DOCSLIB.ORG

'Reds' and World War

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
'Reds' and World War The ‘Hun’, the ‘Reds’ and World War One Imagery and Prejudice; the effect of the First World War on German and Russian minorities in early twentieth century America Master Thesis; History of International Relations By: Annelieke Wognum, 10077790 Advisor: Dr. E. A. Buettner Date of submission: 01-07-2016 Table of Content Chapter 1: The realities of immigration and immigrant life before 1914 7 Rules, Restrictions, and Regulations 7 Prejudices and Perceptions of the different ‘races’ 10 Chapter 2: The Great War and Immigration 23 Changes in perception and the effects of war propaganda 24 Revolution and the clash of political systems 32 Chapter 3: The Aftermath 41 The Great Red Scare 42 The Americanization movement and the integration debate 48 Conclusion and Discussion 56 Literature 60 Primary: 60 Secondary: 61 1 Introduction During the early twentieth century, America experienced one of its largest immigration waves, acquiring an even more ethnically diverse society than it already had. But, as human history teaches us, multiple ethnicities often have difficulties living together, resulting in prejudice towards minorities. As Eric Foner puts it: “The ‘new immigrants’ were often described by native born Americans as members of distinct ‘races’, whose lower levels of civilization explained everything from their willingness to work for substandard wages to their supposed inborn tendency toward criminal behavior.”1 These races that Foner speaks of are now described as ethnicities, ‘a highly elastic concept applied to groups who say they share or are perceived to share some combination of cultural, historical, radical, religious, or linguistic features.’2 This is a concept that can easily be applied to the ‘melting pot’ of different cultures that cumulated in America in the early twentieth century. In addition to the immigration influx, America took part in another great event during the 1910’s: The First World War. This war primarily impacted Europeans, who fought or lived through it from beginning to end, but it did not leave Americans unscathed. Even before they entered into the conflict in 1917 due to German submarines and an intercepted telegram, there were lively debates going on in Congress between those in favor of joining the war and those against.3 So even though it was still relatively far from their beds, especially before their participation, the First World War was most definitely a hot news item. This war not only affected American politics, it also had an impact on its population. In addition to producing an influx of immigrant refugees; it also altered perceptions of these different ethnicities, specifically the Germans who were now viewed as the ‘enemy’ and the Russians who, after their 1917 Revolution, had adopted an ideology that clashed with American capitalism; communism. America’s immigration history is most often separated into four eras: the open door era between 1776-1882, the era of regulation of 1883-1916, the era of restriction from 1917- 1964, and the era of liberalization between 1965-2000.4 All of these eras are defined by the events that took place within the time period. For example, the open door era is so named 1 Eric Foner, Give me liberty, an American History 4th ed. (New York: Norton & Company Inc., 2014) 659. 2 Elisabeth Buettner, ‘Ethnicity’, in: Craig Calhoun (ed.), Dictionary of the Social Sciences (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 148. 3 Koen Koch, Een kleine geschiedenis van de Grote Oorlog 1914-1918 (Antwerpen: Manteau, 2010) 289. 4 Jeremiah Jaggers, W. Jay Gabbard, Shanna J. Jaggers, ‘The Devolution of U.S. immigration Policy: An Examination of the History and Future of Immigration Policy’ Journal of Policy Practice vol. 13 no. 3 (2014) 4. 2 because there were no or very few laws that governed immigration in that period, and each state had its own policies. The open door era became the era of regulation in 1882, for in that year, the first two federal immigration laws were approved by Congress. These laws were the Chinese Exclusion Act, and the Immigration Act. The first of these laws prohibited every person of Chinese descent to enter the USA. The second law levied a tax on immigration, stating that every immigrant who wished to enter the United States would have to pay a tax before they were allowed to enter. In addition, it also provided a list of ‘undesirables’, who from that point on were no longer allowed to enter the US, e.g. convicts, lunatics and idiots.5 They were the first but definitely not the last restrictions on immigration within in this time period. The next turning point in immigration eras can be found in 1917, the year that America joined the First World War, for in 1917, the (new) Immigration Act was accepted by Congress and signed by President Woodrow Wilson on 5 February. This act can be viewed as a combination of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the previous Immigration Acts (the immigration act of 1882 had been adapted a few times before 1917). It was mostly an extension of the list of ‘undesirables’, but this act had a new and controversial dimension to it: entry into the US was now denied to Asians who originated from the ‘Asiatic Barred Zone’. This zone included most of Asia and some of the Pacific Islands.6 It was the first time an entire race of people had been singled out for exclusion, not just a nationality, as had been done with the Chinese in 1882. These laws remained in effect until the era of liberalization, when immigration policy changed to allow immigrants easier access to the United States. The law might have restricted only Asians as an entire group, but racism surrounding immigrants was not restricted to the Asian community. Europeans, and especially Eastern- and Southern Europeans were also considered unworthy of joining America, as David M. Reimers reports in his book Unwelcome Strangers, American Identity and the turn against immigration. He states that Italians for example, were believed to be a particularly violent race who were all part of Mafia families. Immigrants from Eastern Europe, on the other hand, were believed to come from backward countries that had been lagging behind in terms of progress for years due to the lack of work ethic from its inhabitants. In short, Americans 5 E. P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy 1798-1965 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981) 83-86. 6 Hutchinson, Legislative History, 155-160. 3 believed that these people were simply unfit to become part of America and its workforce.7 In today’s society we are less familiar with this form of racism, for the racism of today is primarily focused of skin-color and the overall outward appearance. This is even true for today’s religious racism; if an immigrant of today does not look like a middle eastern Muslim, and shows no outward signs their religious motivation, they are largely left alone. In contrast, the racism of the early twentieth century was based mainly on the attitudes or behavior of people/an ethnicity, and only in part about their appearance. That does not mean that color racism did not exist; the African Americans were still heavily discriminated against for example and there were immigration laws that excluded ‘Asians’ and ‘Latinos’ as distinct racial groups since the turn of the century.8 Joe Feagin states that, due to America’s past with slavery, it has a deep-rooted systematic form of racism that is nearly unconsciously applied by everyone, even those who fervently shout that they are not racist.9 This is undoubtedly a factor that needs to be considered. However, he only focuses on the division between black and white, and links everything to the history of slavery. Matthey Frye Jacobson provides a different viewpoint in his book Whiteness of a Different Color, in which he states that in the early twentieth century, a form of systematic racism was applied to groups of Irish, German, Italian, Jewish and Slavic decent.10 These people were all ‘white’, which meant that the racism applied to them was more a form of racism based in culture rather than color. It is this last form of racism that will be applied to this analysis. Another point on which the immigrants were singled out was criminality. Most of the ‘native’ population believed that most of the immigrants coming to America’s shores ‘had an inborn tendency toward criminal behavior’, or that their children would be more inclined to violence than the children of native born Americans.11 Edward Ross described these tendencies by race in 1914; “The French and Hebrew stand out in bad eminence as offenders against chastity, the Italians lead in murder and blackmail, the Americans in burglary, the 7 David M. Reimers, Unwelcome Strangers, American Identity and the turn against immigration (New York; Columbia University Press, 1998) 15-16. 8 Hutchinson, Legislative History, 155-160. 9 Joe R. Feagin, Racist America, roots, current realities, and future reparations, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis group, 2014) xvi. 10 Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998) 5. Matthew Frye Jacobson, ‘Becoming Caucasian: Vicissitudes of Whiteness in American Politics and Culture’, in: Spickard, Paul, Race and Immigration in the United States (New York: Routledge Tylor & Francis Group, 2012) 131-147. 11 Foner, give me liberty, 659. Reimers, Unwelcome Strangers, 17. 4 Greeks in kidnapping, the Lithuanians in assault, the Irish in disorderly conduct.”12 A recent study by Moehling and Morrison suggests that there were no grounds for these assumptions. In fact, according to their research, when it came to the more serious crimes, ‘native’ Americans were just as likely to be found guilty as immigrants.13 Not everyone within American society was against immigration or the integration of immigrants, however.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • And Type the TITLE of YOUR WORK in All Caps
    THAT LIBERTY SHALL NOT PERISH: AMERICAN PROPAGANDA AND THE POLITICS OF FEAR, 1914-1919 by ZACHARY CHARLES SMITH (Under the Direction of John H. Morrow, Jr.) ABSTRACT This dissertation attempts to provide an understanding of the widespread anxiety, vigilantism, suppression of dissent, and violation of civil liberties that took place in the United States from 1917 to 1919 and argues that it can be found in some Americans‟ understanding of and reaction to racially-charged propaganda. As the United States inched toward war with Germany in 1915 and after declaring war in April 1917, many propagandists began referencing the allegedly inherent characteristics of Germans as evidence of German American disloyalty and the existence of a vast “Pan-German” plot to undercut or even destroy American democracy. The imagined conspiracy grew to encompass most of the fears that had plagued the Anglo Saxon middle-class since the 1870s – immigrant radicalism, race suicide, the capability of “racially inferior” immigrants to assimilate and self-govern, and the continued deference of African Americans. To many anxious Americans, Germany and German Americans became a very real entity to which these long-held fears could be transferred. American propaganda produced during the First World War, though, was not a cynical ploy to fool the American people into supporting intervention on the side of the Allies. Leading Americans – politicians, editors, and social elites – were convinced that a global German conspiracy threatened the security of the United States and hoped to enlist the American people in staving off the existential threat they believed racially degenerate Germany allegedly posed.
    [Show full text]
  • Anti-German Sentiment in the Midwest in World War I
    Anti-German Sentiment in the Midwest During World War I The Effects of Anti-German Sentiment on the German Language and Culture Author: Isabel Steenbergen Student Number: 4353641 Institution: Radboud University Nijmegen Field of Studies: American Studies Date of Delivery: 15-06-2016 Supervisor: Dr. J. van den Berk Second Reader: Dr. F. Mehring Steenbergen s4353641/1 ENGELSE TAAL EN CULTUUR Teacher who will receive this document: J. van den Berk Title of document: Anti-German Sentiment in the Midwest During World War I Name of course: Bachelor Thesis Date of submission: 15-06-2016 The work submitted here is the sole responsibility of the undersigned, who has neither committed plagiarism nor colluded in its production. Signed Name of student: Isabel Steenbergen Student number: 4353641 Steenbergen s4353641/2 Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3 List of Keywords ........................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4 Chapter One: History of German Immigrants in the US and the Midwest .............................. 11 Chapter Two: Anti-German Sentiment in the Midwest: Policies and Propaganda .................. 17 Chapter Three: The Disappearance of the German Language and Culture from the Midwest as a Result
    [Show full text]
  • A Study in American Jewish Leadership
    Cohen: Jacob H Schiff page i Jacob H. Schiff Cohen: Jacob H Schiff page ii blank DES: frontis is eps from PDF file and at 74% to fit print area. Cohen: Jacob H Schiff page iii Jacob H. Schiff A Study in American Jewish Leadership Naomi W. Cohen Published with the support of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America and the American Jewish Committee Brandeis University Press Published by University Press of New England Hanover and London Cohen: Jacob H Schiff page iv Brandeis University Press Published by University Press of New England, Hanover, NH 03755 © 1999 by Brandeis University Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 54321 UNIVERSITY PRESS OF NEW ENGLAND publishes books under its own imprint and is the publisher for Brandeis University Press, Dartmouth College, Middlebury College Press, University of New Hampshire, Tufts University, and Wesleyan University Press. library of congress cataloging-in-publication data Cohen, Naomi Wiener Jacob H. Schiff : a study in American Jewish leadership / by Naomi W. Cohen. p. cm. — (Brandeis series in American Jewish history, culture, and life) Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 0-87451-948-9 (cl. : alk. paper) 1. Schiff, Jacob H. (Jacob Henry), 1847-1920. 2. Jews—United States Biography. 3. Jewish capitalists and financiers—United States—Biography. 4. Philanthropists—United States Biography. 5. Jews—United States—Politics and government. 6. United States Biography. I. Title. II. Series. e184.37.s37c64 1999 332'.092—dc21 [B] 99–30392 frontispiece Image of Jacob Henry Schiff. American Jewish Historical Society, Waltham, Massachusetts, and New York, New York.
    [Show full text]
  • De-Conflating Latinos/As' Race and Ethnicity
    UCLA Chicana/o Latina/o Law Review Title Los Confundidos: De-Conflating Latinos/As' Race and Ethnicity Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9nx2r4pj Journal Chicana/o Latina/o Law Review, 19(1) ISSN 1061-8899 Author Sandrino-Glasser, Gloria Publication Date 1998 DOI 10.5070/C7191021085 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California LOS CONFUNDIDOS: DE-CONFLATING LATINOS/AS' RACE AND ETHNICITY GLORIA SANDRmNO-GLASSERt INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................71 I. LATINOS: A DEMOGRAPHIC PORTRAIT ..............................................75 A. Latinos: Dispelling the Legacy of Homogenization ....................75 B. Los Confundidos: Who are We? (Qui6n Somos?) ...................77 1. Mexican-Americans: The Native Sons and D aughters .......................................................................77 2. Mainland Puerto Ricans: The Undecided ..............................81 3. Cuban-Americans: Last to Come, Most to Gain .....................85 II. THE CONFLATION: AN OVERVIEW ..................................................90 A. The Conflation in Context ........................................................95 1. The Conflation: Parts of the W hole ..........................................102 2. The Conflation Institutionalized: The Sums of All Parts ...........103 B. The Conflation: Concepts and Definitions ...................................104 1. N ationality ..............................................................................104
    [Show full text]
  • Languages of New York State Is Designed As a Resource for All Education Professionals, but with Particular Consideration to Those Who Work with Bilingual1 Students
    TTHE LLANGUAGES OF NNEW YYORK SSTATE:: A CUNY-NYSIEB GUIDE FOR EDUCATORS LUISANGELYN MOLINA, GRADE 9 ALEXANDER FFUNK This guide was developed by CUNY-NYSIEB, a collaborative project of the Research Institute for the Study of Language in Urban Society (RISLUS) and the Ph.D. Program in Urban Education at the Graduate Center, The City University of New York, and funded by the New York State Education Department. The guide was written under the direction of CUNY-NYSIEB's Project Director, Nelson Flores, and the Principal Investigators of the project: Ricardo Otheguy, Ofelia García and Kate Menken. For more information about CUNY-NYSIEB, visit www.cuny-nysieb.org. Published in 2012 by CUNY-NYSIEB, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, 365 Fifth Avenue, NY, NY 10016. [email protected]. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Alexander Funk has a Bachelor of Arts in music and English from Yale University, and is a doctoral student in linguistics at the CUNY Graduate Center, where his theoretical research focuses on the semantics and syntax of a phenomenon known as ‘non-intersective modification.’ He has taught for several years in the Department of English at Hunter College and the Department of Linguistics and Communications Disorders at Queens College, and has served on the research staff for the Long-Term English Language Learner Project headed by Kate Menken, as well as on the development team for CUNY’s nascent Institute for Language Education in Transcultural Context. Prior to his graduate studies, Mr. Funk worked for nearly a decade in education: as an ESL instructor and teacher trainer in New York City, and as a gym, math and English teacher in Barcelona.
    [Show full text]
  • America's Russian-Speaking Jews Come of Age
    Toward a Comprehensive Policy Planning for R u s s i a n - Speaking Jews in North America Project Head Jonathan D. Sarna Contributors Dov Maimon, Shmuel Rosner In dealing with Russian-speaking Jews in North America, we face two main challenges and three possible outcomes. CHALLENGES: 1. Consequences of disintegration of the close-knit immigrant society of newly arrived Russian-speaking Jews. 2. Utilizing the special strengths of Russian-speaking Jews for the benefit of the wider American Jewish community. POSSIBLE OUTCOMES: 1. The loss of Jewish identity and rapid assimilation. 2. An adaptation of American-Jewish identity (with the benefits and shortcomings associated with it). 3. A formation of a distinctive Russian-speaking Jewish identity strong enough to be further sustained. There is a 10 to 15-year window of opportunity for intervention with this population. There is also a need to integrate, in a comprehensive manner, organizations to positively intervene in the field. At this preliminary stage, several recommendations stand out as urgent to address this population’s needs: - An effort on a national scale to assist the communities that are home to the majority of Russian-speaking Jews. - Funding for programs that will encourage Russian-speaking Jews to move into Jewish areas. - Special programs to promote in-marriage. - Dialogue mechanisms for Russian-speaking Jews in Israel, the US, Germany, and the Former Soviet Union. - Programs building on Russian-speaking Jews’ sense of peoplehood to bolster ties among all Jews to Israel. - Possible reciprocity between Jewish education and education in science and math for Russian-speaking Jews ("Judaism for math").
    [Show full text]
  • Mexicans in the Pacific Northwest: Lessons from Progressive School
    16 0H[LFDQVLQWKH3DFL¿F1RUWKZHVW/HVVRQVIURP3URJUHVVLYH 6FKRRO/HDGHUVIRU3URJUHVVLYH(GXFDWLRQDO3ROLF\ Sheila M. Shannon University of Colorado at Denver Abstract Latinos now live and work in areas of the United States where they have not been before. These changes impact schools in a variety ways. This article reviews recent research on how communities have responded in the South, New England and the West with a primarily assimilationist approach including English-only policies. The article then provides a description of one school GLVWULFW¶VUHVSRQVHLQWKH3DFL¿F1RUWKZHVW7KLVVFKRROGLVWULFW¶VSURJUHVVLYH leadership provides guidance for progressive educational policy. The author concludes with a recommendation that the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 that No Child Left Behind eclipsed be reinstated to guide the nation in these changing times. ,QWURGXFWLRQ With the passage of No Child Left Behind in 2002, bilingual education was reduced to lower case letters.1,WQRORQJHUEHQH¿WVIURPUHJXODUDWWHQWLRQ at the federal level, as it was when the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was UHDXWKRUL]HGZLWKHDFKQHZDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ$VWKHFXUUHQWDGPLQLVWUDWLRQ ODXQFKHVHGXFDWLRQDOLQLWLDWLYHVDQGPDQGDWHVLWFRQWLQXHVWRLJQRUHWKH GUDPDWLFGHPRJUDSKLFFKDQJHVWKDWWKHFRXQWU\LWVHUYHVLVH[SHULHQFLQJ7KHVH FKDQJHVDUHLPSDFWLQJVFKRROVLQXQSUHFHGHQWHGZD\VDQGSRVLQJHQRUPRXV FKDOOHQJHVWRVFKRROV1RRWKHUGHPRJUDSKLFFKDQJHVKDYHPDGHWKLVLPSDFW PRUHWKDQWKRVHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLPPLJUDWLRQSULPDULO\IURP0H[LFRDQGWKH 1HZ/DWLQR'LDVSRUD 0XUULOOR 9LOOHQDV &RQWHPSRUDULO\WKH0H[LFDQGLDVSRUDKDVEHHQ³RQHsui generis whose
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Identity Construction in Russian-Jewish Post-Immigration Literature
    Cultural Identity Construction in Russian-Jewish Post-Immigration Literature by Regan Cathryn Treewater A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Comparative Literature University of Alberta © Regan Cathryn Treewater, 2017 ii Abstract The following dissertation examines narratives of immigration to Western Europe, Israel and North America authored by Russian-speaking writers of Jewish decent, born in the Soviet Union after World War II. The project seeks to investigate representations of resettlement experiences and cultural identity construction in the literature of the post- 1970s Russian-Jewish diaspora. The seven authors whose selected works comprise the corpus of analysis write in Russian, German and English, reflecting the complex performative nature of their own multilayered identities. The authors included are Dina Rubina, Liudmila Ulitskaia, Wladimir Kaminer, Lara Vapnyar, Gary Shteyngart, Irina Reyn, and David Bezmozgis. The corpus is a selection of fictional and semi- autobiographical narratives that focus on cultural displacement and the subsequent renegotiation of ‘self’ following immigration. In the 1970s and final years of Communist rule, over one million Soviet citizens of Jewish heritage immigrated to Western Europe, Israel and North America. Inhospitable government policies towards Soviet citizens identified as Jewish and social traditions of anti-Semitism precipitated this mass exodus. After escaping prejudice within the Soviet system, these Jewish immigrants were marginalized in their adopted homelands as Russians. The following study of displacement and relocation draws on Homi Bhabha’s theories of othering and unhomeliness. The analyzed works demonstrate both culturally based othering and unhomely experiences pre- and post-immigration resulting from relegation to the periphery of society.
    [Show full text]
  • *1573 the Limits of National Security
    Jamshidi, Maryam 8/15/2019 For Educational Use Only THE LIMITS OF NATIONAL SECURITY, 48 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 1573 48 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 1573 American Criminal Law Review Fall, 2011 Symposium: Moving Targets: Issues at the Intersection of National Security and American Criminal Law Article Laura K. Donohuea1 Copyright © 2012 by American Criminal Law Review; Laura K. Donohue *1573 THE LIMITS OF NATIONAL SECURITY I. INTRODUCTION 1574 II. DEFINING U.S. NATIONAL SECURITY 1577 III. THE FOUR EPOCHS 1587 A. Protecting the Union: 1776-1898 1589 1. International Independence and Economic Growth 1593 2. Retreat to Union 1611 3. Return to International Independence and Economic Growth 1617 a. Tension Between Expansion and Neutrality 1618 b. Increasing Number of Domestic Power-Bases 1623 B. Formative International Engagement and Domestic Power: 1898-1930 1630 1. Political, Economic, and Military Concerns 1630 a. Military Might 1637 b. Secondary Inquiry: From Rule of Law to Type of Law 1638 2. Tension Between the Epochs: Independence v. Engagement 1645 © 2019 Thomson Reuters. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. 1 Jamshidi, Maryam 8/15/2019 For Educational Use Only THE LIMITS OF NATIONAL SECURITY, 48 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 1573 3. Expanding National Spheres of Influence 1650 C. The Ascendance of National Security: 1930-1989 1657 1. A New Domestic Order 1658 a. Re-channeling of Law Enforcement to National Security 1661 b. The Threat of Totalitarianism 1665 c. The Purpose of the State 1666 2. Changing International Role: From Authoritarianism to Containment 1669 3. Institutional Questions and the National Security Act of 1947 1672 a.
    [Show full text]
  • Russian Nobility Association in America
    Russian Nobility Association In America 2018 Orphan Outreach works in Russia to improve the lives of orphans by: • Working with orphan graduates to support them to successful, independent living • Meeting urgent needs of the orphan graduates through apartment renovations, legal support, medical and dental care • Nurturing and caring for abandoned and vulnerable children • Providing short term teams that support and care for the children www.orphanoutreach.org Russian Nobility Association SpringCharity Ball 2018 Under The Gracious Patronage of H.S.H. Prince Dmitri Romanoff Ilyinsky T.H. Prince and Princess Michael Romanoff Ilyinsky T.H. Prince and Princess AndrewRomanoff H.H. Princess NicholasRomanoff H.H. Princess Dimitri Romanoff H.H. Princess Alexander Romanoff Executive Committee Chair mrs. olga miklashewsky Co-Chairs mrs. maria holodny mr. nicholas b. a. nicholson Executive Secretary princess elizabeth galitzine Honorary Chairs princess tatiana v. galitzine mrs. veronica atkins mrs. irina dvorjitsky san filippo prince ivan obolensky mr. warren c. hutchins The Russian Nobility Association in America, Inc. Board of Directors prince ivan obolensky chairman emeritus mr. john l. pouschine president pro tempore mr. peter tcherepnine vp & treasurer mrs. irina dvorjitsky-san filippo secretary dr. pavel efremkin mr. igor miklashewsky mr. alexandr neratoff mr. michael perekrestov mr. konstantin pio-ulsky vladimir von tsurikov ph.d. mr. paul wadkovsky miss tatyana zakharova Presidents prince alexis obolensky, sr. 1936 - 1939 mr. vassili wadkovsky 1939 - 1941 count boris von berg 1941 - 1942 count paul de kotzeboue 1942 - 1953 prince leonid eletskoy 1954 - 1958 prince serge belosselsky-belozersky 1958 - 1963 col. peter martynov 1963 - 1971 prince alexis scherbatow 1971 - 2002 dr.
    [Show full text]
  • The Progressive Era Origins of the National Security Act
    Pace University DigitalCommons@Pace Pace Law Faculty Publications School of Law 1-1-2000 The Progressive Era Origins of the National Security Act Mark R. Shulman Pace Law School Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/lawfaculty Part of the Defense and Security Studies Commons, Law Commons, and the Public Affairs Commons Recommended Citation Shulman, Mark R., "The Progressive Era Origins of the National Security Act" (2000). Pace Law Faculty Publications. 223. https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/lawfaculty/223 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Law at DigitalCommons@Pace. It has been accepted for inclusion in Pace Law Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Pace. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Progressive Era Origins of the National Security Act Mark R.Shulman* Perhaps it is a universal truth that the loss of liberty at home is to be charged to provisions against danger; real or pretended, from abroad. -James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, May 1798' I. Introduction to "National Security" The National Security Act of 1947* and its successors drew the blueprint of the Cold War domestic political order. This regime centralized control of the military services-the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and a newly separate Air Force-in a single executive branch department. It created a new professional organization to collect and analyze foreign intelligence, the Central Intelligence Agency. And at the center of this new national security apparatus, a National Security Council would eventually establish foreign policy by coordinating intelligence and directing military and para-military forces, as well as supervising a National Security Resources Board.
    [Show full text]
  • Ethnic Groups and Library of Congress Subject Headings
    Ethnic Groups and Library of Congress Subject Headings Jeffre INTRODUCTION tricks for success in doing African studies research3. One of the challenges of studying ethnic Several sections of the article touch on subject head- groups is the abundant and changing terminology as- ings related to African studies. sociated with these groups and their study. This arti- Sanford Berman authored at least two works cle explains the Library of Congress subject headings about Library of Congress subject headings for ethnic (LCSH) that relate to ethnic groups, ethnology, and groups. His contentious 1991 article Things are ethnic diversity and how they are used in libraries. A seldom what they seem: Finding multicultural materi- database that uses a controlled vocabulary, such as als in library catalogs4 describes what he viewed as LCSH, can be invaluable when doing research on LCSH shortcomings at that time that related to ethnic ethnic groups, because it can help searchers conduct groups and to other aspects of multiculturalism. searches that are precise and comprehensive. Interestingly, this article notes an inequity in the use Keyword searching is an ineffective way of of the term God in subject headings. When referring conducting ethnic studies research because so many to the Christian God, there was no qualification by individual ethnic groups are known by so many differ- religion after the term. but for other religions there ent names. Take the Mohawk lndians for example. was. For example the heading God-History of They are also known as the Canienga Indians, the doctrines is a heading for Christian works, and God Caughnawaga Indians, the Kaniakehaka Indians, (Judaism)-History of doctrines for works on Juda- the Mohaqu Indians, the Saint Regis Indians, and ism.
    [Show full text]