods. Only if sinks are buried will they be preserved, and then in many cases, it may be difficultto recognizethem. Sur- face sinks may be recognized by topographic expression, structure, and physical characteristics;subsurface sinks may be revealed by abnormally thick sediments different from normal stratigraphicsuccession of beds and by structure. Several conditions such as soluble beds, adequate rainfall, adequate ground-water movement, and time are necessary for sink formation. Different combinations of these factors produce different results and determine whether solution-subsidenceor collapsed features are formed. Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 233

In general, it would seem that simple sinks are the most common in Kansas. Simple and complex sinks are present in most of the state, whereas the coalescing ones are found only in the western part. Generally speaking, sinks in eastern Kansas are smaller than those in the western part of the state. Sinks in the state range from a few feet to several thousand feet in diameter. Shapes vary, but most are circular or elliptical. In cross section, they are cone or funnel shaped. Sinks range in depth from a few feet to severalhundred feet. Again generaliz- ing, it seems the shallower ones are in the eastern part of the state and the deeper ones in the western part. The area involved in a single sink ranges from less than an acre to several thousand acres or even many square miles as in the case of large coalescing sinks. As many as 42 sinks a square mile have been recorded in Kansas. Sinks occur in beds ranging in age from Cambro-Ordovicianto Recent. Salt, gypsum, chalk, and limestone are the rock types most generally affected by solutional processes. Geographic distribution of sinks is controlled by both stratigraphy and structure. For the most part, in eastern Kansas sink distributionis controlled by stratigraphicfactors and in the western part of the state by structuralelements. Origin of sinks is by solutional processes. High Plains depressions that are formed by eolian action, compaction,and animal action are not to be confused with true sinks formed by solution. Age of sinks ranges from Ordovician to Recent. Three periods of rather intensive sink development are preserved in the geologic record. One was in post-Arbuckle-pre-Simpsontime, the second in post-Missis- sippian-pre-Pennsylvaniantime, and the third from Pliocene time to the present day. Sinks, undoubtedly, formed in many other periods of history, but have not been adequatelypreserved in the record in Kansas. Related features, commonly associated with sink development, include caves, natural bridges, and undergrounddrainages. These surface featuresare more pronouncedin the western part of the state. 234 TransactionsKansas Academy of Science

SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ABERNATHY,GEORGE E. (1925) Some structural features of the Weir-Pittsburg coal bed: unpublished master's thesis, University of Kansas, p. 1-30 (esp. p. 23). Mentions typical karst topography on Mississippian surface which is dotted with sinkholes. (1936) The Cherokee of southeastern Kansas: unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Kansas, p. 1-108 (esp. p. 99-100). Southeastern Kansas above sea at end of Mississippian; topography mature and probably not much different from present Ozark topography; probably modified by effects of solution; Cherokee beds have subsided into solution caverns on Mississippian limestone; sinks common in district southeast of Pittsburg. BASS, N. W. (1929) The geology of Cowley County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 12, p. 1-203 (esp. p. 16, 46). Very shallow circular basins or filled sinks, up to 30 feet in diameter on uplands floored by Fort Riley limestone. (1931) Recent subsidence in Hamilton County, Kansas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 15, no. 2, p. 201-205. Describes in detail a circular sinkhole 100 feet wide, 40-50 feet deep. Formed by solution of the Greenhorn limestone and collapse of the roof on December 18, 1929. BYRNE, FRANK E., and MCLAUGHLIN,THAD G. (1948) Geology and ground- water resources of Seward County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 69, p. 1-140 (esp. p. 14, 35). Mentions buffalo wallows and formation of sinks on upland areas during the Quaternary. BYRNE,FRANK E., MUDGE,MELVILLE R., BECK,HENRY V., and BURTON,ROBERT H. (1949) Preliminary report and map on the geologic construction material resources in Riley County, Kansas: U. S. Geol. Survey, open file report, p. 1-100 (esp. p. 38). Mentions sinkholes developed in the Cresswell limestone SW1/4 sec. 6, T. 9 S., R. 6 E. COOK, KENNETH L. (1954) Resistivity surveys over slump structures, Tri- State lead-zinc mining district, Cherokee County, Kansas (abst.): Soc. of Exploration Geophs., 24th Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., p. 57. Mentions collapse of Mississippian limestone and slumping of overlying Pennsylvanian Cherokee beds into openings. Resistivity may be used to indicate favorable areas but not as a guide for lead and zinc ore. COURTIER,WILLIAM H. (1934) Physiography and geology of south-central Kan- sas: unpublished doctorial thesis, University of Kansas, p. 1-97 (esp. p. 88a, 91). Contour map on base of Tertiary show depressions that might be due to solution and removal of salt with consequent slumping of overlying beds. COWGILL,PROF. (1885) The streams of western Kansas: The Kansas City Revue of Science and Industry, vol. 9, no. 5, p. 308-311. Describes in generalities a circular sink 150-300 feet in diameter, about 100 feet deep with salt water in Ford (?) County, which is probably the "Meade Salt Sink." CRAGIN,F. W. (1884) Notes on the region of Crooked Creek, Kansas: Washburn Laboratory of Natural History Bull., vol. 1, no. 1, p. 30-31 . Mentions "Meade Salt Sink" which formed across the "Jones and Plummer Trail." Sinkholes and Related Features in Kansas 235

. (1896) The Permian System in Kansas: Colorado College Studies, vol. 6, p. 1-54 (esp. p. 33-38). Describes many caves and natural bridges in connectionwith the solution of gypsum in the Cave Creek formation. . (1897) Observationson the CimarronSeries: Am. Geol., vol. 19, no. 5, p. 351-363 (esp. p. 360-361). Mentions "MeadeSalt Sink," St. Jacob'sWell in Little Basin, and Big Basin. Suggests undergroundwater dissolved salt in saliferous shale of the Red Bluff formation (Whitehorse). DARTON,N. H. (1905) Geology and undergroundwater resources of the Central Great Plains: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 32, p. 1-433 (esp. p. 389). Mentions "Meade Salt Sink" contained about 41/2 percent salt and formed in 1878. DARTON,N. H., and others. (1915) Guidebook of the western United States, part C, the Santa Fe Route: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 613, p. 1-194 (esp. p. 36-37). Attributes large circular pits to buffalo wallows and describes their formation. DAVIS,JOHN. (1955) A geological comparisonof three south-easternKansas caves: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 58, no. 2, p. 160-164. Describes in some detail three small caves in Wilson and Montgomery Counties occurring in the Pennsylvanian Stanton formation. ELIAS, M. K. (1930) Origin of cave-ins in Wallace County, Kansas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 14, no. 3, p. 316-320. Discusses the origin of the Smoky Basin cave-in in light of previously suggested theories. Cavity formed in Cretaceous Niobrara formation with subsequentcollapse of the roof. Fault exposed in wall of cave- in indirect cause of subsidence by allowing surface water to penetrate down to soluble chalk through fissures developed in connection with faulting. . (1931) The geology of Wallace County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 18, p. 1-254 (esp. p. 224-236). Discusses theories on the origin of sinks and depressions in western Kansas. Describes cave-ins in T. 12 S., R. 39 W.; T. 12 S., R. 38 W.; the Old Maid's pool; Devil's hole; and others. FATH, A. E. (1921) Geology of the Eldorado oil and gas field: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 7, p. 1-187 (esp. p. 48-53). Mentions the occurrence of sinks in the Permian Fort Riley formation in Butler County. FENNEMAN, NEVIN M. (1931) Physiography of western United States: McGraw- Hill, New York, p. 1-534 (esp. p. 28-29). Mentions saucer-shaped depressions of the High Plains and the basins formed by the solution of salt and gypsum in underlying Permian rocks. . (1938) Physiography of eastern United States: McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 1-714 (esp. p. 615). Says uplands of the Flint Hills are pitted with sinkholes. FENT, O. S. (1950) Pleistocene drainage history of central Kansas: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 53, no. 1, p. 81-90 (esp. p. 88-89). Small depressions, called sinkholes, a few hundred feet in diameter and 10-20 feet deep, especially numerous where late Pleistocene deposits overlie deeper early Pleistocene channels. Some described as being formed by compaction,other by solution and collapse of salt, gypsum, and limestone beds in the Cretaceousand Permian. In the central Kansas region probably due to compactionof unconsolidated material. 236 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science

FISHEL, V. C., and LEONARD, A. R. (1955) Geology and ground-water resources of Jewell County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 115, p. 1-152 (esp. p. 21-22). Describes soil cracks near Jewell City that were up to 7 feet deep and 3 feet wide. FRYE, JOHN C. (1940) A preliminary report on the water supply of the Meade artesian basin, Meade County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 35, p. 1-39. Discusses in detail origin of the Meade artesian basin during Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent time and associated solution and collapsed structures. Describes the "Meade Salt Sink." . (1942) Geology and ground-water resources of Meade County, Kan- sas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 45, p. 1-152 (esp. p. 27-33). Development of sinks in Meade County climaxed during the Pleistocene. Formed by the solution of Permian redbeds several hundred feet below the surface. This was possible after the area had been faulted to allow surface water passageways underground. Describes the "Meade Salt Sink" which formed in March, 1879; Jones Ranch sink; Ashland and Englewood basins (Clark County); and the Meade basin. (1945) Geology and ground-water resources of Thomas County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 59, p. 1-110 (esp. p. 29-31). Depressions in Thomas County not due to solution-subsidence, but probably differential compaction. . (1946) The High Plains surface in Kansas: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol 49, no. 1, p. 71-86. The "dimpled" flat upland of western Kansas characterized by many irregular spaced undrained depressions which have been formed by various processes; mentions Ashland-Englewood basin and others. . (1950) Origin of Kansas Great Plains depressions: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 86, pt. 1, p. 1-20. Discusses in detail various origins of the many different depressions in western Kansas including (1) deep-seated solution, (2) solution of carbonate rocks, (3) eolian action, (4) differential silt infiltration, (5) animal action, and (6) faulting; gives examples of each. FRYE, JOHN C., and HIBBARD, CLAUDE W. (1941) Pliocene and Pleistocene stratigraphy and paleontology of the Meade basin, southwestern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 38, pt. 13, p. 389-424. Faults important in development of sinks in Meade basin. Sinks formed by solution of Permian salt and gypsum; mentions "Meade Salt Sink." FRYE, JOHN C., and LEONARD, A. BYRON. (1952) Pleistocenegeology of Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 99, p. 1-230 (esp. p. 127, 203). In Clark and adjoining counties there is an unusual type of Wisconsin alluvium filling some sinks. As features were isolated during deposition, dating of these beds depends on contained fossils and intersection of lines of dissection. FRYE, JOHN C., and LEONARD, ALVIN R. (1951) Road log for Pleistocene field conference of June, 1951, western Kansas, p. 1-18. "Meade Salt Sink" and many undrained depressions mentioned in road log. FRYE, JOHN C., and SCHOFF, STUART L. (1941) Deep-seated solution in the Meade basin and vicinity, Kansas and Oklahoma (abst.): Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 52, no. 12, p. 1999. Sinks adjacent to Meade basin in Meade and Clark Counties occur along faults, many filled with Pleistocene sediments; sinks formed by solution and collapse of Permian salt and gypsum. Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 237

(1942) Deep-seated solution in the Meade basin and vicinity, Kansas and Oklahoma: Am. Geoph. Union Trans. of 1942, pt. 1, p. 35-39. Presents a classification of sinks as (1) simple (one subsidence), (2) complex (several subsidences), and (3) coalescing (sinks formed close together and rims collapsed or worn down by erosion). Discusses origin of some southwestern Kansas sinks. FRYE, JOHN C., and SWINEFORD,ADA. (1947) Solution features on Cretaceous sandstone in central Kansas: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 245, p. 366-379. Solution pans, grooves, and slots developed on Cretaceous sandstone in central Kansas are described; also various theories of origin are discussed. GLOVER, ROBERT H. (1953) Seismograph pays off in Kansas: World Oil, vol. 137, no. 4, p. 109, 110, 112, 114, 116. Possible to locate sinks in Ordovician Arbuckle beds on the Central Kansas uplift with seismograph. Reflection from lower Kansas City accurately reveals structure on top of eroded Arbuckle because of "draping" effect over sinks caused by compaction of sink fill. Im- portant as-oil not located in sinks but on highs. GORDON, GLEN H. (1938) A recent sink hole near Potwin, Kansas: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 41, p. 207-210. Describes sink near Potwin, Kansas in Butler County which formed on the afternoon of September 22, 1937; 90 by 150 feet, sides perpendicular, 40 feet deep, volume of soil missing about 500,000 cubic feet. Several other sinks in the same section; mentions two areas in Ellis County of subsurface sinks. GRIMSLEY,G. P., and BAILEY,E. H. S. (1899) Special report on gypsum and gypsum cement plasters: Univ. Geol. Survey of Kansas, vol 5, p. 1-183 (esp. p. 61-62, 72-73). Mentions several solution features caused by leaching of gypsum; gives natural bridges, underground water courses, and caves as examples. HAWORTH, ERASMUS. (1896) Local deformation of strata in Meade County, Kansas and adjoining territory (preliminary): Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 2, no. 11, p. 368-373. Description of Meade artesian basin and fault; mentions "Meade Salt Sink," Big Basin, and St. Jacob's Well. . (1897) Underground waters of southwestern Kansas: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 6, p. 1-65 (esp. p. 25-26). In generalities mentions sinkholes in southwestern Kansas. .(1897a) Physiography of western Kansas: Univ. Geol. Survey of Kansas, vol. 2, p. 11-49 (esp. p. 19-21). Discussed origin of sinkholes (swales or lagoons) by natural settling. Development of arroyos next step after formation of swales. HAY, ROBERT. (1895) Water resources of a portion of the Great Plains: U. S. Geol. Survey, 16th Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 535-588 (esp. p. 555-556). Mentions many shallow enclosed basins on the "table lands." Describes a series of broad cracks in Sherman County that were formed in May, 1894. . (1896) The geology of the Fort Riley Military Reservation and vicinity: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 137, p. 1-35 (esp. p. 15-16, 26-27). In sec. 9, T. 14 S., R. 7 E. sinkholes are numerous (42 in one square mile). Some nearly 50 by 35 feet and 10 feet deep. Sinkholes in Morris County on Kansas-Neosho watershed and others in sec. 30, T. 14 S., R. 7 E. HOWE, WALLACEB. (1954) Stratigraphy of pre-Marmaton Desmoinesian rocks in southeastern Kansas: doctoral thesis, University of Kansas, p. 1-177 (esp. p. 25-27). Published as next reference. 238 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science

(1956) Stratigraphy of pre-Marmaton Desmoinesian (Cherokee) rocks in southeastern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 123, p. 1-132 (esp. p. 29-31). Lowermost Pennsylvanian beds deposited on surface of low relief and caverns collapsed in underlying Mississippian rocks after consolidation of Pennsylvanian sediments; strata in sinks commonly faulted. JEWETT, JOHN M. (1935) Some measurements at the Sun City Natural Bridge: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 38, p. 189-190. Several natural bridges, which were produced by solution of gypsum beds of Permian age, are associated with sinks and underground water channels. (1951) Geologic structures in Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 90, pt. 6, p. 105-172. Contains information on the Ashland-Englewood (Ashland), Jones Ranch, and Meade basins. JOHNSON, CARLTON R. (1955) Geology and ground-water resources of Logan County, Kansas: unpublished manuscript, Kansas Geol. Survey, Law- rence, p. 1-311 (esp. p. 85-91). Large depressions in sec. 2, T. 12 S., R. 37 W.; sec. 6, T. 12 S., R. 36 W.; sec. 6, T. 11 S., R. 36 W.; sec. 12, T. 13 S., R. 33 W.; and sec. 13, T. 13 S., R. 33 W. Good example in sec. 29, T. 12 S., R. 33 W. The largest is in the south-central part of T. 12 S., R. 37 W. Dis- cusses origin of depressions and discards the idea of buffalo wallows, compaction, and origin of solution cavities in the Niobrara formation (Cretaceous). Depressions probably are related to the structure of the region; also mentions other small upland depressions. JOHNSON, WILLARD D. (1901) The High Plains and their utilization: U. S. Geol. Survey, 21st Ann. Rept., pt. 4, p. 609-741 (esp. p. 696-732). Discusses in detail the Cox basin, Englewood basin, Big Basin, St. Jacob's Well, "Meade Salt Sink," Scott and Meade basins, Cheyenne bottoms, Odee basin, and Ashland basin. Discusses at length his theory on the formation of basins by ground settlement and solution and collapse. Kansas Geological Society. (1932) Road Log, 6th Annual Field Conference, p. 1-125 (esp. p. 14). Mentions sinkholes in the Fort Riley limestone northeast of Haverhill, Kansas. (1937) Road Log, 11th Annual Field Conference, p. 1-108 (esp. P. 31). Stop 6 at a sinkhole described by Pierce and Courtier (1937). (1955) Road Log, 18th Field Conference, p. 1-118 (esp. p 20-22, 36-37). Mentions Big Basin, St. Jacob's Well, and Natural Bridge in Clark and Barber Counties. KELLER, W. D., WESCOTr,JAMES F., and BLEDSOE, A. 0. (1954) The origin of Missouri fire clays: Clays and Clay Minerals, Natl. Acad. Sci., Natl. Res. Council Publ. 327, p. 7-46. Discusses the origin of the Missouri fire clays. KNIGHT, GERALD L. (1929) Geology of Barber County, Kansas: unpublished manuscript, Kansas Geol. Survey, Lawrence. Solution of salt forms caves, the roofs of which collapse forming sinkholes; and suggests Big Basin, Little Basin (Clark County) may have been formed this way. Not enough salt in the Whitehorse for the solution of this formation to form caverns to collapse. Many slump structures in Barber County probably caused by solution oF gypsum. Sinkholes and Related Features in Kansas 239

LANDES, KENNETH K. (1931) Recent subsidence, Hamilton County, Kansas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 15, no. 6, p. 708. Original cavern probably in pre-Dakota (Cretaceous) strata, may be Permian salt but more probably Permian gypsum. Graneros shale is exposed on rim of sinkhole, not Carlile as mentioned by Bass (1931). (1931a) Unusual surface features of Kansas (abst.): Kansas Acad,. Sci. Trans., vol. 34, p. 40. Mentions Coolidge sink, Big Basin, and Natural Bridge as being formed by dissolution of soluble rock by ground water and falling in of cavern roof. (1932) An unusual type of sink in Mitchell County, Kansas: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 35, p. 210. Mitchell County sink is a depression 200 feet long, 75 feet wide, 18 feet deep; last subsidence in 1927. Occurs in loess instead of soluble rock like limestone or gypsum. At level of the floor is pebble zone which because it is porous allows sink to be drained. (1949) Scenic Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey, p. 1-16. Hamilton County sink formed in 1930, enlarged to 100 feet in diameter, 50 feet deep; "Meade Salt Sink" formed in 1897, diameter is 175 feet. In 1898 an acre of land slumped in Pawnee County and took with it the Rozel railroad station; Big Basin in Clark County is 1 mile in diameter, 100 feet deep; Little Basin in Clark County contains St. Jacob's Well. LANDES, KENNETH K., and KEROHER, RAYMOND P. (1939) Geology and oil and gas resources of Logan, Gove, and Trego Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Min. Res. Circ. 11, p. 1-45 (esp. p. 20). Postulates that the small, highly faulted areas in these counties are due to rocks sinking into large caverns dissolved in deeper soluble rocks such as the Fort Hays limestone (Cretaceous). LATTA, BRUCE F. (1944) Geology and ground-water resources of Finney and Gray Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 55, p. 1-272. Undrained depressions with diameters from a few feet to a mile are common feature of uplands; serve as catchment basins in recharging ground water. LEE, WALLACE. (1913) The geology of the Rolla Quadrangle: Missouri Geol. Survey, vol. 12, 2nd ser., p. 1-111. Describes sinks near Rolla, Missouri and the economic products associated with them. (1940) Subsurface Mississippian rocks of Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 33, p. 1-114 (esp. p. 76). The Tidel No. 1 McCutchen well (sec. 33, T. 34 S., R. 2 E.) has weathered zone on Mississippian surface 163 feet thick and is probably a sinkhole. (1943) The stratigraphy and structural development of the Forest City basin in Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 51, p. 1-142 (esp. p. 30, 78-79). There is an abnormally thick section of St. Peter (Ordovician) in the Kasper No. 1 James well (sec. 8, T. 13 S., R. 25 E.) interpreted as a sinkhole in Arbuckle rocks (Ordovician). LEE, WALLACE, and others. (1946) Structural development of the Forrest City basin of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, and Nebraska: U. S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas. Investi., Prelim. map 48 (esp. sheet 1). Two wells have abnormally thick sections of St. Peter standstone (Ordovician) and is interpreted as being sink fill in Arbuckle rocks. 240 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science

LEE, WALLACE,LEATHEROCK, CONSTANCE, and BOTINELLY,THEODORE. (1948) The stratigraphy and structural development of the Salina basin in Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 74, p. 1-155 (esp. p. 34, 122). Mentions the Kasper No. 1 James well in Johnson County having an abnormal thickness of St. Peter. LEE, WALLACE, and PAYNE, THOMAS G. (1944) McLouth gas and oil field, Jefferson and Leavenworth Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 53, p. 1-193 (esp. p. 42-46). Describes Pennsylvanian sediments which were deposited in caves in Mississippian limestone; found to depths of 150 feet below top of the Mississippian; one well encountered a pre-Pennsylvanian sink (Tidal No. 1 McCutchen, sec. 33, T. 34 S., R. 2 E.). LEE, WALLACE, and MERRIAM, DANIEL F. (1954) Cross sections in eastern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Investi. No. 12, p. 1-8 (esp. p. 2, pl. 2). Show Simpson filled sinks in the Arbuckle labeled as pre-Simpson sinkholes. MCLAUGHLIN, THAD G. (1943) Geology and ground-water resources of Hamilton and Kearny Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 49, p. 1-220 (esp. p. 37-38). Depressions in Hamilton and Kearny Counties underlain by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits and probably formed by compaction. In southwestern part of the county, there is a linear trend of sinks near a fault on the south side of the Syracuse anticline. Hamilton County sink (NE1/4 sec. 22, T. 25 S., R. 43 W.) 60 feet in diameter, 40-50 feet deep, formed December 18, 1929; other sinks in sec. 25, T. 25 S., R. 43 W., and SE1/4 sec. 15, T. 25 S., R. 42 W. (1946) Geology and ground-water resources of Grant, Haskell, and Stevens Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 61, p. 1-221 (esp. p. 16, 36, 48). Sinks in the Stanton area near Bear Creek probably subsided at time of formation of Syracuse anticline and continued to Recent time; mentions Hamilton County sink. MERRIAM,DANIEL F., and ATKINSON, WILLIAM R. (1956) Simpson filled sinkholes in eastern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 119, pt. 2, p. 61-80. Discuss six subsurface Simpson (Ordovician) filled sinks in Arbuckle (Ordovician) rocks; green shale and conglomerate in bottom of sinks. MOORE, RAYMOND C. (1926) Note on subsidence near Sharon Springs, Wallace County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 11, p. 95-96. On March 9, 1926 in sec. 33 and 34, T. 13 S., R. 39 W. (Wallace County), a sink formed 250 by 350 feet and about 50 to 170 feet deep; wall vertical; volume of sediment involved about 11/2 million cubic feet. Pierre shale in wall; due to formation of cavity in upper part of Niobrara followed by collapse of roof. (1926a) The subsidence near Sharon Springs, Kansas: Science, vol. 64, no. 1649, p. 130-131. Also mentions Old Maid's pool, northwest of Sharon Springs as 80 feet deep, 3/8 mile in diameter. MOORE,RAYMOND C., and LANDES,K. K. (1927) Underground resources of Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 13, p. 1-154 (esp. p. 141-143). Mentions sink near Sharon Springs. MUDGE, B. F. (1879) The new sink-hole in Meade Co. Kansas: The Kansas City Review of Science and Industry, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 152-153. "Meade Salt Sink" formed March, 1879 across wagon and cattle trail, 60 feet deep, 610 feet in circumference, nearly circular, cracks present around rim as much as 15 feet deep and 10 inches wide, hole filled with brine; postulates formed by cave-in in the Dakota (Cretaceous). Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 241

MUILENBURG, GRACE. (1953) The Kansas scene: Kansas Geol. Survey, p. 1-48. Mentions Big Basin and St. Jacob's Well in Clark County and "Meade Salt Sink." PIERCE, W. G., and COURTIER, W. H. (1937) Geology and coal resources of the southeastern Kansas coal field: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 24, p. 1-122 (esp. p. 58-60). Describes nine recent sinks in Cherokee County formed since 1905. Pennsylvanian Cherokee is in sinks developed on the Mississippian limestone surface. "Fossil" sinks in which the beds are faulted are exposed in four of the recent sinks. Recent sinks are on higher parts of the Mississippian lime and are associated with the Miami trough or the Joplin anticline. (1937a) Rocks and structure of southeastern Kansas: Kansas Geol. Soc. 11th Annual Field Conference, p. 1-108 (esp. p. 17-18). Sinks, recent and ancient, formed by collapse of cavities on Mississippian surface. PRESCOTT, GLENN C., JR. (1951) Geology and ground-water resources of Lane County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 93, p. 1-126 (esp. p. 14-16, 29, 32-33). Numerous shallow undrained depressions probably formed by compaction. (1953) Geology and ground-water resources of Cheyenne County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 100, p. 1-106 (esp. p. 13, 26). Shallow depressions mentioned. . (1953a) Geology and ground-water resources of Sherman County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 105, p. 1-130 (esp. p. 14, 28-30). Larger depressions probably formed by compaction as too big for buffalo wallows and soluble beds too deep under Cretaceous and Tertiary cover; shallow ones could be buffalo wallows. PRESCOTT,GLENN C., JR., BRANCH, JOHN R., and WILSON, WOODROWW. (1954) Geology and ground-water resources of Wichita and Greeley Counties: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 108, p. 1-134 (esp. p. 14, 27- 28). Depressions formed by compaction. REDMAN, KENNETH G. (1947) The Ryan oil and gas pool of Rush and Pawnee Counties, west-central Kansas: unpublished master's thesis, University of Kansas, p. 1-47 (esp. p. 26, 37, 40). Suggests that isolated greenish clayey Simpson shale on the northwest and east fringes of Ryan field is preserved in collapsed caverns or sinkholes formed on the Arbuckle surface prior to the complete removal of the overlying shale. RICH, JOHN L. (1930) Circular structural depressions in central Kansas: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 41, p. 315-320. Describes two sinks, one in detail in Dickinson and Morris Counties. The one in sec. 28, T. 16 S., R. 4 E. has depth of 95 feet on the surface Permian Herington limestone, regular outline, slightly elevated rim, 2 to 3 miles in diameter. The other is in sec. 20, T. 15 S., R. 5 E. RUSSELL, WILLIAM L. (1929) Local subsidence in western Kansas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol 13, no. 6, p. 605-609. Describes the Smoky Basin cave-in; Old Maid's pool; sinks in Sher- man County and others. Suggests origin by cavities formed during deformation along fault planes. Strata of cavities resisted pressure for long time and later caved-in. Maintains it's impossible to have voids form in Niobrara (Cretaceous) chalk as formation is mainly shale and there is no evidence for contained ground water in the formation. 242 Transactions Kansas Academy of Science

SAVAGE, JOSEPH. (1881) Sink-holes in Wabaunsee County: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 7, p. 26-27. Mentions sinks in Wabaunsee, Douglas, and Barton Counties. Sur- face depressions in Wabaunsee County 40-80 feet in diameter and occur on high prairie surface. SCHOEWE,WALTER H. (1949) The geography of Kansas, part 2, physcial geography(geology): KansasAcad. Sci. Trans.,vol. 52, no. 3, p. 261- 333. Mentions or describessinks in Morris County, also CheyenneBottoms, Lake Inman, and associated sinks in McPherson County, Big Basin, Little Basin, and St. Jacob's Well, Englewood-Ashlandbasin, Scott basin, Sharon Springs sink, Old Maid's pool, and others; also discusses origin. SHENKEL, CLAUDE W., JR. (1955) Geology of the Lost Springs pools area, Marion and Dickinson Counties, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 114, pt. 6, p. 165-194. Shows a subsurfacesink on the Mississippiansurface in sec. 21 and 28, T. 16 S., R. 4 E. Sigma Gamma Epsilon, Alpha Nu Chapter. (1952) Guidebook north-central Kansas field trip, p. 1-46 (esp. p. 2). On highway U. S. 24, 17.7 miles northwest of Manhattanis large sink in Cresswell limestone member;several others across road. Also mentionsmany undraineddepressions in road log. SMITH, H. T. U. (1940) Geological studies in southwesternKansas: Kansas Geol. SurveyBull. 34, p. 1-212 (esp. p. 131-139, 143-146, 168-171). Mentions or describes Hamilton County sink, "Meade Salt Sink," Big Basin, St. Jacob'sWell, Jones Ranch sink, Ashland basin, Finney basin, and others. SMITH, R. KENNETH, and ANDERS, ELLIS L., JR. (1951) The geology of the Davis Ranch oil pool, Wabaunsee County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. SurveyBull. 90, pt. 2, p. 13-52. Discusses a pre-Pennsylvaniansubsurface sinkhole in WabaunseeCounty. An abnormalthickness of Cherokee,supposedly fill, in a sink on the Mississippian surface; occurs in the Carter No. 1 "C" Davis well (SW1/4sec. 28, T. 13 S., R. 10 E.). SMITH, W. S. T., and SIEBENTHAL, C. E. (1907) Joplin district folio, Missouri- Kansas: U. S. Geol. Survey Geologic Atlas 148, p. 1-20 (esp. p. 5, 7-9). Discusses the karst development on the Mississippian surface in southeasternKansas. SWINEFORD,ADA. (1955) Petrographyof Upper Permianrocks in south-central Kansas: KansasGeol. SurveyBull. 111, p. 1-179 (esp. p. 13, 15). Gives evidence for solubility of gypsum and relates to it physiographic features. Mentions Big Basin, gypsum caves, Natural Bridge, etc. TAFT, ROBERT. (1946) Kansas and the nation's salt: Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 49, no. 3, p. 223-272 (esp. p. 241). Solution of salt by ground water on a large scale would produce settling of overlyingbeds and cause a change in the surfacetopography. THORNBURY, WILLIAMD. (1954) Principles of Geomorphology:John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 1-618 (esp. Chapter 13, p. 316-353). Generalreference on sinkholes. TWENTE, JOHN W., JR. (1955) Some aspects of habitat selection and other be- havior of cavern-dwellingbats: Ecology, vol. 36, no. 4, p. 707-732 (esp. p. 709-713). Describesin detail many caves in Barberand ComancheCounties which are formed in the PermianBlaine gypsum formation. Sinkholes and Related Featuresin Kansas 243

VER WIEBE, W. A. (1941) Exploration for oil and gas in western Kansas during 1940: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 36, p. 1-109 (esp. p. 25-27, 82-84). Discusses karst topography on the Arbuckle (Ordovician) surface in the Silica and Trapp oil fields on the Central Kansas uplift. Thirty- six depressions up to 163 feet deep and filled with detrital material are known in the Silica field. (1947) Karst topography in the Kansas subsurface (abst.): Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol 58, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1236. Briefly discusses the buried karst topography on the Ordovician Arbuckle surface in central Kansas. VON ENGELN, O. D. (1948) Geomorphology: The Macmillan Company, New York, p. 1-655 (esp. p. 567). Mentions solution-subsidence for sinks in the Meade basin. WAITE, HERBERT A. (1947) Geology and ground-water resources of Scott County, Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 66, p. 1-216 (esp. p. 18, 29). Swales or sinks on upland surface in Scott County; one with water in it located in SW1/4 sec. 26, T. 18 S., R. 32 W. WALTERS, ROBERT F. (1946) Buried Pre-Cambrian hills in northeastern Barton County, central Kansas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., vol. 30, no. 5, p. 660-710. Discusses in detail history, formation, etc. of the buried karst topography on the Arbuckle (Ordovician) surface in Barton County. Solution features include sinks, valley sinks, and solution valleys. Sinks are 10-60 feet deep, about 20 acres in size and filled with Pennsylvanian sediments. WILLIAMS, CHARLESC., and LOHMAN, STANLEY W. (1949) Geology and ground-water resources of a part of south-central Kansas: Kansas Geol. Survey Bull. 79, p. 1-455 (esp. p. 83-87). Discusses several recent sinks. Suggests origin caused by removal of salt by solution from the Permian Wellington. A line of sinks in McPherson, Harvey, and Sedgwick Counties coincides with the eastern margin of the salt beds. YOUNG, C. M. (1927) Subsidence around a salt well: A.I.M.E. Trans., vol. 74, p. 810-817. Subsidence in Hutchinson due to removal of salt by solution from wells; cavities in salt beds caused subsidence of overburden. The adjustment was over a period of about one month.