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ARMS AND ARMOR OF EAST AND

An Interactive Qualifying Project Report:

Submitted to the Faculty

Of the

WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of Computer Science

By

Dan Adams

Wei-Yu Chen

Sean Gardell

Eric Kelley

John LaFleur

Date: April 10, 2003

Approved:

Professor Jeffrey Forgeng

1. East and Southeast Asia 2. Arms 3. Armor

1 Abstract

This project, working in conjunction with the Higgins Armory Museum, created a web-based database for the museum's collection of artifacts from East and Southeast

Asia, excluding Japan. It also documented the history, military history, and arms and armor of the region. Photographs were taken of the artifacts and linked with the database.

The web-based database is searchable on multiple fields and contains the relevant information about the artifacts.

2 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION 8

CHINESE HISTORY (WEI-YU CHEN) 11

Myths and Legends 11

Creation of the World and Humans 11

The Yellow Emperor and the first Dynasty 12

The 13

The 13

The 16

The 17

The 19

The Time of Division 20

The 22

The Dynasty 23

The 26

The Mongols in Central Asia 28

China under Alien Rule 30

End of the Dynasty 31

The 32

The End of the Ming Dynasty 34

The Last Dynasty — Qing 35

The Fall of the 37

Modern Chinese History 38

KOREAN HISTORY (WEI-YU CHEN) 39

Prehistoric Period 39

3 The Use of Bronze 39

The Old Cho- 41

Kingdoms period 43

The Go-Ryu Kingdom (from 10 th to 14 th century) 45

Cho-Sun Dynasty (from the 15 th to the end of the 19 th century) 47

Modern Korean History 48

ARMS AND ARMOR OF (JOHN LAFLEUR) 50

Prehistory through the Ming Dynasty 50

Early History 50

Knives and 52

Polearms 54

The Bow and Crossbow 55

Firearms 55

Armor 57

Shields 58

Mongol And Other Nomadic Influences 59

Korean Arms and Armor 60

Tibetan Arms and Armor 61

HISTORY OF SOUTHEAST ASIA (ERIC KELLEY) 64

Introduction 64

Burma 68

Thailand 72

Malaya 78

Indonesia 85

Philippines 91

New Guinea 98

SOUTHEAST ASIAN ARMS AND ARMOR (DAN ADAMS) 101

4 Introduction 101

Kris 102

Sundang 115

Parang 116 Bedak 116 Parang Bengkok 116 Parang Ginah 117 Parang Ihlang 117 Parang Jengok 120 Parang Latok 121 Parang Nabur 121

Piso (Pisau) 122 Piso Gading 122 Piso Halasan 123 Piso Ni 123 Piso Raout 124 Piso Sanalenggam 124

Panabas 125

Klewang 125

Badek 126

Barong 127

Golok 128

Kampilan 129

Burmese 130

North Burmese 131

Pedang 131 First type of pedang 132 Second type of pedang 133 Third type of pedang 133

Talibon 134

Gunpowder 134 134

Armor, Helmets, and Shields 135 Armor 136 Helmets 138 Shields 139 140 Kanta 140 Tameng 141

5 Conclusion 141

MILITARY ASPECTS OF CHINA (SEAN GARDELL) 142

Zhou (1100 BC — 250 BC) 142

Warring States Period and Qin (481 BC — 206 BC) 145

Terracotta Warriors of Shihuang 147

Han Dynasty (202 BC — AD 220) 151

Tang and the Five Dynasties (AD 618 — AD 960) 152

MILITARY ASPECTS OF KOREA (SEAN GARDELL) 153

MILITARY ASPECTS OF (SEAN GARDELL) 155

MARTIAL ARTS (SEAN GARDELL) 157

CONCLUSION 159

BIBLIOGRAPHY 164

1 .General History and General Arms and Armor Information 164 1.1 General Arms and Armor sources 164 1.2 General History 164 1.3 Military History and Martial Arts 165

2. Southeast Asia 165 2.1Malaya 165 2.1.1 Arms and Armor 165 2.1.2 History 165 2.1.3 Military History and Martial Arts 165 2.2Philippines 166 2.2.1 Arms and Armor 166 2.2.1 History 166 2.2.1 Military History and Martial Arts 166 2.3 167 2.3.1 Arms and Armor 167 2.3.2 History 167 2.3.3 Military History and Martial Arts 167 2.4 Thailand 168 2.4.1 Arms and Armor 168 2.4.2 History 168 2.4.3 Military History and Martial Arts 168 2.5 Burma 168 2.5.1 Arms and Armors 168 2.5.2 Arms and Armor 168 2.5.3 Military History and Martial Arts 168

6 3. East Asian 169 3.1 General History and Arms and Armor 169 3.1.1 Arms and Armor 169 3.1.2 History 169 3.1.3 Military History and Martial Arts 169 3.2 China 169 3.2.1 Arms and Armor 170 3.2.2 History 170 3.2.3 Military History and Martial Arts 170 3.3 Tibet 170 3.3.1 Arms and Armor 170 3.3.2 History 1 71 3.3.3 Military History and Martial Arts 171 3.4 Mongols 171 3.4.1 Arms and Armor 171 3.4.2 History 171 3.4.3 Military History 171 3.5 Korea 171 3.5.1 Arms and Armor 171 3.5.2 History 172 3.5.3 Military History and Martial Arts 172

Web-related Resources 172

ABOUT THE IQP TEAM 174

7 Introduction

The purpose of this project was to study the artifacts from and

Southeast Asia from the Higgins Armory and put together both a website and hardcopy document to document these artifacts and their historical context. We studied the technological, social and other influences on arms and armor of Eastern and Southeastern

Asia. This included pieces from China, Tibet, the Malayan Archipelagos, Burma, New

Guinea, Indonesia, the , Korea, and the Mongolian and Moro cultures, and does not include any artifacts from Japan (these have already been the focus of another project). The collection includes swords, sheathes and , , barongs, helmets, a , and several other types. In all there are approximately 175 artifacts that were examined and documented.

This is important project in large part because of Southeast Asia's importance to the world. Some of the earliest humans have been found in and other Southeast

Asian countries. Also of significance in the East Asian area is China. Home to some of the earliest recorded civilization, China was once one of the greatest in the world. China remains unique today in large part because it remains a major world power, unlike many of the earliest empires such as the Romans, Greeks and Egyptians.

The Higgins Armory itself is a distinguished institution (the only in the western hemisphere wholly dedicated to the study of arms and armor) with an extensive collection. The main goal of this project is to extend access to their eastern and southern

Asian collections to a worldwide audience through the use of the internet. Also, the project serves the armory by examining a less-studied part of their inventory.

8 The project began by researching the culture, society, technology, and history of the originating and surrounding countries of the artifacts. With that information, the pieces were examined, categorized, and catalogued. The project looked at the Zhou, Han, and T'ang Dynasty and 19 th century Chinese history where the most artifacts came from.

The surrounding countries such as Korea, Tibet, and were also investigated thoroughly even though they have only a small number of artifacts in the Higgins

Armory. In Southeast Asia, the Malayan archipelago, Indonesia, and the Philippines were the main topics with most of the artifacts coming from that region. Research on the background of the other countries such as New Guinea, Burma and the Moro cultures was also part of the project to show general interaction between all the cultures in that area.

The project created a catalog which give detailed (or as much as possible) background information on all of the pieces from the area. This website will act as an interactive experience for others who wish to know about the artifacts. It also contains a guide to the various parts of weapons, and it allows users to zoom in on some very detailed artifacts.

An Interactive Qualifying Project (IQP) at WPI is a project which deals with the relationship between technology and society. The IQP is a central feature of the WPI

Plan, a new approach to engineering undergraduate education introduced at WPI in the early 1970s. The goals of the Plan are to promote learning by doing through project work, maximize student choice in designing their own educational programs, and ensure that students had not only passed courses but were in fact competent as professionals, literate in the humanities and understood the societal implications of their professional work. The

9 IQP contributes importantly to the first two of these WPI Plan goals as well as, of course, the last.

10 Chinese History

Myths and Legends The beginnings of the Chinese, one of the oldest world civilizations, are surrounded by myths and legends with little actual evidence. To understand early and history, myth and legends are among the best , since very often myths and legends have some basis in historical events.

Creation of the World and Humans As with many other ancient peoples, the Chinese had a myth regarding to the genesis of the world. In the beginning there was an egg and nothing else. The egg was the entire and there were no heavens and no earth. From the darkness, Pangu, a giant, was born and he slept in the darkness for thousands of years. Pangu woke up one day and himself living in the empty space with nothing around him. He pulled the heaven and the earth apart from the egg and used up all of his energy by doing so. When he was about to die, he decided to give his eyes to light up the sky and use his blood to give water to the land. So his eyes turned into the sun and moon, his blood turned into rivers and seas, his breath became the wind, his limbs became mountains and his body turned into soil.

After Pangu died, there were only animals and plants on the earth. Nu Wa, a goddess appeared. decided to make intelligent creatures for the land so she made men by using yellow clay. In the process of making men, some of the mud dropped onto earth. They became men as well. Thos who made of good yellow clay were rich and noble and those who formed from mud were poor and low.

11 The Yellow Emperor and the first Dynasty After the creation of humans came the wars. People fought each other for food and land. Very soon it turned into a war between two factions. Those who lived in

Chungan (center of the world) lead by fought against barbarians whose leader was Chuyo. Huang Di led his people to victory and became the ruler of the land. It was during this time, according to the legend, that Chinese people developed their own writing and language. After a number of empires, Yao, a noble young man, became the ruler. Yao was viewed as one of the greatest emperors of the time because when naming his own successor, he passed over his own son and appointed Shun. Shun was known to take care of his stepmother even though she tried to drive him away from the family. Yao honored Shun and made Shun the emperor.

During this period, a great flood happened along the side of Huang He (Yellow

River) that caused a lot of problems for the people. Yu, who served as an official under

Shun, was appointed to solve the problem. Yu did an excellent job by draining the water to other rivers, thus he became the next ruler. When the time came to name the next ruler,

Yu followed the previous example and did not want to name his son as the next ruler.

However, when he died, people were so thankful for his help in stopping the great flood that they made Yu's son the ruler. This is said to be the beginning of the Dynasty.

The dynasty lasted through fourteen rulers. The last ruler Jie was a tyrant and was overthrown by T'ang. T'ang later founded the second dynasty — the Shang (also known as Yin)

12 There is little or no evidence of the existence of the or any of the rulers before it. Most people believe that the legends and myths were made up by

Confucius and his followers to justify some of their ideas. Regardless of the myths, we know that and millet was cultivated in China as early as 5000BC. Wooden tools were used in daily life and evidence of animal breeding suggests agriculture was the primary source of food and goods.

(Latourette 1964: 26-30)

The Shang Dynasty Some time after 2000 BC, the Shang dynasty was established in the north China plain, around the Huang He and Valley area. Metal and stone tools were used in this period. One of the great achievements of this period was the use of bronze. Another important event was the development of a writing system. Divinatory inscriptions have been found on bones and tortoise shell from this period. It is not clear if the writing system was from the previous Xia dynasty, but it was a major event in Chinese history.

Shang society relied on agriculture, and the constant wars with neighboring settlements made its cultural influence stretch much further than the land controlled by the Shang.

The Shang believed in honoring ancestors through rituals. The Shang dynasty lasted roughly from 2000BC to 1027BC.

(Latourette 1964: 30-33)

The Zhou Dynasty

13 All of the China maps were modified from the image found in http://archaeologicaltrs.com/as chn caps.html

The last Shang ruler was overthrown by a chieftain of an outer tribe called the

Zhou. There was a lot of political struggling at the start of the Zhou dynasty. One important political system that came out of these conflicts was very much like feudalism; the Zhou ruler granted the right to local nobles to rule part of the land, and in turn the local rulers had to provide resources to the Zhou . Many of the local rulers were able to have their own laws and built up armies under this system. Early Zhou rulers, through conquest, extended Zhou culture through much of north of the River. In 771 BC, the Zhou ruler was killed by invading barbarians. The capital was moved eastward to Luoyong. This is the beginning of the

Dynasty. The power of Zhou monarchy was weakened because of the move of the capital and the change of the ruler. Local rulers took this opportunity and started to fight among each other to acquire more power and lands. The Eastern Zhou period can be divided into two periods. The first is called the (770BC to 476BC) and the

14 second is called the (475BC to 221BC). In the Spring and Autumn period, most of the local rulers tried to increase their power by allying themselves with other rulers. Cities were protected by surrounding walls (much like castle walls). During the Warring States the local rulers started to fight with each other more often for power and land. The constant warfare brought advances in military techniques and technology.

The art of forging iron swords and armor made warfare more deadly. One of the significant advancements in weapons was double-edged swords. These were first mentioned in Chinese sources in the seventh century BC. Wars also brought poverty to many of the common people.

During this time of disorder, some of the most influential philosophers were born.

Confucius was the most famous one amongst them. He lived from 551 — 469 BC. He was an extraordinary teacher with many followers. He believed that rulers should take care of the poor, common people and in turn common people would help to create a better country. The ideas of ruler's power and responsibility to take care of his people were granted by heaven (Rulers were often referred as Heaven's Son after the Qin period).

Daoism and Legalism were also products of this period. The founder of Daoism was Lao Tse (604 — 531 BC). He was searching a way to avoid conflicts and wars. The result was a book called Dao De Ching. He put many of his ideas and observations about the world into his book. Later on people who read his book started to practice his ideas

(thus the name Daoism).

Hsun Tse (298-238 BC) was the man who first introduced the idea of legalism.

He was one of the followers of Confucius, however he believed that human nature is evil and selfish. Humans could be made good through educations. His student Han Fei Tse

15 extended this idea and said that through laws and rules humans could be made good. Also strong army and harsh rules would bring a country peace and prosperity. Many of the later emperors used this idea to establish laws and armies.

(Latourette 1964: 33-61)

(Ebrey 1996: 30-59)

The Qin Dynasty

At the end of the Warring State period, the state of Qin was able to defeat all other states. The first ruler of the Qin dynasty, King Zheng, called himself Shi Huang Di (the first emperor), naming himself after the first ruler of the Chinese people in legend.

Legalism had great influence on King Zheng; he established harsh laws and strong armies to maintain his power. His accomplishments would be to centralize the government, standardize the measurement units (currency and writing mainly), and the building of the

Great Wall. To prevent wars between states, he appointed officials from the central government instead of local rulers. Since the states were controlled directly by the central

16 government, there was no need for separate currency and writing. However, the king would not tolerate criticism. He banished or put to death many scholars and burnt their books if they opposed him. The building of the Great Wall also made people suffer from high taxes and harsh physical labors. Fragments of the Great Wall had been built in the

Zhou period to stop constant invasions of the other states and from the nomadic tribes from the north and west. However, the walls were not all connected. King Zheng knocked down those that separated the states and connected the rest of Great Wall together. He died in 210 BC and his successor could not hold onto the throne.

(Ebrey 1996: 60-64)

The Han Dynasty

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20 years after the first Qin emperor died, the Qin dynasty was overthrown and a new dynasty was formed. Gaozu was the one who defeated all the other opposing forces

17 and took the throne. The new dynasty he formed was called the Han. The Han used the same centralized government system as the Qin. However, rather than using harsh laws and punishment to restrict officials, the emperor used Confucian teaching to strengthen superior — subordinate relations. In the long run it was a safer and cheaper way to use moral restrictions. When the new political system was first established, it didn't have enough power to fight against the invasions from some of the nomadic tribes outside of

China proper. The Great Wall was extended and rebuilt to stop those barbarians. (The

Great Wall we know today was the reconstruction of this Great Wall during the Ming dynasty). One of the biggest tribal forces at the time was the . The Xiongnu established a formidable force in the late third century BC. The Great Wall built by the

Qin dynasty was intended to stop the Xiongnu forces. Even with the help of the Great

Wall, Han armies were unable to drive the Xiongnu forces back. The first few kings of the Han period tried conciliatory policies, in which they sent gifts to the Xiongnu. When

Wudi came to the throne in 140BC, he took the offensive. He sent 300,000 troops into

Xiongnu land in 133BC. He also tried to get allies from central Asia and northern Korea.

One of the most important figures during this time would be Zhang Qian. He was sent out as an envoy to central Asia. Unfortunately he was captured and kept prisoner for ten years. Zhang Qian eventually escaped and came back to China. From his report, China found out that there were also advanced civilizations further west. Thus trading routes were developed through central Asia to improve traveling conditions between the east and the west. Soon the Xiongnu became weak and in 55 BC they broke into several groups. During this era, Han China also expanded its territory to the south greatly. The

Chinese army went as far as northern . Meanwhile trading between the east and

18 the west became very common. Silk was one of the most important products being sold to the west. The money generated by the export of silk was extraordinary. Therefore the

Chinese called the route connecting China to west Asia the Silk Route.

In technology, Han improved upon the metalworking that had been developed

during the late Zhou and Qin. More crafted items were created because of the increasing

demand from the trading with the west. Most Chinese people still believed in honoring

ancestors. Literature, especially Confucius' work, was promoted. Many of the Confucian

scholars were used as officials. When the power of the Han government weakened under

Wang Mang, many of the peripheral states broke away and started civil wars. The Han

Empire lasted another 200 years after that, but the rulers were unable to regain much

control over the states. Finally in 220AD, the Han collapsed.

(Latourette 1964: 75-104)

(Ebrey 1996: 65-73)

The Three Kingdoms Near the , the emperor lost most of his power and could no

longer control local authorities. Many of the local leaders would increase taxes and

establish strict laws to collect more fines. Many of the farmers, whose income was just

enough for the family expenses, refused to pay such outrageous taxes and rebelled. It was

called the Yellow Turbans Rebellion.(184AD) Most of the Yellow Turbans were farmers

and poor people who wanted to improve their living conditions by overthrowing the

corrupt Han Empire. The Han government assigned generals to put down the rebellion

and when the rebellion was finally stopped, many of the generals had become much more

19 powerful than the Han government. Soon the generals turned against each other and fought for supremacy. By 205 AD, a powerful general, Cao Cao, had successfully taken control of northern China. He used his military power to manipulate the Han government.

However, there were two other rivals who had enough power to stand up to him. Sun

Quan established his state in the southeast of China (the central and lower Yangzi valley and further south). Liu Pei established his forces in the west (around the area) to counterattack Cao Cao. In 220 AD, Cao Pie, the son of Cao Cao, forced the last Han emperor to give up the throne and founded a new dynasty called the Wei. Soon after that both Lui Pei and Sun Quan followed up by naming their states the Shu and dynasties.

Historically this was called the Three Kingdoms. Because Wei had more resources and populations, it defeated Shu in Sichuan in 263 AD. In 265 AD, only two years after the defeat of Shu, the son of Wei general forced the emperor to step down and created his own dynasty — . In 280AD, he defeated the southern state of Wu and successfully reunited China.

(Latourette 1964: 111-113)

The Time of Division Although the had unified China, it never established a good centralized system to preserve the emperor's power. The first emperor managed to hold most of his power and domain together but when he died, the Jin dynasty soon fell apart.

His successor proved incapable of holding the empire in peace. The system of assigning officials according to their abilities had degenerated into assigning positions according to the standing of the candidate's family. This greatly reduced the Jin court's ability to

20 prevent invasion from non-Chinese tribes and warlords. Warlords and generals started full-scale civil wars near the Jin capital between 291 and 305 AD. In 304AD one of the

Xiongnu chiefs, , declared himself the king of Han. His son took over the Jin capital in 311 AD and other Xiongnu leaders soon initiated wars in hopes of becoming the king of China. For a more than a century (304 — 439 AD, known as '') northern China was a battleground. The first warlord who was able to secure his position was from the clan of . The dynasty he established was called the Northern

Wei dynasty (439 to 534AD). The Xianbei were from southern , and by the fourth century they occupied northern Shanxi. The emperor of the Wei tried to transform his state into a Chinese dynasty, so around 490 AD he moved his capital to and tried to enforce Chinese clothing, names, and encouraged the intermarriage between

Chinese and Xianbei. However, the stability of the empire was brief. Civil wars broke out in Wei in 524 AD and two new states called the Qi and Zhou dynasties were established in 551 AD and 557 AD. Qi was destroyed in 575AD and Zhou was taken over by one of its generals who declared the Sui dynasty.

In the south, a Jin prince and his officials set up a capital in () and created a new government in 317AD. This Eastern Jin dynasty was overthrown in

420AD and followed by four short dynasties -- the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen. These four dynasties were all founded by generals who had enough power to hold the government together but their heirs could not successfully hold the states together. The last dynasty collapsed in 589AD and we call these four dynasties collectively the Southern Dynasty.

(Ebrey 1996: 86-100)

21 During this period of disorder and wars, various religions bloomed in China. To escape from the harsh living conditions and constant insecure feelings, many people put their faith in gods and ancestors. Daoism had combined with the old Chinese beliefs and turned into a religion rather than philosophical ideas. Daoism as a religion believed in gods and ancestors who would protect those who believed in them. It also believed in magic which would bring good luck. The head of the Daoist temple would often use his magic to help those who were in trouble.

Buddhism found many believers during this period as well. The religion was originated in . Shakyamuni, the founder of , argued that people have disappointment because of worldly desires. One must be able to live an ethical life and engage in spiritual exercise. Those who progress along this path can eventually escape the cycle of life and death. Buddhism came to China along with goods from India and it was mostly a religion of the merchants. During the Jin and the Sixteen Kingdoms period,

Buddhist temples were able maintain political independence and help out people regardless of their origins. By the end of the era, Buddhism had gained a very strong hold in China.

(Latourette 1964: 11 6- 1 29)

(Ebrey 1996: 101-107)

The Sui Dynasty North and South China were reunited by the Sui dynasty in 581 AD. The new emperor's policy was Legalism combined with Confucianism. One of his major

achievements was the creation of a new capital. The new capital (called Changang) was

22 built in the valley of Wei and even though it retained the same name as the old Han capital, it was expanded and became much larger. He died soon after the completion of the new capital in 604 AD. His son finished the which connects Hangchow to Changang. His son tried to push for many projects at the same time including introducing the examination for civil services and dispatching armies against the Chams

(in modern Vietnam) and Korea. The wars cost the new empire greatly and people were suffering from heavy taxes. In 618AD, rebels broke into the capital and the emperor was killed.

The

After a brief period of disorder, the Tang dynasty came to power and its force united China. The Tang dynasty was founded by one of the rebel leaders who overcame all of the other warlords. It is regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization—equal to the Han period. The early Tang used the divisional militia that was

23 used by the Zhou and Sui. Instead of using professional soldiers, the army was composed of volunteer farmer-soldiers who served in rotation. This way the cost of the armies was kept down and generals were less likely to establish a strong tie with the soldiers. Using this army, the Tang rulers quickly gained control beyond China proper.

On the northwestern front, the Turks had become a serious threat. The Turks came from central Asia, just a little south of the Mongolia area. During the Jin and

Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Turks took the opportunity to enter China. Since then, the powerful Turks had become a problem for many newly established dynasties. To keep them in check, Tang rulers used the strategies of marriage diplomacy, investiture of their rulers, trade and getting one tribe to fight another.

As in the Han period, the Tang emperor believed that Confucian scholars would be loyal to the empire. So to identify true Confucians, the Tang used and expended the civil services examination invented by Sui. The exam offered opportunities for the talented from the poor families.

(Latourette 1964: 138-149)

(Ebrey 1996: 108-112)

The reunification of the country, the opening of Grand Canal linking north and south, and a stable government, undoubtedly brought prosperity into China. And prosperity in turn aided the cultural vitality of the Tang period. It was during this time block printing was invented. Block printing enabled common people to enjoy a copy of original art. Calligraphic art, therefore, spread to more people than ever. Another form of art that became famous was poetry. Many of China's greatest poets, including Wei,

Li Bai, , and Bai Juyi came from this period. Most of them became officials

24 through the examination system. Tea also became popular during this time. Tea was originally imported from western countries or was seen in southern China where the weather was right for tea plants to grow. During the period of disorder, many northern people had to come to southern China and lived the same lifestyle of the south. When the

Sui and Tang reunited China, those people brought tea back to north China, thus tea became very popular.

Buddhism played an important role in this period too. The early Tang emperors had some fascination with Buddhist religion. They promote the building of Buddhist temples. Monks and temples didn't have to pay taxes and they were outside of any political powers. Buddhism grew fast under the Tang government.

The downfall of the Tang first came with a major military defeat in 751AD by

Arabs at Talas. It marked the beginning of the steady military decline of the Tang

Empire. Also emperor Xuanzong (ruled from 712 to 756 AD) made a bad decision when he entrusted his armies to An Lushan. An Lushan was just a general who did not have control over the entire military. An Lushan acquired his position because Yang Guifei,

Xuanzong's favorite woman, was amused by his company. Xuanzong allowed An

Lushan to command the troops along the northern and northeastern frontier. In 755AD

An Lushan rebelled and marched into Louyang and Changang. Xuanzong had to flee

west and his subordinates forced him to have Yang Guifei strangled. Even though a Tang

heir eventually took the capital back, the economy and the power of the central

government was seriously hurt. In 860AD, the Tang government seemed to have lost

control of China. The local leaders held political and military power once again. Any man

who was able to organize the defense against rebels or bandits could easily become a

25 warlord. Local warlords were eager to expand their lands. They fought each other constantly and the Tang government was destroyed by these warlords.

(Latourette 1964:150-168)

(Ebrey 1996: 109-135)

The Song Dynasty

One general was finally able to unify the military. His name was Zhao Kuangyin

(960AD to 976AD), the first emperor of the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty can be separated into two periods. The period before the loss of north China is called the

Northern Song; the Southern Song refers to the Song government which was later based in the south. Kuangyin was originally the of the palace army but he was elevated by his troops to become the emperor. This fact affected the military structure of the Song dynasty greatly. To prevent the similar incident happening against him, the emperor rotated his generals often and put armies under civilian control. By the time he died, most of the warlords in the south had submitted to the Song. His younger brother

26 succeeded to the throne in 976 AD and took more drastic action to limit the generals' power. He got his military commanders to retire through generous pensions or force, and replaced them with civilian officials. He also appointed many overseers to supervise military operations. The military power of the Song was therefore very weak. Although the Song unified China, the military power of the Song was too weak for the kind of expansion we see in the Han or Tang period. The Song dynasty is notable for the development of cities as centers of trade, industry, and maritime commerce. The landed scholar-officials, sometimes collectively referred to as the gentry, lived in the provincial centers alongside the shopkeepers, artisans, and merchants. A new group of wealthy commoners--the mercantile class--arose as education spread, private trade grew and more common people were becoming wealthy this way.

The Song refined many of the cultural developments of the previous dynasties.

Song intellectuals sought answers to all philosophical and political questions in the

Confucian Classics. Poets again were able to express their feelings through their poems and block printing technology was pushed even further during this period. Ouyang Xiu, one of the most famous figures in this era, not only served in some of the highest offices in the land, he also composed excellent poetry and essays and edited two major histories.

Su Shi had similar broad interests but he focused more on art.

Unfortunately, one of the most cultivated emperors was also the last emperor for the . Huizong (100 -1 126AD) was a talented painter and calligrapher. He was so absorbed in aesthetic and religious matters that he lost his throne and northern China. In 1115AD the Jerchens rose up in the region north of the Khitans'

Liao state and declare themselves as the Jin dynasty. The Song government thought the

27 Jin could be a new ally and soon concluded an alliance with the Jin. However, the alliance broke up and in 1126 the Jerchens attacked Kaifeng. The city was taken over and

Huizong and his successor were captured.

The Song government soon found another heir and set up its capital in southern

China. Peace and War parties were formed regarding the issue of regaining the north

China. In the end the peace party won and a treaty was signed. The Song government would give money and goods to the Jin every year and in turn the Jin would not invade southern China. The situation of the two sides remained unchanged until the rise of the

Mongols in the early thirteenth century.

During this period we see a lot more poems and paintings on the subject of the war and the loss of northern China. Culture continued to bloom in the south and trade was even more prominent than before. Having the capital in the south seemed to further stimulate the development of the region.

(Latourette 1964: 175-185, 193-203)

The Mongols in Central Asia Many of the people whom the Chinese called 'Barbarians' were those who lived in central Asia. Their lifestyles were quite different than those who lived in China proper.

Most of central Asia was covered by sand and mountain. No major river or water sources existed either, so it was unsuited for crop culture. Under these conditions, trade with

Chinese civilization was especially important for the tribal societies in central Asia. Most of the people who lived there were herders. They bred animals and often traded their animal products for grain, textiles, and ceramics. When the Chinese refused to trade, or

28 when they could not produce enough animal products, those who had mobility and military skills would attack farms to get what they wanted.

The Mongols lived in such a society. Located north of China between present-day

China and Russia, the landscape was composed of the Gobi desert in the southeast and mountains in the west and southwest. Archaeological evidence shows human habitation in the southern Gobi desert between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago. By the third century

BC, the Mongols had started to form tribal alliances and to threaten China. However, most of the tribes acted on their own. The situation was changed when one great clan leader rose to power — Chinggis (Ghengis Khan, 1162 to 1227 AD). Chinggis' father, a tribal chieftain, was murdered and Chinggis became the chieftain to avenge the death of his father. He built a strong army and fought constant warfare with the Jin and Song dynasties. In 1206 AD, his tribe was powerful enough that he was able to unite all of the other Mongol tribes together. He established rules and laws for all of the tribes. The laws and rules were usually simple but with harsh punishment. For example, the penalty for robbery and adultery was death. With this army, Chinggis started his conquest in 1212-

13. He destroyed the Jurchen's northern capital at in 1215. Chinggis' troops were moving at an amazing speed. Before his death in 1227, Mongolia, Manchuria and Korea were also under his control.

(Latourette 1964: 204- 208)

(Ebrey 1996: 172-173)

29 China under Alien Rule

Chinggis' grandson Khubilai was the one who finally conquered the Southern

Song dynasty. Song officials tried to stop the Mongols but they crossed the Yangzi in

1275. In 1279, the Mongols were finally able to defeat the last of the Song armies. The

Mongols established the . Under Mongol rule, the Chinese were not forced to follow the customs of the conqueror. In fact, Mongol rulers tried to install the traditional Chinese bureaucratic system into their government. However, there was one very important difference from the old Chinese system — civil services exams were used but most of the officials were appointed by the central government. The Mongols also discriminated against the Chinese socially and politically. Most government positions were taken by Mongols and other central Asian people. Chinese people were often offered the lowest positions and bad treatment.

A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The development of drama and novels during this period was one of its major achievements. The "Romance

30 of the Three Kingdoms" was written in this time and is often said to be one of the best novels of the period. The China's contact with the was increased significantly with the expansion of the empire. Many merchants from Europe came to

China and traded with the Chinese. They also brought news and the information about

China back to their homeland. One of the most famous of those was Marco Polo, who left behind a record of his travels to China. He was first brought to China by his father and uncle when he was about 21 years old (1275AD). Khubilai welcomed the Polo family and treated them very well. In 1292AD, the Polos returned to Venice. Marco Polo's writing had a large influence on European knowledge of Chinese culture and geography.

A lot more intercultural contact also took place in China during this period.

Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism were allowed into the country. Lamaism (Tibetan

Buddhism) also grew fast during this period, although Daoism endured Mongol persecutions. More Chinese innovations, such as printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature, were introduced to Europe, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. Various food products such as sorghum were introduced to China for the first time. Overall, even though the government was not run by the Chinese, Chinese culture influenced more people than ever during this period.

(Ebrey 1996: 173-185)

End of the Yuan Dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang (1328 — 1398), was a commoner who lived in poverty with his parents when he was young. They often had to move from place to place to escape rent

31 collectors. His parents died when he was sixteen years old, and without relatives to take care of him, he went to a Buddhist monastery. The monastery was burned to the ground in 1352 by Yuan militia. Zhu then joined a rebel group and fought against the Yuan government. He rose quickly in the rebel group, and in 1355 when the commander died, he took over the command of the troops. The following year he captured Nanjing. He gradually defeated the other local leaders and expanded his control to the north. In 1367,

Zhu Yuanzhang sent his army north to the Yuan capital Beijing. The Mongol ruler fled and thus left Zhu Yuanzhang the new ruler of China. He established the Ming dynasty

(1368-1644) and historically he was called Taizu. He kept the capital of the new dynasty in Nanjing.

(Latourette 1964: 225- 227)

The Ming Dynasty

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The new government Taizu set up was friendlier towards the poor. He ordered a full-scale registration for all of the population to collect taxes more accurately. The

32 leading families in every village were assigned to handle tax collections, and low-level judicial and police services. This way the local communities were able to not deal with tax collectors from the central government and since tax collectors were from the same village, it greatly reduced the corruption of the tax collectors. Traditional Confucian values were again restored to the government. Taizu believed that Confucius's teaching would make people obedient and thus secure his position as the emperor.

The Ming Empire tried to destroy the remaining Mongols in northwest China but never had any luck. The Ming army could not successfully defend against the raids of northern tribes either. Because of the constant attacks, the Ming government reconstructed part of the Great Wall in hope of stopping the northern nomadic clans. The

Ming army, however, did expand southwest into the provinces of and Guizhou.

The area was conquered by the Ming army in 1381 and many Chinese colonists had moved into the area by the end of the century.

The Chinese again enjoyed peace and fair treatment from the government.

However, the Ming had little new literary originality when compared to the previous few periods. Civil examination was again an important method to appoint officials. To prevent the big cities' scholars monopolizing the civil exams, provincial quotas were instituted. Also the Ming added a new tier of the civil examination, so the number of degree holders was greatly increased.

Chinese also increased its contact with other countries during this time. The third emperor of the Ming, Chengzu, sent out , one of his most trusted men, to be an emissary. Zheng He was a Muslim eunuch who served by the side of Chengzu. From

1405 to 1433, Zheng He made at least seven voyages overseas. On the first three he went

33 to India, and the last three went as far as . Trade between Europe and China was also very common during this era as well. The main export products were silk and porcelain.

(Latourette 1964: 237-243)

The End of the Ming Dynasty Long wars with the Mongols, northern tribes and rebellions within the Ming territory in the sixteenth century weakened the Ming government. Warlords and rebel forces again occupied major cities and fought amongst each other. In 1644, when the rebels took over Beijing, the capital of the Ming dynasty, the general in charge of the easternmost pass of the Great Wall joined forces with the Manchus, were the people who lived in northern China outside of the Great Wall (Manchuria). Unlike the Mongols who lived in a nomadic society, the Manchus relied heavily on farming as well as hunting.

With the cooperation of the Ming general, the Manchus took Beijing from the north and became masters of north China, establishing the last imperial dynasty, the Qing (1644-

1911). However, some of the Ming troops and heirs would not back down so easily. It took the Qing dynasty another fifteen years to conquer south China and finally became the new ruler of the land.

(Latourette 1964: 231-234)

34 The Last Dynasty - Qing

It was during the period of the three emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong

(1669 to 1799) that the Qing expanded the Chinese territory to the ones we know today.

All three of these rulers strengthen the Qin army to expand the territory. The Mongols were defeated by the Qing army who used and other modern weapons. The empire acquired Mongolia in 1697. In 1717, the Qing invaded Tibet to stop the Western

(Dzungar) Mongols from gaining control of the area. The Manchus took over Tibet in

1720 and a Manchu military base was set up in Tibet. Chinese Central Asia was also conquered in 1750s. These large areas were ruled lightly and most of the native populations were allowed to follow their own laws.

Culturally, the Chinese during this period had turned somewhat conservative.

Because of the disorder at the end of the Ming dynasty, the Qing emperor pushed for harsh rules and laws. The overall conservative atmosphere did not stop the Chinese from

35 creating. One of the most famous novels — "Dream of Red Mansion" -- was written during this time.

(Ebrey 1996: 228-233)

During the 1700s, the western countries were expanding their territories as well.

Many ships from western countries came to China and larger-scale trading took place.

Western courtiers needed tea and spice from China. However, Qing foreign policies were very conservative. The Qing government only opened Guangzhou port for trade with the western countries. By the end of the 18 th century, European countries were importing much more goods from China than exporting goods to China. Many of the western countries wanted the Qing government to set up rules and sign treaties to extend the trading between the countries. There was one important product being imported to China which triggered a war between China and : opium.

Opium was mainly produced in India during the 1700s. At that time the English had conquered a large part of India and produced opium there. To balance out their payment to the Chinese, English started to sell opium to the Chinese in 1729. By 1883, there were more than 40,000 chests of opium being sold to China. Opium is addictive and comes with many side effects such as severe cramps, chills and nausea. To stop the opium from going into China, the Qing government appointed an official to close

Guangzhou port and burn all of the opium. Unfortunately, the English would not back down. Many of the pro-war companies pushed England towards war with China. In 1841 the British entered China with their superior , and advanced to Nanjing. The Qing officials had no choice but were forced to sign a treaty. The treaty was signed in Nanjing, and it called for the opening of five treaty ports (Guanggzhou, , , ,

36 and ). The Chinese government had to pay large sums of money; fixed the tariff at five percent, and Hong Kong was leased to English. Historically this was called The

Opium War.

(Latourette 1964: 276-277)

The Opium War had shown the European countries how weak the QinL, government was. Many more countries tried to take Chinese territory or sign favorable treaties with the Chinese. By 1850, many more rebellions had appeared everywhere in hope to overthrow the weak government. Hong Xiuquan, who failed the civil service examination, tried to create a new religion and overthrow the government with his followers. He joined Christian missionaries and started to gather people with the religion.

He was able to get about 20,000 followers by 1850. The next year he declared himself the king of the Taiping Kingdom. By 1853, he was able to take over Nanjing and set up a government there. It took the Qing army ten years to crush the Taiping rebellion and take back Nanjing.

(Latourette 1964: 237-243)

The Fall of the Qing Dynasty The Qing government slowly lost its power over foreign policies. Commoners were being taxed heavily to cover the expenses of warfare and treaties. Many Chinese rose up and tried to overthrow the government. The man who finally succeeded was Sun

Zhongshan (1855-1925). He came from Guangdong and was sent to the United States for higher education by his uncle. He became interested in western religion and society when he was studying aboard. In 1894 he founded the Revive China Society in Hawaii. He

37 worked very hard to get support from other rich Chinese who lived outside of China.

Later on Sun and his group called themselves Nationalists, and worked towards the establishment of a Chinese Republic. A coup by army officials triggered the downfall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. Revolutionists took the opportunity and rebelled against the

Qing government as well. The court turned to its top general Yuang Shikai for help.

Instead of trying to put down the rebellion, Yuang came to an agreement with the revolutionists. He would provide the military power to defeat the Qing court and a republican government would be set up with Yuang as the president. The last Qing emperor abdicated in 1912. However, the new republic didn't last long. Yuang never got popular support and in late 1915 he announced that he would become emperor. He died in June 1916 and the new republican government was never able to gain popular support.

It took twelve years for the Nationalists to set up a functional government.

(Ebrey 1996: 236-259, 264 -281)

Modern Chinese History Sun Zhongshan eventually became the lead figure of the new republican government. However, he died in 1925 when the Nationalist government was just taking shape. The new leader of the Nationalist government was then Jieshi. However, Jian

Jieshi didn't want the and the influence of Russia in his government.

Thus the long fight between the Nationalist party and Communist party started. There were many events that happened, and different historical sources view these events differently. Most of the primary sources are still not widely available since both parties still exist today. Both governments have their official "facts" about this period of history.

38 However, the result of the civil wars between the Nationalist and Communist governments was that Nationalist government was forced to retreat to Taiwan after War

World 2 in 1949. The Communists took over China proper and formed the People's

Republic of China. The Nationalists in Taiwan established the Republic of China. The tension did not disappear after the retreat of the Nationalist government. Today the policy of one China is a big issue and only time will tell what will happen to the Chinese people in the future.

Korean History

Prehistoric Period It is not clear when people started to live in the Korean Peninsula. Many Koreans claim that the history of their land started 5000 years ago; however, there is little or no knowledge of the people who lived in Korea during that time. There is evidence showing that tribes and societies had been formed by around 1800BC. Pottery remains suggest that the influence cane from Manchuria. Remains of this culture have been found at places such as Nongp'o-dong, Chit' am-ni, and Kyodong. It is believed that modern Koreans are the descendants of these people. These people usually lived by the seashore and the banks of rivers. Food was produced by hunting, fishing, and gathering.

The Use of Bronze The first use of bronze was probably around the ninth or eighth century B.C. and

Korean's Bronze Age is thought to have lasted until the fourth century B.C. Two of the

39 most common bronze implements during this period were the mandolin-shaped and the multi-knobbed coarse-lined mirror. Stone and wood were also widely used during this time. Most of the farming equipment was made out of wood and stone. In fact, bronze was hard to obtain and bronze implements were not used widely in daily life.

The region of southern Manchuria and the Korean peninsula were probably where the

Korean Bronze Age societies lived. Their life depended greatly on agriculture. Rice became one of the main crops during this time. Rice agriculture was most likely transmitted from China at an earlier date.

(Wagner 1984: 3-13)

40 N

is7

All of the Korea Maps were modified from image found in http://myhome.shinbiro.com/—kbyon/culture/koreamap.htm

The Old Cho-Sun Old Cho-Sun was the most advanced state in Korea at about fourth century B.C. It was established in the basins of the Liao and Tae Rivers. The original Old Cho-Sun occupied the Taedong river basin and it was just a small state at the time. It slowly

41 combined with the other states around the region between the Taedong and Lizo rivers.

Cho-Sun thus turned into one of the most advanced states at the time. The Chinese, under the newly unified Han dynasty, started to invade Cho-Sun for the control of the Chinese border. However, Chinese control was limited to the border area around the old Cho-Sun area. The constant warfare against the Han Dynasty caused Old Cho-Sun to gradually decline. The close contact between the Chinese and Koreans had influences on Korean culture. New technology such as iron forging was transmitted to Korea by the Chinese through Manchuria at around the fourth century B.C. One of the most frequently found artifacts during this period are iron weapons such as daggers and points.

(Wagner 1984: 13-21)

42 Kingdoms period

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There were also some other powerful states formed inside of Korea. Near the end of the Han dynasty, the disorder of China proper also affected many of these states. Very often powerful Chinese generals would try to invade the Korean border to gain more resources. When the Sui and Tang dynasties were established in the beginning of the

sixth century A.D., diplomatic and military alliances were formed when the nomadic

43 tribes outside of China proper became too strong, When the Chinese Empire became strong again, it would often break the treaty and invade Korea. However, the Chinese were never able to gain full control of the different states in Korea.

Then, a very powerful Korean kingdom was established around the Yalu River basin. It was called Go-Gu-Ryo, established at the beginning of the Tang dynasty. The

Tang Empire felt threatened by the presence of such a powerful kingdom. The Chinese emperor started to invade Korea again. The Chinese effort to control or defeat Go-Gu-

Ryo was unsuccessful. The Tang Chinese started to search for allies within Korea. Silla, which was another powerful Korean kingdom in Korea, was their answer. With combined power of Silla and the Tang dynasty, they were able to defeat Baek-Jye (in 660 A.D) and then Go-Gu-Ryo (in 668 A.D.), the two biggest kingdoms in Korea at the time.

Manchuria and most of came under Chinese rule. Many of the Koreans moved to Silla in South Korea.

During this period, Buddhism took a firm hold of Korea. Like many other technologies and goods, Buddhism was spread from China to Korea. Many of the

Koreans shared the same passion for Buddhism as the Chinese people at the time.

The change of dynasty in China in the 10th century caused Chinese control over

Korea to weaken again. Silla was unable to maintain control over Korea and a new empire was established, known as Go-Ryu.

(Wagner 1984: 40-65)

44 The Go-Ryu Kingdom (from 10 th to 14 th century)

Manchuria

The Go-Ryu Kingdom was the first kingdom that was able to unify all of Korea.

Buddhist religion and culture dominated the society at the time and with the influence of

Chinese literature caused Koreans to set up a kingdom much like the Chinese dynasties.

Civil service examinations (much like the ones in the Tang dynasty) were used to fill government jobs. The Go-Ryu kingdom was also called Corea, later changed into Korea

45 in English spelling. The Go-Ryu kingdom structure was so much like a Chinese dynasty, it was often referred to as the Go-Ryu dynasty.

The economy was built on agriculture. Most of the farmers had to cultivate so- called "people's land" in which they had to pay one-fourth of the harvest as rent to the state. Men between ages of 16 to 60 were responsible for various state labors. Slaves were also used to perform hard labors.

In foreign relations, the Khitans were the direct neighbor of Korea. The Khitans gained power and took most of Manchuria in 926AD. The Go-Ryu dynasty started to expand north and came into conflicts with the Khitans. Neither side could successfully defeat their enemy; also the Khitans were more focused on defeating Song China. As a result, they worked out an agreement and peace was maintained between the two.

(Wagner 1984: 101-127)

As with many other empires, when the military grows strong and the central government grows weak, a military coup eventually happens. In the 12 th century, military officers revolted because they were ranked below and paid less than civil officials. In

1170AD, a major military revolt broke out and officials seized the control of the government. Unfortunately, at the same time the Mongols gained a lot of military power under Chinggis Khan and were ready to conquer the rest of Asia. Korea was unable to defend themselves with the new rulers and unstable government. The Mongols ended up establishing semi-colonial rule in Korea in the 1260s. After about 100 years ( 1 368AD), the Mongols were overthrown by the Chinese and Ming China was established. With

Mongol influence out of the way, military leaders once again had the power to run the

46 country. A new dynasty was set up by a military leader who was supported by the middle class.

(Wagner 1984: 139-151)

Cho-Sun Dynasty (from the 15th to the end of the 19th century) The second dynasty of Korea was named after the old Cho-Sun Kingdom. It was established in 1392AD. The new government was supported by the middle classes who believed in Confucian teaching strongly. The old examination system of choosing officials was still in place but the government monitored the exams and restricted officials from giving positions to their relatives. Military examinations were also installed in order to find better fighters and commanders.

During the 15 th and 16th centuries, Koreans had achieved many things, one being the creation of their own phonetic alphabet (Hangul) to replace the difficult . The Korean peninsula was in Korean hands again.

Due to the strong belief in Confucianism, the new government started to suppress

Buddhism. The new restrictions were put in place to stop monastic populations from growing. Many of the temples were disestablished, leaving only 242 temples through out the whole country. Overall, Buddhism had a lot less influence in the government and became a faith practiced by common people.

By the start of the 19th century, the dynasty had begun to show its age. The old and corrupt government seemed unable to improve society. The increasing contact from

Japan and the European countries had shown that Korea was a step behind those countries.

47 (Wagner 1984: 162-189 , 209-217)

Modern Korean History

N

At the end of 19 th century, the dynasty was unable to fend off foreign invaders.

Japan invaded Korea in hopes of getting Manchuria, which was part of Qing China.

48 China fought back and countless wars broke out in Korea. Both countries were trying to take Korea under their control for its strategic position. At the end Japan was able to take over Korea in 1905 — 1910. Japan colonized Korea and used its resources to invade

China.

After the end of World War II and Japanese surrender in 1945 came the independence of Korea. However, this soon was broken by the two of most powerful nations at the time, the United States and Russia. Communism and Capitalism were both trying to stop each other from spreading. Korea again had become a strategic place to control. Korea ended up being split into two sections, North Korea, allied with Russia and the PRC, and South Korea, allied with the USA. This created a lot of tension within

Korea, and both the US and Russia were fighting to gain control of the whole country.

Finally in 1950, a war between North Korea and South Korea broke out. The

Communists from China (which was in the Russian camp) supported North Korea. The

USA sent in troops to help out South Korea. In the end, no one won anything. The war didn't change the situation and ended up increasing tension even more. At the end, no one was able to fully control Korea and this is the Korea we see today — South and North

Korea.

(Wagner 1984: 376-389)

49 Arms and Armor of China

Prehistory through the Ming Dynasty

Good records for the history of

Chinese arms and armor are relatively

difficult to find, and Chinese artifacts are

usually overshadowed by their more

renowned Japanese counterparts. This is

unfortunate, as China has a long history Illustration 'Photograph of the Terracotta Army (Photo by Andreas Neumann, Switzerland. 2001) involving both traditions.

Early History Some of the oldest suviving Chinese arms with material evidence are wooden that date back to 5000 BC, predating the Xia dynasty by almost three millennia. It was not until between 3000 and 2000 BC that bronze was first used for weaponry, and even then it was initially on a small scale, with the introduction of bronze . Bronze would give way to iron around 450 BC, which would in turn be superseded by steel during the Han (206 BC to 220 AD) period, as shown by a quote from the philosopher

Xun Qing: "... the people of use sharkskin and rhinoceros hide for armor, as hard as metal or stone, and the spear heads of steel from Wan as sharp as a bee's sting."

Richardson 1989: 172-174) An important distinction in Chinese metalworking is that they did not use wrought iron; iron was produced by the blast-furnace (casting and firing). Similar blast-furnace type technology wouldn't show up in the west until a

50 millenium and a half later. In fact, the introduction of coke in the smelting process in

1078 meant that Chinese metalworkers were able to produce 125,000 tons of iron and steel per year, which was a 66% higher output than both England and Wales 700 years later.(O'Connell 2002: 112) Also of note, while not exclusively a military creation, the

Chinese also created the around the 3 rd century BC, which helped the transition from chariots to and infantry greatly by allowing riders easier use of their horses.

A good deal of the concrete knowledge of early Chinese arms and armor came from the discovery of the Terracotta Army at Xi' an, which is believed to have been assembled in 210 BC for the tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi — the first emperor of China. The tomb consists of 8,000 full-scale replicas of foot soldiers, archers, and horses, all with incredible detail given to the arms and armor, and giving a modern observer a look at what a army looked like in 220 BC. Even though it was raided in 206

BC and most of the weapons in the main chamber were stolen, and the wooden compents have severely deteriorated over the centuries, what remains is a good indicator of arms technology and military strategy at the time it was assembled. For example, of the weapons found here, only lances were made of iron. The remaining bladed weapons were manufactured from bronze, though the bronze has been discovered to be coated with a 10 to 15 micron layer of chrome, which protects the edge of the , but also speaks for the amount of technology behind the Chinese army under Huangdi.(O'Connell 2002:

81)

51 Knives and Swords Early Chinese knives usually had an animal figurine or a ring on the pommel, made from cast bronze.

Some of the earliest on record were found in northwestern

China (in Zhangjiapo, in Illustration 2: A Zhou period Chinese Sword (between 1123 and 250 BC) (HAM 238.9) province), and are believed to be from the Shang dynasty (1600 BC to 1066 BC) These swords were also cast bronze with a blade of only about 14 inches (35 cm), with a short tang (the lower section of the blade that connects it to the pommel) and no guard for the grip. This design would persist in southern and western China, where in the east, the tang was extended and an integral disc pommel was added.(Richardson 1989: 172)

In the Eastern Zhou period (770 BC to 256 BC), swords were beginning to be cast with a simple shoulder guards. The average length was also growing, due to the increasing importance of cavalry. However, the weapons of choice were still the spear and bow. Around the 7 th century BC, edge weapons received another improvement with the introduction of the double-edged sword. At this point, Chinese swords were mostly large that are usually straight or slightly curved. The would usually have a disk guard and straight grip, and frequently had a ring pommel (in the case of the common single-edged ring pommel sword, or huanshou dao, which usually also had a tang nearly as wide as the blade). Washing the blade of a sword in chromium was also popular at this time, in an attempt to keep the edge sharp.(Richardson 1989: 172-

184) Another interesting artifact that originated before 475 BC was a sword made from

52 copper coins that were connected by a metal bar

through a central square hole, that would resemble a cross-

hilted sword. These swords would be hung over beds and

sleeping couches, with the hopes that the protection of the

kings during whose reigns the coins were minted would

protect the owner from ghosts and other evil spirits.(Burton

1884: 64)

In the later Tang and Ming dynasties came the

straight, double-edged sword (jian). With a solid pommel,

those swords belonging to higher ranking officials were

often decorated with semiprecious stones to identify their

position. Normal footsoldiers were still issued plain,

slightly curved dao (in this period, the name dao which had

Illustration 3: A Coin Sword,19 th previously meant a specific type of sword was extended to or 20th century (HAM 3509) encompass a range of cutting weapons). Most of the two-handed swords of the period were dadao, or "great swords," believed to be made in imitation of the Japanese no .

In the later Qing dynasty (1644 AD to 1911 AD), there was also a refinement of a special type of sword called the Tiger Head sword. These had been created in the Tang period, and were double-edged swords with a curved hook at the end of the blade and a dagger type edge at the pommel, and were usually carried in pairs. In the Qing, a crescent blade was added that also acted as a hand guard.

53 Polearms Around 1200 BC, the use of bronze on spearheads and the heads of halberds was introduced into the Chinese arsenal, although not widely. The growing numbers of infantry in the late Eastern Zhou period had mostly been equipped with a dagger-, which had a long shaft with a flat headed blade. In the Han period, however, focus shifted away from the dagger-axe back to spears (mao) or halberds, which were important because they offered a method of attacking a mounted opponent either with a stabbing, slashing, or hooking attack.

Chinese halberds look very different from Illustration 3: A Chinese Dagger-Axe head, between European ones in that they usually have a 11 th and 3rd centuries BC (HAM 2767) head at the end of the 's shaft that would have a long, pointed blade, sometimes with one or two smaller curved blades protruding from the sides. The Chinese also continued the use of spears (mao or ciang, referring to the earlier lance-type spears versus the later spears with metal heads), (fu), and cudgels (shu), which had been evolved from farming equipment such as stone axes, or a pestle in the case of the cudgel. The cudgel, created and popularized in the Shang, also had metal spikes added to it in the

Zhou, making it resemble a . The cudgel also inspired another unique piece of

Chinese weaponry, the t'ie lien kia pang, which is a set of two wooden cudgels, one roughly three times longer than the other, attached by an iron . The longer side is the handle, the shorter side being square and having a sharp iron spike. This weapon was actually created by the western Jung, but was adapted and improved by the

Chinese.(Laufer 1914: 245-257) There also exist similar cudgels with three segments.

54 The Bow and Crossbow According to legend, Huang Di is also credited with inventing the

(gong), to replace slingshots commonly used to attack small animals to prevent the desecration of bodies before the practice of funeral by burial was started. Composite bows had been introduced circa 1200 BC, and were made from multiple laminated materials like horn and sinew. The Eastern Zhou period the appearance of the crossbow to replace the composite bow. The Chinese are credited with the invention of the crossbow, which was vastly important because it allowed China's mostly peasant and agrarian military to fire projectiles farther than a horseman with a light bow. The crossbow staves were fabricated from a composite of wood, horn, and sinew, with a complex bronze system. Later, around 200 BC, Chinese governmental agencies would be producing officially marked mechanisms for these crossbows. Sometime thereafter, the Chinese also invented the repeating crossbow, or chu ko nu. The date of its invention is not certain, but it is estimated to have been between 181 AD and 231 AD, as this was the lifespan of the military strategist who is believed to have had invented it.

This crossbow had a hopper above the firing mechanism that would load the next bolt into position to be fired when the bowstring was drawn back, and chu ko nu have been reported in active use as late as the le century.

Firearms China is often accredited with the invention of gunpowder, although at first it was not used as a propellant. A 1040 AD military manual by Song dynasty emperor Renzong

55 gives instructions how to create gunpowder, which was then used as fuel for catapult projectiles, along with plans for the catapult and other siege weapons. Also around this time, it was common for the inside of a bamboo tube to be cleared, filled with gunpowder, and used as a flamethrower. From here there were two major advances made: one used gunpowder as a self-propellant, which lead to and the like, while the other used the foce of gunpowder to fire a projectile out of the forged tubes that eventually replaced bamboo. In both cases it was a result of observing the amount of recoil from using the early bamboo flamethrowers. However, advances in firearms were closely watched by the Chinese government, who were wary of the potential impact of the technology on a potentially rebellious society, so the production of guns was severely retarded.(O'Connell 2002: 111-115)

While firearms were tightly controlled by those in power in China, they were manufactured, and the oldest known (which resembles a small that fired miscellaneous projectiles) was recovered in the northern China Heilongjiang province, and is dated back to the late Song dynasty. The Chinese also developed which are believed to be fired from the hip, as many early examples do not have sights, and those that do have a pistol handle and are believed to be fired in the same fashion as a handgun. Chinese rifles are believed to be of low quality, compared to their Japanese counterparts.(Stone 1961: 265) Ironically, it is believed that the Mongols are responsible for introducing gunpowder to western societies, who were much more receptive to its use and employed it quite effectively in combating the mounted archers who gifted them with it in the first place.

56 Armor Chinese armor was very advanced early on, and did not change a great deal.

Leather was often used (in fact, hide was exclusively used during the Zhou period) to make kia, or cuirasses, with the most popular hide being rhinoceros skin. The Wu pei chi, a 1621 book describing Chinese armor, suggests that sharkskin may also have been used (and in fact refers to sharks as "water rhinos"), although it is mostly believed that sharkskin itself is too brittle for armor, but rather was used as a veneer over harder substances.(Robinson 1967: 129) Helmets, or chou, were also fabricated from leather.

The leather armor was made for an individual, with a wooden model first being made of the wearer, around which the armorer constructs the garment. The use of hide armor persisted until the Tang period (618 — 907 AD)(Robinson 1967: 128), and there is even a legend of soldiers wearing leather armor defeating an army with iron armor by laying loadstone at the sides of a narrow pass, preventing the iron-equipped soldiers from moving.

While metal armor (k'ai) like mail and solid plate were basically unused, the

Chinese made extensive use of scale armor (where smaller plates or "scales," are sewn or riveted to a leather garment) and armor (which is similar to and evolved from the frequent use of scale, however the plates or other reinforcements are sewn inside the actual garment rather than being a coat worn outside), with the scale plates being copper, bronze, or iron. The most common outfit for a regular soldier would involve padded armor with some reinforcement by plates or scales, with officers obviously having better quality armor. The favored type of armor by the end of the Han period was the plate armor that evolved into brigandine, because it could be worn over or under other garments and removed the need for an uncomfortable leather jerkin. This armor usually

57 took the form of a coat with an underskirt, which reached down to the boots similar to a separated apron.(Laufer 1914: 257) In the Ming period, southern China had discovered paper armor as a practical and inexpensive defense against Japanese raiders. Korean paper was most favored (for its toughness and durability), with suits of 10 to 15 layers being said to be able to stop a musketball, but not a round. As with most cultures, the improvements in firearms technology made the use of most armors obsolete.(Robinson 1967: 151, Laufer 1914: 293)

Shields The early Chinese also had roof-shaped shields (shun) that would be coupled with a spear, and in the later Han period, a long and narrow "foot shield" (pu tun) shield would be used with a sword by foot soldiers. Shields in China were often made of wood (mu tun) , , or hide (si tun), well into the age of metalworking. Shields were not considered as important as their western counterparts, although a few forms existed; the

Wu k-uei, a large flat shield originating the ancient country of Wu, and the sii tun, also called the "Shield of the K'iang (Tibetans)," along with the kie tun, a small shield used by chariot riders.(Laufer 1914: 174-189 ) The p'ai was made from bamboo or wood for siege purposes, being 5 feet tall and three feet wide, providing good defense against stones and arrows. Lang pai was fabricated from elm and had blades on all four edges, and is believed to be used as a defense against sieges.(Robinson 1967: 154-156)

The use of shields was mostly due to the increasing numbers of cavalry and infantry units that began to march alongside the chariots beginning in the Han period.

58 Mongol And Other Nomadic Influences An ongoing feature in Chinese and Central Asian arms history is the influence of other groups, such as the Mongols. The common equipment for a Mongol rider was described in the official history of the Khitans (a proto-Mongol group), the Liao Shi:

each man has nine pieces of iron armour, along with cloths,

bridles, armour of leather or iron for the horses according to their

strength, four bows, four hundred arrows, a long and a short spear,

a mace, a halberd, a small banner, a hammer and a , a flint, a

bucket, a quantity of dried food in a bag, a grappling hook, a felt

umbrella, and two hundred feet of rope. and again by Joannnes de Plano Carpini, the leader of a papal embassy to the Mongols in

1246:

They all have to possess the following arms at least: two or three bows,

or at least one good one, three large quivers full of arrows, an axe, and

ropes for hauling engines of war. As for the wealthy, they have swords

pointed at the end but sharp only at one side and somewhat curved, and

they have a horse with armour; their legs are also covered and they

have helmets and cuirasses... some of them have lances which have a

hook in the iron neck, and with this, if they can, they will drag a man

from his saddle.(Quotes: Richardson 1989: 172-184)

Of particular interest here is the focus on bows and missile weapons, and the absence of a sword at all, though it is believed that Chinese infantry and chariot drivers carried swords as sidearms. This style of cavalry would follow into the Yuan Dynasty

(1260 AD to 1368 AD), which was begun by perhaps the most well known Mongol,

59 Ghenghis Khan.(Richardson 1989: 172-184) The cuirasses referred to in the second passage are likely of sheepskin, fashioned similarly to the Chinese rhinoceros-skin armor.(Laufer 1914: 180)

Korean Arms and Armor Similar to the problem of finding good exhaustive resources on Chinese arms and

armor, there is often little attention paid to Korean arms and armor because of its

similarity to Chinese. Due to a long history of war and commerce with China, most of

Korea's arms technology originated there and was imported, and more came from China

than from Japan. Bronze lamellae for lamellar armor similar to Chinese styles have been

recovered from tombs in Kyungju believed to be 4th or 5 th century AD. Later armor is

reasonably likely to contain plates, like the brigandine armor of later China. The design

of the armor was also similar, with a cloth (usually cotton or hemp) or brigandine type

coat with an underskirt, and sometimes separate shoulder defenses were employed. High

officials often had otter-fur trim, and rank could usually be determined by examining the

color and quality of a wide belt worn with the armor. Early helmets consisted of a

"bowl" of four plates rivited together, usually with a brim on the front or all around.

Later helmets followed the Mongolian patterns, which were less angular than traditional

Chinese, and had three fabric flaps with rawhide plates to protect the neck and sides of

the head. These flaps would usually be trimmed with red horsehair. The helmets of

officials were laquered black and usually of higher quality, including being embossed or

with gilded coppper fittings. Other documented types of Korean armor, from The Five

Ceremonies include "Mercury Armor," which are iron plates painted or white with

60 mercury that are woven together with leather thongs; "Willow Leaf Armor" which is raw pigskin painted black instead of iron; and "Paper Armor" which is similar to the Chinese paper armor, made of twisted paper strings painted black. Other forms included are "Iron

Ring Armor," which is iron ring mail; "Mirror Flag Armor," which was iron plates and rings woven together in alternating rows; and finally "Iron Studded Armor," which was iron plates studded like stars on red or blue cloth, with the sleeves of this suit being studded by copper plates.(Robinson 1967: 157-160)

Tibetan Arms and Armor Tibetan arms and armor changed relatively little after the 3 rd and AD, with the exception of the introduction of firearms in the 16 th century.

The distinctive feature of Tibetan arms was their swords, which are usually straight with an angled point. This style was predominant before curved swords became popular in Central Asia, but persisted in Tibet. Eventually there were eventually two main types of Tibetan swords, ornate and plain. Ornate implies semi-precious stones and guards that resemble the Japanese tsuba (the circular disc-like guard common to the

Japanese ) on the hilt. On ornate swords, the is also usually very decorated, with fretted and possibly silvered mythological creatures. Plain swords usually lack decoration at all, or if it is present, it is very simple in comparison.(Richardson 1989: 184)

During the excavations at Miran (in Chinese Turkestan), several pieces of Tibetan armor were recovered. Portions of both hide and lamellar armor were recovered, with the lamallae being red or black, some being engraved with patterns, 2 1/2 inches by 3 1/2 inches,

61 and laced with a pair of vertical doeskin laces. Later iron lamellae were roughly half this width, and used only a single lacing. An advanced form of the armor was a long coat that opened in the front, made entirely from rows of polished iron lamellae laced together with untreated doeskin, so it kept its natural cream color. Shoulder straps for the coat were often made out of re-used lamellae reinforced with leather, and there were also flap- like shoulder guards that would be permanently laced to these. There was also a long skirt complement this armor, with openings towards the rear of each hip so the rider could mount a horse. At the bottom edge of this skirt it was common to lace irregular fringes of buckskin or leather. A much simpler version of this armor that was just two plates of lamellar about mid-thigh long that were connected over the shoulders and open at the sides, with the same fringe decorations.

Tibetan shields were usually small, slightly convex, laquered buffalo hide. Four brass bosses covered the hand-loop rivets, and a fifth was commonly added, presumably for decoration. This manner of shield is believed to be imported from Bhutan.

The Tibetan Phur Pa:

Of particular interest of the selection of Tibetan artifacts being examined as a part

62 of this project is a Tibetan phur pa (also known as phurba, purba or phurbu), which is a ritual dagger. The name translates to "peg,"

"pin," or "nail." These daggers were used to expel evil spirits either through use of the dagger against the spirits, and by some even the presence of images or the mere word phurbu was believed to deter such spirits from enterting one's home.(Schlangintweit 1968: 257-

258) The daggers themselves are fairly unique in design, with the blade having three edges that come to a point. The handle usually consists of up to three faces (representing various deities) at the end of the hilt, most often with half of a dorje, or ritual sceptre coming from the top of their head.

Illustration 7: A Phur- pa,19th century, Tibet (HAM 3310)

63

History of Southeast Asia

Introduction

Southeast Asia today is made up of several countries, including Burma, Thailand,

Laos, , Vietnam, and Malaya. It also includes two large island chains,

Indonesia and the Philippines. Over time the political borders of Southeast Asia have

frequently changed. This wide area includes a variety of geographical zones, including

mountains, plains, tropical areas, and many others.

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Figure 1 from the CIA's World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.govicia/publications/factbook/reference maps/southeast asia.html 64 The complex cultural history of Southeast Asia is reflected in its variety of language groups, including Altaic, Austro-Asiatic, Tai, Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, and

Indo-Pacific. (Crystal 1987: 295-317) The Altaic language group includes over forty languages. These languages are spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey and what used to be the USSR, as well as other countries in Asia. This language group also includes the

Mongolian language, which is spoken in Mongolia and parts of China. There is very little known about the early history of this language group; the earliest writings are of

Turkish origin and date from the 8 th century AD. This language group would have some influence on Burma.

The Austro-Asiatic language group includes well over one-hundred languages.

The main branch for this language group is the Mon-Khmer group. It includes languages from Vietnam, , Kampuchea (before 1976, Cambodia), as well as parts of Burma and . Where these people came from is unknown, however, it is widely that the various groups that make up this language group split up around the second millennium

BC.

The Tai language group consists of about forty languages. These languages are spoken in Thailand, Laos, North Vietnam, parts of China, as well as parts of Burma. Not much is known about the origins of this language group although several connections between the Tai group and the Austronesian, as well as the Sino-Tibetan group have been suggested.

The Sino-Tibetan language group includes over 300 languages. This group includes languages that can be found throughout China, Tibet and Burma.

65 The Austronesian language group includes somewhere between 500-700 different languages. It is often broken down into two, a western part and an eastern part. The western part includes languages that can be found in Madagascar, Malaysia, the

Indonesian islands, the Philippines Islands, Taiwan, parts of Vietnam, and Kampuchea, as well as the western portion of New Guinea. The eastern part includes languages spoken throughout the more than 10,000 islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The majority of the people who speak an Austronesian language belong to the western group.

It is estimated that this language group is more than 4,000 years old, and it is widely believed that it started in the area of New Guinea.

The final language group of Southeast Asia is the Indo-Pacific language group.

This group includes over 600 languages that are spoken in New Guinea alone. It is also spoken in the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and was formerly spoken in

Tasmania, however that language is now extinct.

There were also several major external cultural influences over the course of history in Southeast Asia. From India came Buddhism and , and other features of Indian culture, affecting most of Southeast Asia. By contrast the Chinese primarily affected the area adjoining their territory. Beginning in the le and 15 th centuries

Muslim traders brought Islamic culture to Southeast Asia, and by the 16th century the

Portuguese and Spanish brought and European influences. By the 19 th and early 20th century new imperial powers entered the area, with United States taking possession of the Philippines. Towards the middle and end of the 20 th century, the western countries were removed from power, initially by the Japanese in World War II.

After the war Southeast Asia was returned to local control again. (Wint 1967: 221-222)

66 The history of Southeast Asia is complex. This document will particularly focus on areas represented in the Higgins Armory collections, including Burma, Indonesia,

Malaya, New Guinea, the Philippines, and Thailand.

67 Burma

Burma is located on the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea in Southeastern

Asia. Three of the country's borders are mountainous while the fourth is on the sea. The

Irrawaddy River basically cuts the country in two pieces and its valley makes up the

heartland of Burma. Burma has a tropical monsoon

climate with three seasons, the hot dry season which

Myttkyink : lasts from March to May, the rainy season which lasts Bilatno. from May to October, and the cool dry season which

Monyvva ' lasts from November to February. (Aung 1967: 1-2) Crtauk .Tattogilyi yab Approximately 5000 years ago there were Stone

Age people living in Burma, but what happened to RANGOON aw: rnyina these people is unknown. It is strongly believed that

Daese4... they either died off or were merged into new tribes.

There were several migrations from the north

ANC3AMA N!)S that affected Burma's history, of these the most

important was the third Figure 6 migration, occurring at Obtained from the CIA's World Factbook at the following URL:http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.htm approximately 1 BC.

This was the migration of the Tibeto-Burmese. It is believed that this group of people migrated because of political reasons, the reason being that Tibet and China were involved in a bitter rivalry and these Tibeto-Burmese people strongly valued their independence and chose to move rather than have their independence taken away from them.

68 Not much is known about the earliest history of Burma, since there are several legends that can not be proved true or false. For example state that the first Burmese kingdom was that of Tagaung which was located in northern Burma.

This kingdom was supposedly founded by an Indian prince who lost his kingdom in

India. This legend could be true but it is widely thought to be false because little archaeological evidence exists. (Aung 1967: 6)

As early as 128 BC there existed a through Burma that led to India from China. This could be part of the reason there is a strong Chinese and Indian presence in Burma.

By the first century BC the Pyu began to migrate into northern Burma. These people were the people of the Tibeto-Burmese tribes that originally moved down into

Burma from the north. By the eighth century the Thais invaded northern Burma, and there is very little mention of the Pyu after this point. The Thais were known as Shans in

Burma, but this document will refer to them as the Thais to be consistent. (Wint 1966:

227)

There is a group known as the Karens that inhabit the hills of eastern and northern

Burma. There does not appear to be much information on this group. They lived in the hills, cultivated dry rice, and were animists.

In 849 Burmans founded the town of Pagan, on the banks of the Irrawaddy. In

1044-1077 King Anawrahta ruled the first Burman empire that included what is now most of modern Burma, from Pagan, his capital. (Wint 1966: 227)

In 1287 the Mongol king Kublai Khan, took over the city of Pagan. Between 1300 and 1500, Burma splintered into separate states, with the Mons, who were living towards

69 southern Burma at the time, and the Thais, who were living towards the modern Thai border, having frequent fights.

In 1435, a Venetian by the name of Nicoto di Conti was the first European to visit

Burma. In 1600, the Portuguese Philip de Brito y Nicote, arrived in Burma and take a job with the king of Rahkine; eventually he declared himself the king of lower Burma. He had a wide contempt for Buddhism and in 1613 he was captured and killed by the

Burmese.

By the end of the 17 th century the British, French and Dutch, built trading centers in Burma and throughout Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 18 th century a Bamar king by the name of Alaungpaya kicked the British and the French out of Burma. He then went ahead and conquered Rahkine. However in 1819 the British invaded Burma and from 1824-1826 was the first Anglo-Burmese war, at the end of which Burma was forced to concede some territory to Britain. By 1856 the second Anglo-Burmese war was over with lower Burma being conquered and made a province of British India. In 1886, a conflict between the Burmese government and a British timber company led to an invasion of Burma by the British; by the end of 1886 the British annexed all of Burma in the name of British India. (http://www.geographia.comimyanmar/)

In 1935 the Burmese government passed the Government of Burma Act which separated Burma from Britain.

During World War II the Burmese defeated the British with Japanese help.

Unfortunately the Japanese reneged on a promise to grant the Burmese independence, and the Burmese transferred their army to the allies. In 1947, Burma gained its independence, although there were several assassinations of popular leaders at the time

70 and there continues to be violence even today. (http://www.travel- burma. com/hi story. html)

Currently Burma contains a total of 678,000 square kilometers of land and water, slightly smaller than the state of Texas. The estimated population as of July of 2002 was

42,238,224 people. Of these, 68% are of Burman origin, 9% are of Thai origin, 7% are of Karen origin, 4% are of Rakhine origin, 3% are of Chinese origin, 2% are of Indian origin, 2% are of Mon origin, and the remaining 5% are from other origins. Burma is a largely Buddhist nation; 89% of its people are Buddhist, while 4% are Christian, 4% are

Muslim, 1% is animist 1%, and the remaining 2% are of other religions. Burma's main exports include apparel, foodstuffs, wood products, and precious stones.

(http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html)

71

Thailand

Thailand borders the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand, sharing land borders

with Malaysia, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia. Its climate is tropical, and the area is

t:0 mostly mountainous with the exception of the central VIETNAM ti U I? M A i ‘\, plains, and the eastern area, which is a plateau. It

LAOS ,Chiang Mai also controls the only land route to Malaysia.

Ijdon ' „Than (http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/ ,Phitanulok )(bon Kann facctbook/geos/th.html) „Nakhon Sawan Khorat to a EJ tioon. Nakhon` Ratehatham Ratchasirna As many as 40,000 years ago the ancient BANGKOK F?acha Laerh C ha har,ge_. people of Southeast Asia were around the area of ks, CAMBODIA what is current-day Thailand. These people lived in a

society where they mainly hunted and gathered their

SLgat. VIETNAM - Thani food from small streams and forests. They used

Phuke

.Songkhla wooden and bamboo tools along with primitive stone Ya: f'att r.$ tools, like stone knives, and their languages were all 'INDONESIA MALAYSIA

very similar during this Figure 5 time period. (Wyatt 1984: Obtained from the CIA's World Factbook at the following URL:http://www.cia.govicia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html 3) The culture of the Thai

people is not easily defined. They share much of their culture with other Mainland

Southeast Asian peoples, including languages which are derived from the Tai language

group. (See introduction for more information on language groups.)

72 Approximately 10,000-20,000 years ago they started developing agriculture, learning to grow peas and beans, and domesticate small animals like the chicken. It was also at this point that various linguistic characteristics began to get differentiated between tribes. (Wyatt 1984: 3)

Historians typically identify four distinct periods in Thai history. The first of these periods is the Dvaravati period, which lasted from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government 1979: 17) This period is the main reason that today some 95% of Thais are Buddhists. The Dvaravati culture was created by the Mon, a people who are thought to have immigrated from Southwest

China to the Thailand area sometime around 1 BC. Very little is known about these people, but around the 8 th century they were introduced to the Ceylonese people from whom they picked up Buddhism. Shortly thereafter they established a civilization known as the Dvaravati. There are Dvaravati sites throughout Southeast Asia, though very little is known about this civilization, it is not even known if they had a single capital. (Wyatt

1984:20-30) It was though the that Buddhism came to Thailand.

During the ninth century the were also thriving, though they initially were farther south than the Dvaravati. It is thought that the Khmer people eventually took over the Dvaravati in the ninth century. There are very few historical sources that describe the interaction of the Thai with the Khmer people. These sources mainly state that the Khmer people were oppressive to the Thais and anti-Buddhist.

(Wyatt 1984:30)

The second major period in Thai history is the Sukhothai period, which began in the thirteenth century and continued until the fourteenth century. In the early thirteenth

73 century there were scattered city-states as kingdoms in Thailand. These city-states had limited resources; they were self-sufficient in food and building materials, but individually they were unable to defy the .

In 1238, this changed when two Thai chieftains banded together to defeat a local

Khmer chieftain. This created the first Thai empire: the Sukhothai Empire. This empire expanded throughout the 1300s and grew to encompass the Bay of Bengal (located on the eastern side of the Indian Ocean), the , and northeast to Vientiane, which is the present Laotian capital. This empire arrived at its peak with King Ramkamhaeng who reigned from 1275 to 1317. King Ramkambaeng made treaties with China, India,

Burma, and Ceylon. He was also a fair and just king to all the people he ruled over, including Mons, Laotians, , Burmese, Khmers and Chinese. King

Ramkambaeng's successors were not as great as he was and the Sukhotahai Empire became a vassal state of Ayutthaya. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai

Government 1979: 17)

The third major period in Thai history is the Ayutthaya period, which occurred from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Ayutthaya was founded in 1350 by King

U-thong. It was a river island city-state and became the capital of Thailand from 1350 until 1767. During this period Thai kingdoms lost the succession-based monarchy and instead they formed a divine succession that was more Hindu in nature. Divine kingship views a ruler as an incarnation, manifestation, mediator, or agent of the sacred world.

King U-thong was crowned in 1350 as King Ramathibodi, taking a new name from the

Hindu gods. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government 1979: 23-24)

74 King Ramathibodi launched various military and diplomatic campaigns, as he wanted to take over several kingdoms. He also created the first recorded Thai legal system. At its peak this empire controlled much of the central and lower Menam Chao

Phya basin, some of Burma, and the majority of the Malay Peninsula. This kingdom was an absolute monarchy. It is also interesting to note that because the army with the most numbers often won the battle, women were given equal status to men and often went into battle with men. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government 1979: 24)

Generally the Ayutthayan kings had good relations with China. They rid themselves slowly of the Khmer threat and even invaded their capital, , in 1369 and 1393. In 1432 the Khmer left Angkor and create a capital farther south.

In 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contact with the Thai people. The Portuguese created a relationship with Rathimbodi II, the King of

Ayutthaya, and in 1516 they signed a treaty where the Portuguese gave them weapons and firearms and the Thais gave them a spot to reside, trade, and practice their religion.

The death of King Rathibodi II in 1529 triggered the decline of Ayutthaya, as there were six kings after him that were progressively weaker. Furthermore, in 1538 a border dispute between Ayutthaya and the Burmese were the first of many wars with the

Burmese. The Thai won due in part to Portuguese help. Additional wars occurred in

1549, 1563, and 1569. In 1569 Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese. However a battle in 1592 between the great Thai warrior Naresuan and the Burmese Crown Prince resulted in the

Burmese prince's death and by 1605 Ayutthaya again became a great kingdom for another 160 years. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government 1979: 29-31)

75 The next 160 years brought a mix of strong kings and weak kings, however towards the end of the 1700s a series of weak Thai kings coupled with a series of strong

Burmese kings led to the fall of Ayutthaya permanently. After a 15-month siege in 1767, the Burmese invaded Ayutthaya and destroyed a majority of the city along with the written histories of the Thai people. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai

Government 1979: 32-33)

The fourth major period in Thai history is the Bangkok period, which has lasted from the mid-eighteenth century until the present day. After the destruction of their capital the Thai people did not give up hope. One of the Thai generals, Phya Taksin, created a new capital in Thonburi and worked to expel the Burmese. However due to his erratic behavior he was overthrown in 1782 and his leading general Phya Chakri became the first monarch of the Chakri dynasty. It was at this point that the Thai capital was moved to its present location at Bangkok. (Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai

Government 1979: 17, 33)

The next several kings continued to rebuild Thailand and prepare it for modernization. The actions of King Mongkut, who reigned from 1851 to 1868, were important because his diplomacy helped saved Thailand while a majority of Southeast

Asia was taken over by the Europeans. He established treaties with Britain, the U.S.,

France, Denmark, Holland, Portugal, Belgium, Norway, Prussia, Sweden, and Italy. He also facilitated the growth of Thailand, promoting road construction, and canal digging.

He died of malaria in 1868. Fortunately, Mongkut's son Chulalongkorn, who reigned from 1868 to 1910, was another strong king who worked for a better Thailand, freed the

Thai slaves, reformed government, and thought about his people.

76 In 1910 King Chulalongkorn was succeeded by his son Vajiravudh, who did many good things for Thailand. However he went to such great efforts to modernize the country that he spent a lot of the country's money, leading to problems for the next king.

In 1925 Vajiravudh became king. The main problem he faced was the depression of the

1930s and a lack of money due to earlier modernization efforts. In June of 1932 the absolute monarchy ended in Thailand with a bloodless coup by mid-level civilians and military officers.

For the next 70 years Thailand's government continued to evolve but even today it remains a constitutional monarchy.

Currently Thailand contains a total of 514,000 square kilometers of land and water, slightly more than twice the size of Wyoming. The estimated population as of

July of 2002 was 62,354,402 people. Of these, 75% are of Thai origin, 14% are of

Chinese origin, and 11% are from other origins. Thailand is a largely Buddhist nation: as of 1991, 95% of its people were Buddhist, 3.8% are Muslim, 0.5% Christian, 0.1% Hindu and the remaining 0.6% are of other religions. Thailand's main exports include computers, transistors, seafood, clothing, and rice.

(http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/th.html )

77 Malaya

The term Malaya can refer collectively to the Malay Peninsula along with

Sumatra and Java and several other islands whose early histories were all interconnected.

Java and Sumatra will be covered under the Indonesia section, and this section will focus on the Malay Peninsula. Malaysia is a modern term for the country founded in 1963, comprising the Malay Peninsula and the northern part of .

The history of Malaya is long and rich due in large part to ongoing outside influences. Malaya lies about halfway between China and India on the maritime trade routes, a location that was vital to the development of Malaya. Both the Indian and

Chinese cultures had a deep impact on the history of Malaya, although overall India had a greater impact than China. (Ryan 1963: 4-5)

Figure 3: The Country of Malaysia is shown in the lighter brown color. From the CIA's World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/my.html

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Kota Kota Banafu 5 .„ 90 Kinabakt Ktaia :••• S'arldixart,- cirefiggan 6arto Goorge:'• Taiping Town • .1pah Lahad Data" Pig;90 Min*A 4.100,%1 KUALA .K.Liantan PlAiu LUMPUR Sov,:ktn • Bimulu Klan0 sererobairl • Ort Dicittlort wSibu SataWak "Miilaka or > , Kocning BOtiJe0 ru a Port4i ,A,p0 INDONESIA

78 The center of the Malayan Peninsula appears to be one large mountain range. In fact it is a series of several interconnected mountain ranges. The highlands of Malaya rise sharply from the lowlands. Among those highlands one can find granite, limestone, and quartz. To the south-west of the peninsula is the Strait of Malacca, a narrow body of water between Malaya and Sumatra that allowed for access from India and Europe to the eastern areas such as China and Japan. (Robequain 1954: 113-114, 137)

The oceans surrounding the Malay Peninsula were very prone to monsoons during certain times of the year. There are two monsoon seasons; the southwest monsoon occurs

from May until September, the northwest monsoon from mid-November until March.

The northwest monsoon season typically brings a rainy season for the Malay Peninsula.

The earliest Malayan history is unknown. Most of the history that can be

obtained for Malaya comes from Indian, Chinese, or Arab sources. (Andaya 1982: 7)

Human habitation of the area is thought to have begun somewhere around 8000-2000

B.C. by Malay people living in rock shelters and caves, and using stone tools. (Ryan

1963: 5)

Sometime around 100 B.C. the first people from India landed on the Malay

Peninsula. The Indians were in search of Savarnadvipa, or the Land of , which was

a mystical, wealthy kingdom said to be in a far-away land. Thereafter, Indian ships

needed to land in Malaya in order to get away from the dangerous waters during the

monsoon seasons. They were often forced to stay on one of the Malay islands for several

months at a time, until the monsoon season had passed. The Indian arrival not only

brought goods to trade with the Malay people but also Hindu and Buddhist ideas, as well

79 as other aspects of Indian culture that spread throughout the Malay Peninsula. (Andaya

1982: 16)

Over the next few centuries the Indians had a large effect on the Malayan people.

The Malayans were not as technologically advanced as the Indians, and led a vastly different lifestyle. The Malayans lived in small tribes and were mainly farming people.

They had either a headsman or council of elders governing with rules that were passed down from generation to generation. The Indians on the other hand were a mainly trading based society with a powerful ruler. The Indians settled in an area and established Indian rule, gradually they expanded into nearby towns and districts until a small state developed. The influences of Indian culture can be seen when one looks at several of the Malayan dialects which include numerous words from Indian languages.

(Cole 1945:20-21) The Indians also brought literacy with them to the Malay people.

Some of the earliest Indian writings date back to 200 BC.

One of the earliest empires in Malaya was that of , which lasted from the seventh century and continue until the thirteenth century. For more information on

Srivijaya see the Indonesian section.

Islam came to South-east Asia from India somewhere towards the end of the thirteenth century and established itself in northern Sumatra. At this time the religion was just beginning in India and was not well established in all areas of India. However, the traders and merchants that came to Southeast Asia from India frequently came from these areas in which was well established. (Ryan 1963: 19)

Another empire of great importance in Malayan history is that of Malacca, located on the southwestern side of the Malayan Peninsula. This great city began as a small

80 fishing village. During the fifteenth century a Hindu prince Parameswara, who had been expelled from what is today , arrived in Malacca. He was successful in turning

Malacca into the center of one of the most powerful empires in all of Malaya, and a great trading center. Parameswara also created good relationships with the Chinese, and more importantly he became Islam's first real success in Malacca as he converted to Islam from Hinduism. This occurred after he married the daughter of the Muslim ruler of Pasai

(in northern Sumatra) in 1414. Parameswara died in 1424 and was replaced by a Hindu

ruler, and Hinduism remained the religion of the state for approximately fifty years before it was again converted to Islam. (Ryan 1963: 13-23)

In the sixteenth century Malacca was considered to be one of the greatest trading

centers in the world. Trade from India, Indochina, China, Java, and the Moluccas all

converged on the great city of Malacca. (Robequain 1954: 135) The power of Malacca

ultimately was destroyed by the international trading restrictions put in place by the

Portuguese in the sixteenth century and the Dutch in the seventeenth century. (Andaya

1982: 37)

After 1509, the Malayan peninsula changed forever. This was the date at which a

small Portuguese fleet landed in the harbor of Malacca. The Malayans were able to

defeat this fleet, but in 1511 a much larger fleet attacked Malacca. This fleet had very

little difficulty overcoming the Malayan resistance. (Emerson 1937: 66) 1511 began the

period in Malay history known as Colonial Malaya. With the fall of Malacca the

empire's leaders headed south toward Johore, and eventually split off to the north as well

as in an area known as . Both of these areas became Muslim trading centers. Over

the next century the Portuguese mainly stayed in the area of Malacca where they could

81 have greater control over the spice trade in Southeast Asia. They were primarily concerned with trade and converting the Malayans from Islam to Christianity. The

Portuguese were not very successful at either of these, because they could not decide what they wanted more: a war with the Muslims who did not want to convert to

Christianity or to develop a powerful trading center. (Ryan 1963: 42)

Spain began to seek control of the Indies around the early 1500s. Portugal was generally successful in defeating the attacks of the Spanish, but in 1580 Phillip II of

Spain gained control of Portugal. (Robequain 1954: 3) This led to attacks on the

Portuguese from both the Dutch and the English, since that time the Dutch and English

were both at war with Spain.

Beginning in the 17th century the Dutch, led by the Dutch ,

expanded throughout all of Malaya while the Portuguese presence declined. (Emerson

1937: 68) By 1641 the Portuguese had no control left at all in Malaysia. Though there

were many Portuguese people still living in Malaya, the Dutch had taken control of

Malacca in 1641. (Ryan 1963: 53) This gave the Dutch a powerful presence in trading

with other Southeast Asian countries. It is important to note that the Dutch control in

Malaysia was mainly centered around Malacca, on the peninsula itself. The Dutch also

controlled land further south in southern Sumatra and on the eastern part of Java. They

were primarily interested in coastal areas that they could use for trading purposes.

For the next century the Dutch continued to expand in the Malayan archipelago,

while the British began to expand in the area of India. In 1795 the Treaty of The Hague

brought Holland into the French war against the British, although Holland only

reluctantly agreed. In order to prevent the French from gaining control of Dutch bases,

82 Britain came into an agreement with the Dutch Government-in-exile so that Britain took control of various Dutch areas including Malacca. (Ryan 1963:82)

The Dutch regained their Southeast Asian areas in 1815. However in 1819

Britain landed in Singapore, which very quickly grew to become a major center of trade, and a source of conflict between the Dutch, who felt that Singapore was in their sphere of influence, and the British, who felt that they found Singapore first and therefore should have it. (Harrison 1966: 174-176) On March 17, 1824 the British and the Dutch finally worked out their differences and signed a treaty, which divided Southeast Asia into two parts, with the Straits of Malacca as the dividing line. Areas to the south and west of this line went to the Dutch, while areas north and east went to the British. This treaty gave

Britain complete control of Malacca, and the Dutch gained control of the British station at Bencoolen and all other possessions in Sumatra. (Emerson 1937: 89-90 and Ryan

1963:90)

The following century and a quarter left the British in control of the Malay

Peninsula, and in the 1860s when a number of smaller Malay kingdoms began fighting to gain control of the throne of Perak, which had become one of the largest kingdoms in

Malaya. The British intervened and forced the smaller kingdoms to sign a treaty in 1874 that gave Britain greater control in the region. This gave Britain the power to control a monopoly on tin, which it was mining from the region.

(http://www.geographia.com/malaysia/history04.htm)

Britain ruled Malaya until 1942 when Japan drove them out of the area. The

British regained control in 1945 but at that point an independence movement was well under way in Malaya. (http://www.geographia.com/malaysia/history04.htm)

83 The current country of Malaysia was created in 1963 when the British of

Malaya, Singapore, and the states on the northern coast of Borneo were merged together.

The first few years of the new Malaysia history were marred by Indonesia's effort to control the new country, and by Singapore's secession in 1965.

(http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbooldgeos/my.html)

Currently Malaysia contains a total of 329,750 square kilometers of area, a little larger than the state of New . The estimated population as of July of 2002 was

22,662,365 people. Of these 58% are of Malayan or other indigenous origin, 24% are of

Chinese origin, 8% are of Indian origin and the final 10% is other origins. Malaysia's main exported product is rubber, but it also exports palm oil, electronics, and tin.

(http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/my.html)

84 Indonesia

Indonesia is a series of islands that lie across major shipping lanes leading from

East Asia to , Africa, and Europe, it is between the Pacific Ocean and the

Indian Ocean. It contains close to 3000 islands separated by over 3000 miles of ocean.

(Legge 1964: 3) It has a mostly tropical climate with the higher areas having a slightly more moderate climate. The majority of the terrain of Indonesia is coastal lowlands although the larger islands do contain interior mountains.

(http://www.cia.govicia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html)

Figure 2: The Country of Indonesia is shown in the lighter brown color. From the CIA's World Factbook 2002 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html

,: ,•• ••V • ' ?,1

1.2,yikon MALAYSIA pfiana MALAYSIA r. 50adan Borneo Kanbar

Kalimantan .a a k Sumatra St,d,iitfoest le:eetat.$) Pa 11' Oil'Ahl JAYA £ PUMA' Makassar. JAKARTA New GLI#700 * • semaran();,,,,,,,,,, ro nir000ri *suraoaya DonparA KLINing 1

(.1 4:X•1 2+1.10 40.1 u•i; The earliest history of Indonesia, like the majority of Southeast Asia, is unknown.

Some of the earliest known humans have been found on Java. In 1890 a skeleton was found in the eastern part of Java that could not be classified as human or ape. (Vlekke

1959: 7)

85 The prehistoric inhabitants of Indonesia probably worshiped nature in general, and lived in a society that respected the shaman (priest) of their village. It is hard to know whether or not they traded with other cultures. Villages on the outskirts of islands may have engaged in trade, while interior villages may not have. (Zainu'ddin 1968: 33)

It is generally accepted that the earliest Indonesians were one of the last groups of Malays to migrate from the mainland of Asia. (Wint 1967: 265)

Indonesia began to enter its historical period through contact with the Hindu and

Buddhist cultures from India, but the early history of this contact is unknown. One theory is that Indian princes, defeated in India, went south to some of the islands to establish Indian-style kingdoms. Another theory is that Indians established themselves at

trading ports and eventually married into Indonesian families, thereby passing on their

culture. However there is no proof to support either of these theories. (Zainu'ddin 1968:

35-36)

From the seventh to the thirteenth centuries one of the earliest kingdoms in

Indonesia was formed. Srivijaya was primarily located around the Palembang River in

Sumatra, but it grew to encompass both sides of the Malacca straits, which helped trade

by reducing . This empire was visited by both the Chinese and the Indians by the

860s. While this empire was growing there was also another empire beginning to

develop just north of Srivijaya in Sumatra: the Malayau Empire. Sometime around 672-

692 the two empires merged into one, although the exact reasons for the merger are

unknown. (Andaya 1982: 20) This new empire stayed together until the thirteenth

century. These kingdoms were Buddhist in religion, and were primarily maritime states.

(Legge 1964: 28)

86 Another Indian-influenced kingdom in this period was that of Mataram, which emerged in in the beginning of the eighth century. Mataram was led by King

Sanjaya and was predominantly Hindu. Hindu rule was replaced by Buddhism under the

Shailendra dynasty in the late eighth century; however this dynasty only lasted until the late ninth century when it was replaced by a revived Hindu kingdom of Mataram. In the first millennium, these two civilizations established a great trading network of relations that extended from China to the eastern part of the Mediterranean. (Legge 1964: 28,33)

With the fall of Mataram, power in Java shifted from the central region to the eastern region under King . Airlangga was born to a Javanese princess and a

Balinese prince. He was a powerful leader who was able to unify Eastern Java. In 1030 he married a princess from Srivijaya and combined the two kingdoms. Eventually

Airlangga divided his kingdom in half between his sons. The two kingdoms were called

Djanggala and Kediri. Little is known of the Djanggala kingdom but in 1222 the was taken over by Ken Angrok, a violent usurper who forced his way into the

Singhosari dynasty by murdering the former Singhosari ruler and marrying his wife; he ruled until 1227.

In 1262 King Kertanegara became the leader of the Singhosari dynasty. Under his rule the dynasty became fairly powerful but it ultimately was brought down by internal revolt, along with pressure from the Mongol dynasty in China, whom

Kertanegara had insulted by refusing to do business with the Mongol leader Kublai Khan.

This insult prompted the Mongols to prepare an attack force which came to Java after

Kertanegara died in approximately 1292. Not finding Kertanegara, the Mongols killed his successor Djayakatwang and let Kertanegara's son Widjaya, who paid homage to the

87 Mongols, retake his throne. Widjaya then turned on the Mongols and drove them out of

Java. In 1293 he established the kingdom of Madjapahit. This kingdom attempted to gain power over the whole Indonesian archipelago, and became the greatest kingdom in

Javanese history. It ultimately fell in the early sixteenth century, due in part to the penetration of Islam, and the political and commercial rise of the Islamic state of

Malacca. (Zainu'ddin 1968: 45-48 and Legge 1964: 29-30)

An important influence from Europe was the which was formed from many small independent trading companies in 1602. Its main purpose was to enhance trade with Asia, and the company was given broad powers from the

Netherlands government along with a monopoly over Dutch trade in the region.

The Dutch East India Company gained control of the spice-rich Moluccas in

1667. (Wint 1966: 265) They also gained control of parts of Java and Celebes. At first the Dutch just wanted to develop trading relationships with the people of Indonesia rather than attempting to rule them. None the less the Dutch gradually got more territorial advantages and become involved in territorial disputes until it had control over much of

Indonesia. (Legge 1964: 62) During the middle of the 1600s the Dutch had several wars with various islands throughout Indonesia, and by 1680 the Netherlanders controlled the majority of the archipelagos that make up Indonesia. The two exceptions to this were

Bali and Lombok, which were able to escape Dutch control because their people were warlike, and their only real export was slaves. By 1750 we can distinguish three main areas of western influence in Indonesia. The islands of Borneo and Sumatra made up one of these areas. The presence of the Europeans on these islands had very little effect on local culture. Another area of influence was that of the eastern islands. The European

88 influence here was strong but more oppressive than anything else. The third sphere of influence was the island of Java which was completely penetrated by the Europeans.

(Vlekke 1959: 200) These influences continued to spread throughout the 1700s as well as the 1800s.

During the early 1800s there were several wars between the Dutch and the

Indonesians including the Paderi War (1821-37), and the Java Wars (1825-1830); these wars were costly for the Dutch and were mainly over how the Dutch ruled in Indonesia.

In 1830 the Dutch desperately needed money because of the cost of these wars and because the itself was facing bankruptcy because it had lost Belgium. Part of the solution was a system known as the "culture system". Instead of paying land taxes to the Dutch that were valued at about two-fifths of the value of a crop, the Javanese were be required to pay a percentage of their labor or land. The system was not enacted throughout all of the Indies, and it did not work completely according to plan but where it was used it brought financial benefits to the Dutch. (Zainu'ddin 1968:123-129)

Between the end of the 1800s until the there were further wars between the

Dutch and Indonesians who resisted Dutch rule.

In the beginning of 1942, the Japanese took over Indonesia. After the Japanese surrendered to the allies on August 15, 1945 Indonesia proclaimed its independence.

From that point until 1949 Indonesia and the Dutch were in conflict over control of the

Indonesian archipelago. At the Round-Table Conference at The Hague in August-

November of 1949 the Dutch agreed to leave Indonesia. (Wint 1967: 268)

Currently Indonesia is the world's largest archipelago at 1,826,440 sq km, a bit smaller than three times the state of Texas. The estimated population as of July 2002 was

89 231,328,092. Of these 45% are Javanese, 14% are Sundanese (just West of Java), 7.5% are Madurese (just North East of Java), 7.5% are coastal Malays, and 26% are from other origins. These other origins can be accounted for due to Indonesia's large size and large amount of islands. There are a large number of cultural groups spread out across

Indonesia's 3000 miles and across its 3000 islands. Indonesia's main exports include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, textiles, and rubber.

(http://www.cia.govicia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html)

90 Philippines

The Philippines is a roughly triangular chain of islands off the coast of Southeast

Asia. The chain is approximately 1150 miles from north to south and approximately 690

miles at its base. All together there are 7,107

kr, islands and islets that make up the Philippines:

only 2,773 of these are named, and only 11 of

VAN,P,,AN ANIM them are considered to be the main islands. Apart r is the largest island, and holds the capital of the San Fernando. Baguk,

Luzon Philippines, Manila. The entire coastline of all the .Ang016is oGiviop City MANILA ::•• islands is approximately 10,850 miles, twice the Bataritpe . 1.44aspi

Samar total coastline of the United States. (Wint 1967:

f'druy 110.10. .13aeolc-Jci Leyte 277) Cebti City 41,,sr,ie Palawan 7S,tWed `Puerto Princesa Negros Butpan The first inhabitants are thought to have fligan 4Cag ayai1), de Oro immigrated from Indonesia and Malaya. (Corpuz ZarrOoi,inga.

' Ar" Jolt) 1965: 21) The Indonesians are thought to have Sulu come to the Philippines some 3000-8000 years

ago. They were Caucasians, with a slender build,

NDONES1A

light complexion, thin faces,

Figure 4 and deep-set eyes. Around Obtained from the CIA's World Factbook 2002 at the following

URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/rp.html 200 B.C. the Malays were

the next people to migrate to the Philippines. They were typically brown, were of

medium height, had slender bodies, and brown eyes. (Wint 1967: 277-278)

91 Until the mid-sixteenth century the majority of the inhabitants of the Philippines

are thought to have lived in widely scattered tribes. This is not known for certain, but it is strongly suggested by the fact that even today there are over 80 different dialects in the

Philippines. The Philippine languages are a subset of the Austronesian language group, which includes Indonesian, Javanese, and Hawaiian among others. Prior to European contact, the Filipinos' religion was animistic, worshipping animals, spirits, trees, and

other features of nature. This conclusion is supported by the lack of churches, temples or

other buildings for public worship, which were common in the other Southeastern Asian

countries, even prior to European contact. The exception to this rule was Mindanao and

Sulu which had an Islamic background. (Corpuz 1965: 22) Where or exactly when this

Islamic background took place is not known, but it is widely thought to be from Arab

missionaries and traders, and to have occurred around the 1400s. The first people to

convert to the Muslim religion lived in the trading areas on the outskirts of the islands

Mindanao and Sulu. These people were known as the Moros. (For more information on

the Moros try http://www.maranao.com/history/index.htm)

Before the arrival of the Europeans there is no record of any Chinese settlements

on the Philippines. However, as early as the 1200s there is evidence that the Chinese

were visiting some of the islands on a regular basis for trading. There was also a

of about 500 Japanese in the Philippines. (Barrows 1924: 73, 159) The exact time that

the Japanese arrived in the Philippines is unknown however they were there by the time

the Europeans came to the Philippines.

In the 1500s the Portuguese were developing a empire and in 1521, a

Portuguese explorer, came upon the Philippines in his quest to sail

92 around the world. It is also here in the Philippines that Magellan's quest came to an end, for he died while aiding various warring Filipino factions.

In 1565, the Spaniards gained full control of the Philippines. A Spanish officer,

Miguel Legaspi, was able to get a large portion of the Filipinos to submit to the

Spaniards. With the takeover complete in June of 1571, Legaspi made the busy trading port of Manila the capital of the Philippines. (Keesing 1937: 29) Under Spanish rule

Manila became a Christian city, which helped stop the expansion of Islam into the island of Luzon, and kept Islam in the islands of Mindanao and Sulu. (Corpuz 1965: 25)

After the Spanish took control of the islands they were contending with other nations for control of the islands, including the Portuguese, Dutch, English, Chinese, and

Japanese. The Spanish especially faced attacks early on from the Chinese and the

Japanese who wanted to control the islands. There are several cases where Chinese pirates attacked the fort at Manila and were defeated. There were also a number of

Chinese that had settled in the area around Manila. (Keesing 1937:30) In 1603, after fears of a Chinese invasion, 130 Spaniards massacred the Chinese. The number of

Chinese massacred was reported to be 23,000, although some historians question the accuracy of this number. (Barrows 1924: 157)

The Spanish had the hardest time in the southern islands of the Philippines. These were controlled by the Moros, who were encouraged by the Dutch in Borneo to attack the

Spanish. It was not until ships made of iron and using steam power were developed that the Spaniards were able to control the Moros.

Over the next few centuries the Spanish had other minor conflicts with the

Portuguese, Dutch, and English. In 1762, the English actually gained control of the

93 Philippines, but only for two years: among other things the Treaty of Paris returned control of the Philippines to Spain. Although the English only controled the Philippines for two years, those two years have been considered critical to the development of the

Philippines, since they showed the Filipino people that the Spaniards who had conquered them were not invincible. (Keesing 1937:30)

After the Spaniards regained control of the Philippines they continued converting the Filipino people to Christianity. This transition had many effects on Filipino culture.

First of all the Filipinos built large stone churches, but even more important they built roads to connect these churches, which helped with transportation. Another important concept that came out of this was technological development. The Filipinos typically worked on small plots of land where they grew their crops. These small plots did not require a large amount of specialized tools. Part of the conversion process was to get the people away from their small plots so that they could be watched more closely. The

Spanish then had to introduce new tools so that larger farms could be used. (Corpuz

1965: 42-43)

Starting in 1872 there were several conflicts between the Filipinos and the

Spanish because the Filipinos increasingly wanted more independence. One of the best known Filipino heroes is Jose Rizal. An educated man, Rizal was not happy with the general apathy towards Filipino issues that he found among his intellectual countrymen.

While completing work for a doctorate in and Letters in Madrid, Rizal wrote the first of two books. These books were well liked by the Filipino people but not liked at all by the Spaniards. He returned to Manila in 1892 with a draft constitution for the

Filipino people, and four days after returning was banished to a southern Philippine

94 island (he chose Mindanao). He decided to go to Spain in September of 1896; when he got there he was arrested and deported back to the Philippines. Once back in the

Philippines he was charged with sedition and rebellion and executed by four Filipino soldiers. (Wint 1967: 279)

In 1892 a self-taught laborer, Andres Bonifacio, who had read a book about the

French Revolution, raised a battle cry for independence when he formed a group known to the Filipinos as (Sons of the People). Somewhere between 1864 and 1895

Emilio Aguinaldo joined the cause. Aguinaldo came from a powerful family, but dropped out of college to help support his family after his father died. Bonifacio and

Aguinaldo ended up becoming rivals because of Aguinaldo's successes in the south. This rivalry weakened the Katipunan, ultimately leading to Aguinaldo ordering Bonifacio's execution as traitor. In November 1897 Aguinaldo was proclaimed the first President of the Biak-na-Bato Republic; a constitution was drafted and adopted with a preamble that stated the intent to create a Philippine Republic separate from Spain. However a month and a half later the military campaign came to an end due to Spanish success in battle, and an agreement was made that temporarily stopped the revolution, and exiled

Aguinaldo and about 40 of his companions to Hong Kong. (Wint 1967: 279, Information on Emilio Aguinaldo can be found at the following URL http://www.bol.ucla.edu/-.randolf/aguichron.htm)

On April 25, 1898 the United States declared war on Spain after the battleship

Maine was sunk off the coast of Cuba. (For more information on the Spanish American

War try the Library of Congress' Web Site http://www.loc.govirr/hispanic/1898/intro.html) Soon after that on May 1, 1898 an

95 American Admiral, George Dewey, destroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. After the taking of Manila Bay, Aguinaldo was returned to the Philippines where he was able to recall some of his officers and aid the Americans in overthrowing the Spanish. On

December 10, 1898 the Philippines were ceded from Spain to the United States, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. In January of 1899 Aguinaldo proclaimed a republic for the Filipino people; by February of 1899 there were shots fired between the Filipinos and the Americans, and the Filipino-American War had broken out. In March of 1901 the majority of the fighting ended with the capture of Aguinaldo, and all of the fighting collapsed in 1902 with the surrender of Philippine General Malvar. (Keesing 1937: 44, and Wint 1967: 281)

With the capture of Aguinaldo in 1901 the military situation was considered calm enough to transfer the Philippines from military to civilian rule. With this change came new ideas that were never tried before. The biggest idea was how to educate the

Filipinos. Teachers were brought over from the United States. (Keesing 1937:46)

Furthermore the Americans built new hospitals, expanded commerce and industry, and they provided justice for all of the Filipinos. The Americans were far more successful in their conquest of the Filipinos because of their beliefs in religious freedoms. The Spanish had been more concerned with converting the Filipinos to Christianity, since a large part of the Philippines were pagan or Muslim. (Keesing 1937: 46-48)

With the passing years the United States gradually gave more power to the

Filipino people and on March 24, 1934 the U.S. Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie

Act, which gave the Filipinos independence after a ten-year transitional period. In March of 1935 President Roosevelt and the Filipino electorate approved the constitution of the

96 Philippines, and Manuel Quezon was elected president, and the Commonwealth of the

Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935.

December 8, 1941 was the next big event for the Philippines. It was on this day that the Japanese invaded. Outnumbered, the Philippine-American forces fought several heroic battles, however by May of 1942 the final two Philippine spots, Bataan and

Corregidor, fell. On October 20, 1944, General Douglas MacArthur landed on Leyte

Island, and on October 23, the Commonwealth Government was reestablished. After

World War II was over the Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated on July 4, 1946.

In the years immediately following World War II the Filipinos dealt with economic, and corruption problems throughout the country. (Wint 1967:280-281)

Currently the Philippines contain a total of 298,170 square kilometers of area including land and water, a bit larger than the state of Arizona. The estimated population as of July of 2002 was 84,525,639 people. Of these 84,525,639 91.5% are Christian

Malay, 4% are Muslim Malay, 1.5% are Chinese, and the remaining 3% are from other origins. The Philippines's exports include electronic equipment, machinery and transport equipment, products, and others.

(http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/rp.html)

97 New Guinea

New Guinea is located just north of Australia at the eastern edge of Indonesia. It is made up of one large island and several other islands surrounding it. The land on New

.:•.- 0 IC*;) .200100 lem Guinea is very mountainous and 0 140 200.;100 rni extremely rugged. New Guinea can

currently be divided into two parts, w tregand Wewak.' Raba, the Indonesian part, and New MouP4 .maciang whom, New Mount• A • Goroka La; Elt*frool Kieta. Guinea which is now an Hagen .B•augainvifie /yew! Guinea independent state. Much of the

history of New Guinea goes along

with Indonesia and some goes along

with Australia, because Papua New

Guinea was an Australian

Figure 6 territory. This section is Obtained from the CIA's World Factbook at the following

URL:http://www.cia.govicia/publications/factbook/geosibm.htm intended to provide a brief overview of New Guinea.

It is thought that 50,000-60,000 years ago the first people migrated to New

Guinea from the Asian mainland. These people more than likely crossed from the mainland to the islands of New Guinea during an Ice Age when the distance from the mainland to the island was shorter. These people lived in a hunter-gatherer society, and were still in this type of society when the Europeans first arrived.

98 In the early 16th century the Portuguese and Spanish explorers found the island of

New Guinea. In 1605 the Dutch East India Company visited the Moluccas and also some of the islands of New Guinea while building their monopoly on the spice trade. By 1660 the Dutch were collecting forest products from New Guinea.

(http://www.papuaweb.org/chrono/files/pre1945.html)

Over the next century Europeans visited the island but little was known of its inhabitants until the 19 th century. In 1814 the Dutch made a formal claim to New

Guinea, after the Sultan of Tidore was given sovereignty over the west coast of New

Guinea, and in 1824 a treaty between the Dutch and the British resulted in Western New

Guinea falling under control of the Dutch. In 1884 Germany took control of the northern quarter of New Guinea, interested in meeting Europe's need for coconut oil. In 1899 it became known as German New Guinea. Germany retained control of German New

Guinea until 1914 when Australian troops occupied it. In 1920 the British government on behalf of the commonwealth of Australia received a mandate from the League of

Nations to govern New Guinea. This mandate lasted until 1941 when the Japanese invaded New Guinea.

(http://www.worldrover.com/history/papua_new_guinea_history.html)

On November 6, 1884 a British was formed in Papua, or southern

New Guinea and its adjoining islands. In 1888, the protectorate called British New

Guinea was annexed by the British to Queensland Australia, and was jointly run until

1902 when it was completely turned over to the commonwealth of Australia. In 1906 formal Australian administration began. This also lasted until the Japanese invaded

Papua New Guinea.

99 (http://www.worldrover.com/history/papua_new_guinea_history.html)

In 1945-46 the northern and southern parts of New Guinea were combined in an administrative union. The Papua and New Guinea act of 1949 approved putting New

Guinea under an international trusteeship system. In 1972 the name of the territory was officially changed to Papua New Guinea. In 1975 Papua New Guinea gained its independence.

Currently Papua New Guinea contains a total of 462,840 square kilometers of land and water, slightly larger than the state of California. The estimated population as of

July of 2002 was 5,172,033 people. Of these the ethnic groups include Melanesian,

Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, and Polynesian. Papua New Guinea also has a wide variety of religions including Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Presbyterian/Methodist/London

Missionary Society, Anglican, Evangelical Alliance, Seventh-Day Adventist, other

Protestant, and the majority of the religion at 34% is indigenous beliefs. Papua New

Guinea's main exports include oil, gold, copper ore, logs, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, and crayfish. (http://www.ci a. gov/c ia/publ ic ation s/factbook/geos/pp.htme

100 Southeast Asian Arms and Armor

Introduction

Southeast Asia is an area of the world that, in many ways, is very unique, a uniqueness that stems in part from the strong cultural and military influences of many different nations throughout its history. Nations including Chinese, Dutch, Islamic,

Portuguese, Indian and English, have all played a role in the formation of what is today

Southeast Asia. In addition to the outside influence from other countries is the influences of the cultures within Southeast Asia on each other through means such as the use of common trade routes.

One of the earliest and most profound influences on Southeast Asia's use of weapons comes from China (Draeger 1972: 18), stretching back to the pre-Neolithic age when entire communities migrated there, and in the Neolithic age where the influence of the Dong-s'on and Tongking can be seen. Some think that the origin or the can be

attributed to the Dong-s' on dagger. Variations between the types of weapons used can

also be seen in the influence of other cultures such as India and Islam.

Because of this cultural diversity combined with intercultural contact there are

weapons common to all of Southeast Asia yet many variations in their construction,

decoration, and the way they are used. Weapons such as the kris, for instance, can be

found in nearly all areas holding both social and military importance. Although there are

major features common to all areas which distinguish the kris, almost every area of the

101 region has its own variation and types of it. The variations within individual weapons themselves can be great. Java for example, which has produced the most variations in the shape of the his blade, has produced more that 40 different named, and even more unnamed, variations of blades for the kris alone.

Another reason for various weapons having such a widespread usage is the active trade routes throughout the region. Preying on these trade routes were pirates (Draeger

1972: 20), who used all manner of weapons from swords and daggers to blowpipes with poisoned arrows. These pirates helped spread the usage of certain swords and daggers.

Another feature of southeast Asian arms and armor is the diversity of materials used. People of the region often take advantage of the resources found in the jungles making use of plant poisons, using the plants themselves to make a binding found on many lower-class scabbards and constructing the weapons themselves out of everything from bone to gold. More valuable materials are used for weapons for nobles and men of higher class. Other weapons have been made from iron, steel, wood, stone, bone, horn and even tortoise shell with decorations of every sort including hair, jewels, precious metal, brass rings and religious and personal amulets. One armor called the Baju emurau used by the Kalimantan and Sea Dyaks is even made of bark and fish scales.

Kris

The kris (or keris) is a double-edged dagger ranging from a few inches to two feet long that can be distinguished by its blade being much wider on one side (and sometimes both sides) near the hilt (this widened part at the end of the blade is called a ganja while

102 the actual point of the widening is called the aring). It is perhaps the most widely used, oldest, and religiously and socially significant weapon of Southeast

Asia. Although it is not found in every region,

it can be found in most areas including

Sumatra, Java, Madura, Figure 1 Kris, 19 th -20 th century, Mindanao, Philippines. HAM , Lombok, 2137a

Sumbawa, Kalimantan, , the Malayan peninsula, Thailand, and the Philippines.

(Zonneveld 2001: 63) Its history can be traced back hundreds and even thousands of

years, its use has spread to nearly all parts of Southeast Asia, and it has accumulated great

social and spiritual meaning. It has been the national weapon of the Malays for nearly

600 years where it as a symbol of their pride and cultural identity but also holds great

meaning and usage in other areas such as Java.

Like most swords and daggers, the kris consists of a hilt and blade and is kept in a

scabbard. It does not have a hand or finger guard. The size of the blade may range from

a small blade about five or six inches long to two feet long. The shorter blades, normally

used by women for domestic purposes such as daily chores and food preparation are very

light, but the longer ones are much heavier for combat, Moro blades being the largest.

The origin of the kris is not certain, however there are only a few different

theories as to where and when it first appeared. The first identified kris is actually found

103 not in Malaya but in Java. It was the Keris used in the mid 14th century when it was used more for religious purposes than in combat. The Javans give credit for the weapon to Inakto Pali who was the King of Janggolo at that time. The keris also appears later in 15th-century sculptures. (Yub 1991: 1)

Although the prevailing opinion is that the keris first

appeared in Java in the 14`" century, other theories of its origin also

exist. Various authorities insist the weapon is patterned after the

Dong-s'on dagger, one of which (found in Vietnam) may date back

as far as 500 BC. Others think that the dagger is fashioned after

various animals or fish found in Southeast Asia such as the stingray,

or perhaps after figures found in mythology.

(Stone 1961: 382; Draeger 1972: 18-19) Figure 2 Keris Majapahit (Stone 1961: The his has held a great deal of social value, and how it is

used socially varies slightly depending on the area, holding significance in Java, Bali,

Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Malaysia. (Moebirman 1970: 12) It became part of

the traditional dress of the people, from the lowest layman to most distinguished king,

and served not only as a status symbol but also as a symbol of manhood.

Each man would own and carry at least one his that was his Own and held

personal value to him, and perhaps two others as well. The second one would be passed

through the generations in the family, and was a sign of respect for one's ancestors.

Upon a man's marriage, he would receive the third his from his father-in-law.

104 How a man wore his hisses depended on the social situation. On certain occasions it was required that a man wear all three of his hisses. His own personal his he would wear on the back of his right hip. Next to that his would be the one that he received from his father. The third his that he received from his father-in-law would be

worn on his left side. If he were in the presence of someone of higher distinction he would wear his personal his on the back so that it stuck out under his right arm. Any

other way than these of wearing the kris would be considered an insult to those around

him and might even result in his being executed in certain situations. For instance, in the

Malay Peninsula it was considered treason if one were to show up in court without

covering the hilt of one's personal kris with the skirt or . (Stone 1961: 382)

If a man went to visit the home of someone of

the upper class, it was customary leave his his in a his

stand at the door. These stands were made of wood or

metal in the shape of a man and would hold one his

and sometimes two. (Stone 196: 393)

Another social phenomenon of the kris is that it

was widely held among the people of Malaya that a

better his made a man a better fighter. Because of

this, it was unacceptable for a man of the lower class to

have a kris of a higher quality than his rank allowed.

Figure 3 Kris stand. (Stone Upon achieving a higher rank, it would be possible to 1961: 393) carry a more valuable his. (Stone 1961: 384)

105 In Malaya, whenever someone of authority received a new kris it was customary to try out this new kris. This would be done by using it on the first Chinese man or man of a lower class he met. (Stone 1961: 384) However unusual this practice might seem, it was actually encouraged by the rulers because of the fear it inspired in the people.

In war, the kris was also a common weapon. As in normal societal use, a warrior would carry all two or three of his hisses with him into battle. But in combat situations

he would wear the kris given to him by his father on the right, the kris he received on his

wedding day from his father-in-law in back and his own kris on his left ready to be drawn

for battle.

If a warrior only had one kris with him he would hold his kris in his right hand

and the scabbard in his left hand in such a way that it protected his left forearm. In this

way he could block attacks with the scabbard and counterattack with the kris in his right

hand.

If he had more than one his he would hold his personal his in his right hand and

the his his father gave him in his left hand. He would defend with the kris in his left

hand and attack with the one in his right.

How the kris is held and used in combat is one of its features that sets it apart

from other weapons. Rather than holding the his in a fist so that it points up or down

when one's arm is straight, it is held in way similar to that of a fencing weapon so that the

his acts as an extension of the arm. Unlike most other Southeast Asian weapons, it is

used for stabbing rather than slashing or cutting.

The his also found use as the weapon of choice for executions. Executions were

performed as follows: the prisoner to be executed would sit down on a chair with his

106 arms extended out to the side. A pad would then be placed on the shoulder of the prisoner and the executioner would drive the blade down through the pad, just above the collar bone, and directly through the heart of the prisoner. Execution in this manner resulted in instant death and very little blood being spilled. The his used for executions had a long, straight blade and a round grip. (Stone 1961: 388)

The his also held very high supernatural value. It was held by the Malays and

many others that the his had supernatural properties because each kris had a soul. Mixed

in with the normal process of creating the blade was much prayer and religious ceremony because it was believed that it was the his that brought the future owner either prosperity

and happiness or evil and misfortune.

Over time several legends formed concerning the his and its supernatural

properties. In Malaya it was believed that the kris called the Sari belonging to

Laksamana , a legendary warrior during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah of

the Malaccan Empire who gained power in 1459, was able to fly out of its scabbard in

order to kill an enemy. According to another story, "It is said that, before World War II,

a keris exhibited in the Perak Museum in Taiping [Perak, Malaysia] was able to wander

on its own at night in search of its foe. Before the break of dawn, and after being

cleansed of blood, the keris would return to its rightful place in the museum." (Yub

1991: 1)

There are several other superstitions tied to the kris. One of these is that a kris of

high quality could be used to kill an enemy just by stabbing his footprints. Yet another is

that a kris could be used to move a fire from a burning building by pointing the hilt of the

his at another spot. The impact of these superstitions can be seen in one example given

107 by G.B. Gardener in quoting Dr. Van Stein Callenfels: "a Javanese king who was not happy with Dutch rule ordered his men to attack a company of Dutch soldiers. In the fight which ensued he tried to demolish his enemies by pointing his Majapahit keris towards them. His attempt proved futile and he and his followers succumbed to the superiority of the Dutch guns." (Yub 1991: 1)

With the kris having such widespread use among the people of Southeast Asia, it makes sense that its influence can be seen in other similar weapons in various areas. Its basic form has influenced the form of several other weapons around Southeast Asia. For example, in Alas in Sumatra there is the Siva which derives from the kris, although it is usually stronger and worked with more skill. Its blade is sharpened only on one side while the other side has a thicker edge and is either straight or slightly curved.

(Zonneveld 2001: 120) Its derivation from the kris can be seen in its curved hilt, which lends it more to a stabbing motion, and the shape of the scabbard. Nearly identical to the

Siva are the Seiva in Minangkabau and the Sekin which is found in Sumatra. One difference between the Siva and Seiva and the Sekin is that the Sekin appears to have the ganja of the kris much more often, however it is much smaller on the Sekin than on the

In Celebes there is a short, strong and broad common knife that is carried in a crude wooden scabbard bound with rotang (or plant strips). It has a strong, broad blade sharpened on only one edge with a handle representing a very stylized bird's head resembling the hilt of the his. This blade can also be found in Java.

108 There is only one his that is known to be particular to the Malayan Peninsula, called a Patani. Its sheath is no longer than the sword itself and is worn on the back of

one's thigh so it can be kicked up and then drawn over the shoulder in one swift

movement. The head of the patani is the well-known "kingfisher" head showing a demon

with a long nose and very large teeth.

The blade of the his is its most

distinguishing part. One characteristic that sets

its apart from other weapons is that the blade can

either be straight or wavy (serpentine). The

number of these waves can range anywhere from

5 to 20, they can be placed at various positions, Figure 4 Keris, 19 th -20th century, Mindanao, Philippines. (HAM 3494) either nearer to the hilt, near the tip of the blade

or evenly throughout. Although some authors

think otherwise, straight bladed krisses are far more common than serpentine blades.

One factor that probably contributes to this misconception is that krisses that have a wavy

blade are, on average, more valuable and decorated and obtain more attention from

collectors. In the collection of a museum or private collector there may be more

serpentine blades, but this is not the case in the actual production of the weapon. Some

authors have pointed out that the serpentine blade may symbolize the mythological snake

Naga.

109 Another distinguishing feature of the kris is the ganja or the shape of the blade near the hilt. As the blade nears the hilt it comes to a sharp point on one side. This point, called the aring, not only adds to the decoration and look of the blade, but holds great value in actual Figure 5 Kris, 19 th -20 th century, Mindanao, Philippines. (HAM 3494) combat. When an enemy attacks, the aring may be used to deflect the opponent's blade. Some hisses have notches made into the side of the curve near the ganja in order to be able to catch the opponent's blade.

A few rare krisses have been known to even have arings on both sides of the ganja, but this is usually not the case.

The color of the blade is a somewhat unexpected distinguishing feature. After the blade is constructed, it is intentionally left black and dull rather than polishing it to a shine. European versions of the blade are the only ones known to be polished. Often an unknowing collector will ruin the value of the blade by polishing it to a shine while it was meant to be black and marked.

One small part of the weapon worth mentioning is the small ring between the blade and hilt. It is usually very special and made by a jeweler. Some of these are even of gold or silver and contain jewels.

Construction of the blade is a complex process. It begins with stacking three layers of either iron or soft steel, depending on what is available. These three layers are

Meteoric iron or soft 5teel 110 separated by layers of meteoric iron which contain about three percent of . The meteoric iron stays bright after the blade is etched, but the steel blackens. Some of the newer blades have been known to use Krupp nickel steel or even pure nickel rather than meteoric iron. (Stone 1961: 384)

The bar is then welded, beaten out and then doubled and twisted. How this is done depends on the desired pattern of the blade. This is then cut into three separate pieces, one for the ganja (the small section at the end of the blade that connects it to the

Larger steel piece

Figure 7 Attaching the two blade pieces to the larger steel piece hilt) and two for the blade. The two pieces cut out for the blade are then forged into the desired shape. These two pieces are then welded to each side of a larger piece of hard steel, in a sandwich like fashion, that is in the shape of the two other pieces, but slightly larger. This is done so that the part of the larger piece of steel that sticks out from between the two smaller pieces become the edge of the blade.

After the forging of the blade is complete, any etchings in the blade are made. Many krisses show a sort of watering pattern in the blade. This pattern is created by using a mixture of acid and lime juice while etching the blade. The arsenic causes

Figure 8 Kris 19 th -20 1h century, Philippines. (HAM 61) the iron to blacken but leaves the steel or meteoric iron bright. If this process is done correctly it will leave the blade with the beautiful look of a polished black that has been inlaid with silver.

The process of using the arsenic is extremely dangerous because of an arsenic gas that is created in the process. This gas has been known to cause a very painful death to a careless or unknowing blacksmith. Because of the danger in etching the blade, this process is usually done outside where there is a strong wind so that none of the fumes are inhaled.

The blade is generally cleaned with lime juice which causes the watering look of the blade to dim and also wears down the blade. This is the reason why old blades often have a rough feel to them and are not as bright as newer ones.

The watering pattern has many different variations that can be reproduced when making the blade, although no pattern can be reproduced exactly. One of the more well- known patterns is in the shape of a snake, and in rare cases will have jewels for its eyes.

The snake is curved so that it follows the curves of the blade (in the case of serpentine blades) and the head of a is on the other side. In some cases the snake may have two heads, one at each end of the blade.

Another pattern that is much older and has now become very rare is the shape of one or two elephant heads that are carved into the blade. On the side of the ganja that does not have the aring there will be another smaller piece of blade that sticks out. This piece is used for the elephant's trunk and can be found on some blade designs today even though the elephant carving is not used.

112 Still another pattern that was once common but is now old and rarely used is vines

and flowers inlaid with gold.

The hilt of the his can be made of many different materials including wood, bone, , horn, metal and stone. Commonly, however, it is carved from a smooth, brown wood that has a dark grain. Ones that are made of horn, silver or gold are often

made for high artistic value and may be set with jewels.

One major defect of the his is how the hilt is attached to the blade. Often the hilt

is held on to the blade only by a short tang which can be quite weak. One solid blow to

the tang from a large object or bludgeoning weapon such as a club will often bend the

Figure 9 Kris, 19 th -20 th century, Mindanao, Philippines. (HAM 2137a)

tang making the his utterly useless. However, since the his is used in a stabbing motion

this does not occur quite as much as one might think.

The majority of are formed in the shape of a crouching man or animal. Although

there are certain common variations, much of the specific shape of the hilt depends

entirely on wishes of the blacksmith or future owner. Hilts produced in an area are

sometimes known to have a common shape. Those produced in Java are usually straight

113 and have a simple design carved into them while the Malayan hilts are normally curved but are much more plain. Those made in Bali are known to be straight but rounded. One common variation is known as the "kingfisher". The "kingfisher" or Kingfisher Kris is widely know by collectors however rare it may be and depicts a demon with a long

pointed nose which is easily broken off. Because the nose is so fragile, a Kingfisher Kris

that has the nose intact is extremely rare and valuable to collectors. Whatever the shape,

however, it must always conform to practicality or the style of use by ensuring that it fits

comfortably into the owner's hand and is at an angle that is useful.

Figure 10 Kris scabbard, 19 th-20th century, Philippines. HAM 2137b

The scabbard of the kris is usually constructed using two or perhaps three pieces of wood.

Occasionally it is made with only one. The wood most commonly used is a light wood

specific to Southeast Asia called kajoe pelet that has strange dark markings in it.

Decoration of the scabbard depends on the materials available, the area in which it

is made, and who it is made for. The scabbard can be covered with tortoise shell or brass

114 for the more common hisses and may be covered in gold or silver for special hisses or those made for the upper class. Sometimes jewels may be set in the scabbard.

In Java and Bali the scabbards are sometimes painted with various designs. Those made in Java have been known to be particularly beautiful. One of the more popular designs used to decorate the scabbard is in the shape of an orchid that grows in the jungles of Malaya.

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Figure 11 Sundang. www.vanderbilt.edu/jkd/fweapons.htm

Sundang

The sundang is a type of kris found in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Philippines, and the

Sulu Archipelago. It is a heavier version of the his that is not only used for stabbing but

also for cutting and is strikingly similar to the kris except with a few differences and one

major distinction. One of the defects of the his is that if it were used for cutting it might

easily be bent making it useless. To fix this one or two strips of metal are attached to the

blade on the side opposite the aring in order to keep in firmly attached to hilt and is the

main characteristic of the sundang. The hilt of the sundang is usually curved slightly or

straight and has a beaked pommel.

115 Parang

The parang is actually a class of various knives found around Southeast Asia and particularly in Malaya, used for cutting or slashing one's way through the jungle. The shape and length of the blade and hilt may vary considerably. The blade may be short or long, curved toward the cutting edge or straight, and the hilt can be either straight or curved. The distinctive feature of the parang is that the blade on nearly all types widens as it approaches the tip and sometimes may have brass stud inlays. Older blades were often made of locally available iron, although newer parangs use either European or

Chinese iron.

Parang Bedak

The parang bedak is a short sword found in Borneo. It has a heavy single-edged blade that curves out on the cutting edge and has a straight back. Nearing the tip, the back of the blade becomes concave.

Parang Bengkok

The parang bengkok is used in Bali and Java. It has a heavy, -type blade that may be straight or concave on the back and has an almost hook-like curve on the tip.

The edge of the blade may either be almost wavy or convex.

116 Parang Ginah

The parang ginah is a Malayan short sword with a blade that is convex on the edge and concave on the Figure 13 (Stone 1961: 481) back. About halfway up the blade on the back is a small, upright tooth shape. It has a long, straight hilt and is thought to have been used as a .

Parang lhlang

Parang ihlang is the Malayan name for the sword also known as the Dyak . It mainly found use in daily life as a machete to cut through the jungle,

although it was also used by head-hunters in Borneo as a way of removing the head from the body of an enemy.

wygrapirrw

„„.

it ,

Figure 14 Parang Ihlang (http://perso.wanadoo.fritaman.sari/swords/mandau/man02.htm ) The blade of the parang ihlang is single-edged and generally widens toward the

point of the blade but becomes narrow as it nears the hilt. It is also slightly convex on the

cutting edge in order to improve its cutting ability but is also concave on the other side.

117 Because of the shape of the blade, the parang ihlang could be used in two different ways, either striking at an angle of 45 degrees from the right side downward to the left or in the opposite direction from the lower left towards the upper right. Some think this is a great limitation to the weapon and that it could have been used better if the back edge of the blade had also been curved outward. When held the thumb is placed on the side that is concave. For people who were left-handed, the sword would be shaped and used in reverse.

The tip of the blade is usually not very important in its construction or use, since it was used for slashing or cutting rather than stabbing or thrusting like the his. Often the tip would be decorated with simple inlaid patterns, brass rings or small, elegant curls near the back edge. The blade may also be decorated with engravings or small circles of copper, brass or even silver. There are three motifs often found placed into the blade; the mata joh, interlocking spirals of S-shaped figures near the larger part on the back of the blade; the mata kalong, four large, identical S-shapes nearer to the hilt; and the tap set sien, a star with eight points having a dot in the center and was unlawful if carried by

anyone who was not royalty. (Stone 1961: 433)

The blade was made of iron, either local, European or Chinese. The hardness and

durability of the blade was produced by first heating the blade and then either submerging

it in cold water or setting it on a red hot iron bar until it showed the desired coloring.

Finer parang ihlangs do not rust, because of the iron used. The edges of some blades that

are fairly new may appear to have a rich blue color. This coloring of the blade is

accomplished by using it to cut into the trunk of a capok tree for several hours. Each

118 time a cut is made, the blade is pulled back through the cut. The resulting blue coloring will remain on the blade for as long as six months.

Its hilt was often very simple and carved from bone, wood or deer horn in the shape of the head of an animal, and provided no protection for the hand. A large part of the hilt sticks out at the end towards the cutting edge of the blade. Goat hair, and sometimes even human hair, was usually attached to it. Sometimes the very end of the hilt would be covered in a sticky plant substance into which a coin would be placed for decoration. The grip was simply made of hair, grass or vine and sometimes metal thread.

The scabbard for the parang ihlang was long and rectangular and made of two strips of wood bound by strips of a plant. It often had carvings and might contain inlays of bone, colored hair, beads or feathers.

One variation of the parang ihlang is a smaller knife that held great personal value to the Dyaks and was carried with the scabbard of the larger parang ihlang. (See Piso

Raout). It was thought to have been used for removing the softer parts of the head after cutting off the head of an enemy although it may have been used for more domestic uses such as shaving. It had a long tubular grip that was usually plain but was sometimes carved with a pattern. Its blade was in the shape of a parallelogram. The sheath was not made of wood as most are, but rather or skin or parchment, attached in the back using plant strips. A braided loop attached to the sheath was used to carry it over one's shoulder. Because it held such value to the Dyaks, often when coming upon an artifact one would find the sheath of the knife without the knife itself because while the sheath may be discarded the knife would have, under no circumstances, been lost. Attached to

119 the sheath would often be personal charms or amulets such as a piece of horn, a bird's beak, beads and so on. (Stone 1961: 434)

Figure 15 Parang Jengok (http://www.geocities.com/keris4u/other weapons/parang jengok_102.htm)

Parang Jengok

The parang jengok, or "peeping knife", was a sword used by robbers from the

Kalentan Malays. At the tip of the blade was a sharp peak that is almost at a right angle to the rest of the blade. Its use is one that seems to set it apart from the other parang weapons. A robber who wanted to steal goods from someone would walk down the street as any normal man would. When it was dark he would walk by someone, usually a man, and just as he passed him he would swing the sword back over his left shoulder so that the peak at the end of the blade sunk into the top of the man's head. Having killed severely injured his victim, he would rob the man and escape. Whether the man lived or died was not important since often they would never really see the robber. (Stone 1961:

482)

120 Parang Latok

The parang latok is a Dyak sword sometimes used in the jungle as a machete. The blade is quite heavy and bends at a sharp 45° angle near the hilt; from the hilt to this bend the blade is usually rectangular. The blade widens as it nears the tip and the back of the blade is thicker than the cutting edge and curves out slightly.

The hilt is made of wood and has no protection for the hand. At the end of the hilt it gets wider and forms sort of a knob shape that has grooves carved into it. The rounder part of the hilt near the blade is often wrapped in rattan and sometimes silver rings or a silver sleeve in order to strengthen it. The scabbard is made of wood and is just long enough to hold the cutting part of the blade. It is a two-handed weapon and is used by holding one hand on the hilt and the other on the rectangular section of the blade in order to strike downwards at an enemy. (Stone 1961: 482)

Parang Nabur

The parang nabur is a Malayan sword also used by the Dyaks. Its blade is convex toward the cutting edge and widens as it nears the tip of the blade. The hilt is usually curved similarly to the handle of a kris and is made of either bone, horn, or wood. It has a hand and finger guard made of brass or iron. The parang nabur scabbard is convex to follow the shape of the blade. (Stone 1961: 482)

121 Figure 17 Parang Nabur (Stone 1961: 481)

Piso (Pisau)

The pisau, or piso, is found in Sumatra and Alas and, similar to the parang, is the general name for several different weapons ranging from short daggers to spear-like knives. "Piso" is actually the name used by the people of Alas for all items used for cutting both for combat and domestic use. One characteristic of the piso weapons is that the blade, however long it may be, is usually not very wide. (Zonneveld 2001: 107)

Piso Gading

The piso gading is a sword found in Sumatra and Batak. It has a long, narrow blade that is convex on the edge, concave on the back, and ends in a sharp point. Near the hilt the blade widens sharply in sort of a simpler version of the aring on the kris. The

122 hilt is one of the key characteristics of the piso gading. It is made of either ivory or brass and is short, thick, has deep grooves in it length-wise, and is wider on the ends of the hilt than in the middle. The scabbard can be made of leather, wood, and sometimes brass. It is slightly wider than the blade and is curved and wider at the mouth. If it is made of

Figure 18 Piso Gading (Stone 1961: 502) wood, it is often decorated with metal strips around it than can be thin or thick or it can covered with leather. (Stone 1961: 503)

Piso Halasan

The piso halasan is also found in Sumatra and Batak and much resembles the piso gading, except for small differences in the blade, hilt, and scabbard. The blade is straight on the back, the hilt is normally longer and curved and is made of deer or antelope horn and sometimes metal, and the scabbard has a wider part near the mouth which is normally decorated more than the piso gading and at the bottom it curves to a point like a horn and is usually either completely or partially metal. (Stone 1961: 503)

Piso Ni Datu

The piso ni datu is very distinctive knife found in Sumatra and Batak. The blade is a normal knife blade that has a straight back and a convex edge that either bulges near the tip or is wider near the hilt and gets thinner as it approaches the tip. The hilt and scabbard are its distinguishing characteristics. The hilt is carved in the shape of a stylized

123 human figure and under that near the blade is a wide metal strip. The top of the scabbard is carved in the shape of an animal facing the same direction as the human figure on the hilt so that, when the blade is placed into scabbard, it looks as though the human figure on the hilt were riding the animal figure on the scabbard.

Piso Raout

The piso raout is a spear-like knife with a hilt that is much longer than its short blade. It can be found in many different areas and is normally used for cutting or carving

such as carving wood or cutting rattan. The blade is only about three to five inches long

and can be either convex when found in Kalimantan or concave as when found with the

Dyak mandau. The long hilt is curved slightly and usually plain and undecorated except

for the tip which may be a figure carved from either bone, horn, or ivory.

Figure 19 Piso Raout (Stone 1961: 502)

Piso Sanalenggam

The piso sanalenggam is found in Sumatra, Pakpak Batak, and Tobak Batak. Its

blade is narrow near the hilt and widens as it approaches the tip. It is straight along the

back and travels aware from the edge for most of the blade but near the tip it bends

sharply toward the edge until the tip. The edge of the blade is concave for most of the

blade but very convex near the tip where it seems to bulge out. The hilt is either carved

the shape of sitting human figure or is plain and split at the end and near the blade it has a

124 metal strip. The scabbard is flat, wide, made of wood, and sometimes has a rib that runs down the middle. It curves out at the tip and widens at the mouth.

Panabas

The panabas is a Moro jungle knife that some think was used for executions. The blade is widest near the tip and bends back greatly near the hilt. Its hilt is long and straight and does not have a hand or finger guard. Figure 20 Panabas, 20 th century, Moro culture, Philippines. HAM 2747.1

Klewang

The klewang is actually a class of swords and . The

main characteristic of the klewang is that the blade widens as it

approaches the tip so that the center of gravity is near the point of the

blade and can be either straight or slightly curved.

(Stone 1961: 362)

125 Badek

The badek is a knife found in Sumatra, Java, Madura, and Sulawesi that can be found in many various shapes and sizes. It is mostly used for stabbing but may also be used for slashing and can be carried on the left or right side of the body. However it is carried, it is always carried in such a way that the point on the hilt points backwards.

Its blade is single-edged and can be either straight or convex on the edge and can even be slightly concave on some straighter blades. The curve of the blade can be found either more in the middle or wider toward the hilt. The blade is sometimes decorated with gold figures called jeko or "unjust".

The hilt of the badek is made of wood

and can be curved toward the cutting edge of

the blade anywhere from 45 degrees to a right

angle. It is usually plain and polished.

The scabbard of the badek is made

Figure 21 Badek (http://www.oriental- either of metal or wood and is sometimes to arms.co.i1/0A/items/000377.html) made of two pieces where the top part is straight and the bottom part is slightly curved. It may also have a foot at the bottom.

126

The barong is the national weapon of the Sulu Moros, Mindanao, and North

Borneo. It is not a very large weapon and is known for being very useful in jungle combat situations where there is not much space. The barong is also known for being a very well balanced weapon and also very dangerous; one hit from a barong can easily cut through an enemy's arm or leg.

The barong has a wide, heavy blade that is about

16 inches long and almost three inches wide in the Figure 22 Barong, 19 th century, middle of the blade. It curves inward near the hilt Malayan Peninsula. HAM 3143.2 and tip of the blade and is usually single edged although sometimes it will have a second edge for about half the length of the blade.

Both sides of the blade are convex although much more so on the cutting edge.

The hilt of the barong is one of its main

characteristics. The end of the hilt is usually split into two

extending pieces, sometimes carved in the shape of a bird,

which keep the barong from slipping out of the hand during

battle. It does not have any guard and is usually decorated.

Figure 23 Barong Those with fancier hilts are mainly for show and not for scabbard, 19th-20th century, Philippines. HAM 3545b battle, only the plainer hilts are used for combat.

The scabbard is flat and made of wood and usually decorated.

127 Golok

The golok is the common Malay jungle and chopping knife used for cutting through thick plants and is also used in war. Some think that it derives from the . It is used in almost every Malayan country and golok is actually the name of a class of machetes. They can vary a lot in size and in the shape of the hilt and scabbard.

The blade of the golok is heavy, single-edged, and can be anywhere from six inches to two feet long. It is either straight or convex near the tip on the back and very convex on the cutting edge and becomes more of a rectangular shape near the hilt. The center of gravity of the blade is near the middle or tip of the blade in order to deliver greater blows to an enemy. The blade may also be found to be not as wide and straighter than the other type of blade.

The hilt is made of wood and most are plain and polished. Finer hilts, which were mainly produced in Java, may be carved in the shape of a bird's head and are sometimes embedded with jewels.

The scabbard is made of wood, although some are know to be completely metal or horn and very rarely leather, and consists of two halves held together by strips of horn, metal or plaited rattan. It also has an upper part near the mouth which is slid over the two halves and attached by either glue or small pins. Some of the finer ones may be carved for decoration, painted red, and covered in either metal or tortoise shell.

128

The kampilan, found in Kalimantan, Sulawesi, the Talaud Isles, and the

Philippines, is a Malayan sword and was originally the national weapon of the Dyaks in

Borneo. It is known to have also been used widely by the Sulu Moros and Mindanao.

The sword was long and held in both hands in combat. In social situations, it was highly offensive to others to come into the court with the blade showing. However, if there was a known possibility that you were going to be attacked soon it might be acceptable.

The blade of the kampilan is straight, long, and single edged and much wider at the point than near the hilt. Near the tip there is sometimes a spike in the blade on the cutting edge side.

The hilt is made of wood and has a forked

pommel and large cross-piece near the blade. It

also has a wooden guard that has wire coming

from it on both sides. It was normally decorated

with either red or black hair on the back side of the

hilt. Figure 27 Kampilan, 19th-20th century, Malaya. HAM 3143.1 The scabbard is usually made of two pieces of wood that are shaped like the blade and held together by one or two fastenings at the end near the tip of the blade. The purpose of these fastenings, rather than using rattan binding or metal strips like other weapons, is to allow the scabbard to expand out a little bit in order to hold the blade. This would make it possible for the blade to be removed from the scabbard very easily without having to draw the sword out of the scabbard in

129 case of an emergency or surprise attack. If one were attacked the scabbard would fall off of the blade the first time the blade was hit.

Another type of scabbard was made of a single, solid piece of hard wood that widened in the middle. A loop was carved out of the wood on the edge of the scabbard that looks like a carrying handle so that the scabbard could then be used as a shield in combat.

Burmese Dha

The dha is a sword or dagger used in all parts of

Burma that was later replaced by the simpler dao. It has a slightly curved, single edged blade which comes to a point at the tip and is often decorated with silver inlays or carvings. The blade ends near the hilt in a round tip Figure 28 Dha, 19 th century, Burma. HAM 3772 which is fitted directly into the tang.

The hilt has no hand or finger guard and the grip is covered in sharkskin, capped with silver, and has a silver band around the base near the blade. Sometimes the hilt will have a large onion-shaped pommel made of silver.

The scabbard is made out of two pieces of somewhat rounded wood bound with bands of silver or plant strips. Most scabbards also have a large cord wrapped around it which was used to carry it over the shoulder.

130 North Burmese Dao

The North Burmese dao is a simpler version of the Burmese dha, and eventually replaced the dha. It has a straight, heavy blade that widens evenly from the hilt to the tip and a very basic and plain hilt made of either wood, root, bone, or ivory. The scabbard is simply a single board with raised edges wrapped with strips of binder across the open side in order to hold the blade in place. Like the dha it also has a braided loop attached to the scabbard so that it could be carried over the shoulder.

Figure 29 Naga Dao (Stone 1961: 202)

Pedang

The pedang is the name for a class of swords found in Sumatra although they are

known in Java as well. The pedang is mainly for ceremonial use rather than combat due to the positioning of its center of gravity, it not being near the tip of the blade like many

other swords and machetes, which makes it unfavored by warriors. Its ceremonial use

has lead to it being more highly decorated and thus generally more valuable. There are

generally three types of pedangs with many other variations.

131 Figure 30 Sumatra Pedang (Stone 1961: 491)

First type of pedang

The first type of pedang is mainly found in Sumatra and is more highly decorated than the other types. Its blade is long, convex on the edge and concave on the back, and comes to a sharp point at the tip. Many times it will have a groove going down both sides of the middle of the blade for most of the blade's length. There may also be one, two, or three thinner grooves of varying length near the back of the blade.

The hilt is usually made of iron and curves slightly toward the edge of the blade.

In the middle the hilt is more of an oval shade with a knob at the end of the pommel. A piece of metal sticks out from the end of the pommel. There is also a hand guard on the hilt that has a small piece that runs slightly up along the middle of the blade for decoration. The grip of the hilt is wound with metal, silver, or gold thread and wound more loosely on older swords than on those produced after around 1900. This is because at about that time a goldsmith named T. Nja Buntang improved the method of winding the thread around the grip which resulted in a much tighter winding. (Zonneveld 2001:

101)

The scabbard is curved like the blade and can be made either of buffalo hide or two wooden strips. It is usually covered in either red or black buffalo hide or with red cloth, but if no covering is used it would be held together with metal strips. The upper

132 part of the scabbard is usually covered by metal but may be decorated with carved figures, embedded jewels, or embroidery. The hilt may also have a separate piece at the mouth made of either wood or ivory.

Second type of pedang

The second type of pedang is also found in Sumatra and is very similar to the first but much plainer. The blade is like that of the first but has no grooves on the side and the hilt is much plainer having no hand guard or metal piece sticking out from the pommel.

It is made of wood and carved in the shape of a figures head. Its scabbard is also plainer and is wider at the top near the mouth.

Third type of pedang

The third type of pedang is found in Sumatra and Palembang and is much more like the second type. The blade is straighter and straight on the edge while being convex in back especially near the tip of the blade where it is widest and then quickly comes to a point. Near the hilt there is a decorative curl or point on the edge of the blade.

The hilt of this type is made of horn and is much like the second type of hilt

except that it has reliefs at the end of the pommel carved in the shape of curling leaves.

The scabbard may be made of polished wood or may have either silver bands or be

completely plated in silver.

133 Talibon

The talibon is a sword most often found in the Philippines. It has a heavy blade that is normally either flat or concave on the back, very convex on the edge, has a long point and can range from one to two feet in length. Some talibons have a sharp 45° bend away from the back of the blade.

The hilt is normally made of wood or horn and may be plain or have simple carvings for Figure 31 Talibon, 20 th century, Philippines. HAM 332 decoration and the scabbard is made of two slats of wood attached together with either rattan or metal strips like aluminum or silver.

Gunpowder weapons

Lantaka

The lantaka is the Malayan cannon.

Its as brass gun that can be range from a few

inches to seven feet in length and are usually

decorated in a way that shows either Spanish

or Chinese influence. Sometimes it would

be constructed with two guns cast in the Figure 32 Lantaka (http://www.cannon- mania.com/) same cannon side by sade. The lantaka was very popular and used both at sea and on

land.

134 The length of the lantaka can range incredibly. For instance, some have been found that are only a few inches in length. Although it may appear so, they were not toys and were in fact used for saluting. In many social situations one would have to salute and could use one of these smaller . They would make quite an effective solute and yet they used less gunpowder, thus making them highly practical.

The longer lantakas had a swivel and pin used for mounting them on the trunnions and a tube at the breech in order to train the gun.

In Borneo they were used as a primary source of wealth and even as a form of currency. One could trade a certain number or weight of lantakas to another in order to pay a fine or debt.

Armor, Helmets, and Shields

The dress of a warrior in Southeast Asia was, for the most part, determined by the materials available and the terrain on which they fought. Any kind of armor or protection would have to be made of materials available either from the sea or thick jungles and it would have to allow the fighter a good deal of flexibility and mobility that is consistent, not only with the martial arts form used in combat, but also with the terrain on which they fought. For this reason you often find that shields were more often used than any substantial amount of armor or bodily protection and than any body protection that was used, such as a war jacket, would be relatively light.

135 Armor

For the most part, armor found in Southeast Asia was light, sleeveless, and not made of metal but rather other materials that were more readily available. The coat-of- mail, or a cuirass or more appropriately a war jacket, was the common form of bodily protection found and was actually more of an imitation of the European coat-of-mails. In central Sulawesi, for example, there is a coat-of-mail that made of small strips of buffalo hide sewn together that resembles its European counterpart.

136 Figure 33 Mail and plate coat, 19 th century, Mindanao, Philippines. HAM 3521 Like many of the weapons of Southeast Asia, the war jacket is found all over the region and varies greatly in its shape, size, and materials used in constructing it. It is especially used in Nias where it is a standard part of the warriors dress.

Armor is usually made of a hard leather or buffalo hide although it can also be made of metal or woven plant fibers. Often it will be made of leather and then covered with another protective material such as bark, sea shells, or armadillo skin.

The baju empurau is a coat-of-mail used in Kalimantan and by the Sea Dyaks that has no sleeves or collar and is made of either very thick bark or sometimes fish scales.

Large scales are attached with split rattan and the smaller ones with strong cord.

137 The baju lamina is a coat of mail used by the Sulus that has no sleeves or collar and is made with brass rings and large, rectangular brass pieces in front.

The is another coat-of-mail used by the Sulus that is made with iron rings rather than bark or leather and has short sleeves but no collar. (Zonneveld 2001:

28)

The baju lema'a is a war jacket used in Nias that is made of woven plant fiber and has no sleeves. On the back where the collar would be it has two round parts that act both as decoration and as protection for the neck. Similar to the baju lema'a is the barn

sinali which is found in northern Nias but lacks the two round parts and is sometimes hemmed with cloth. (Zonneveld 2001: 31)

Helmets

Helmets are often worn almost more for decoration than protection. They are

usually light and may be greatly decorated in order to show military status or make an

impression on the enemy. Like the armor found in Southeast Asia, helmets can be found

in many different shapes, from head-shaped to rounded to cylindrical, materials, and

decorations.

Almost any material available can or has been used in the making of a helmet.

They can be made of metal, rattan, fish scales, leather, bark, or the skin of various

animals such as bear or monkey skin. The materials used for decoration vary even more.

Helmets have been found to be decorated with beads, feathers from anywhere from

poultry to wild, exotic birds, claws, beaks, bird's heads, hair, teeth, and shells.

138 The katapu, for instance, is a helmet worn by the Dyaks in war and serves both as good means of protection from the blow of a sword and as decoration to intimidate the enemy. An inner part of the helmet made of metal plates, scales, or skin that fits tightly to the head is what provides the protection while attached the this can be any number of decorations. By attaching feathers, hair, teeth of wild animals, or beads and even sometimes shaping the helmet into the shape of a head, it can add a lot to the appearance of a warrior. Some of the decorations even have a significance for the status of a warrior.

The feathers of the hornbill are awarded to a warrior who took part in a successful raid and each feather represents one enemy that the warrior killed. (Zonneveld 2001: 61)

The takula sinali and takula tofao are two other good examples of helmets. These helmets, found in central Nias, serve more for protection than decoration. The takula sinali is made of tightly woven fibers and is a cylindrical shape with a sharp rim. It has three woven, rectangular pieces attached to it for added protection over the ears and the back of the neck. The takula tofoa is a round helmet made of steel that is normally made of sheets of iron linked together by metal wire and may have small spikes on the top and ear protection. Usually large iron decorations are added to the top of the helmet in the shape of some sort of tree or plant life. (Zonneveld 2001: 141)

Shields

Shields are actually the more common form of protection used by warriors and are normally made of wood, although they may be made of metal. They are usually simply decorated with carvings but may have small decorations such as hair attached.

139 Baluse

The baluse is a round, wooden shield found in Nias that is

shaped like the leaf of a palm tree with long tips at the top and the

bottom. Down the middle of the front of the shield, running from

the tip on the top to the tip on the bottom, is a raised rim in the

wood. In the middle of the shield and the rib is a large wooden

knob that is carved out of the shield. This knob acts as a handle for

the warrior as on the other side of the shield is a handle carved into

the back of the knob.

The baluse is normally made of a single piece of wood. For

decoration strands of rattan are wound in horizontal lines across the

front of the shield. These cords help to prevent the shield from

being split length-wise if struck downward in battle. Occasionally

it may also be decorated with carved or painted images.

(Zonneveld 2001: 30; Stone 1961: 89)

Figure 34 Baluse Kanta (Stone 1961: 90)

The kanta is a long, thin shield found in Sulawesi, the Poso Region, and Toraja. It

is outwardly shaped like a "V" and becomes thinner near the ends. What distinguishes it

is not only its shape but that the entire face is decorated with colored goat's hair that is

either white, black, or red and inlays of shells or white bone. (Zonneveld 2001: 60)

140 Tameng

The tameng is a long, slightly rounded shield found in Java, Lombok, and Timor.

Both side edges of the shield are slightly convex, but the top and bottom are nearly flat.

In the back runs a rib of wood in the middle of the shield from the top to the bottom which the warrior grips in the middle. On the front of the shield, opposite the grip, is a protective knob. The front is normally decorated with strips of cloth or precious metal and may have engravings. (Zonneveld 2001: 142)

The long shape of the tameng is actually more common with the older shields.

Newer ones are small, round, and may have spikes in the center of the face. (Stone 1961:

604)

Conclusion

The variations among the weapons, armor, helmets, and shields of Southeast Asia seem to be almost endless, yet the reasons for this variety found in the rich history of religion, conflict, and changing availability of resources is truly fascinating. From fish scale armor to human hair as a decoration, the possibilities for purpose and variety in the construction of arms and armor are many.

In addition to the amazing range of materials and methods used in constructing them, the practical use and social significance can prove to be just as amazing. Whether it be for hunting, common daily activities, or showing respect for one's ancestors in battle, weapons and armor alike prove to hold great significance in the lives of the peoples who use them.

141 Military Aspects of China According to ancient Chinese legends the first dynasty was known as the Xia, which preceded the first historical dynasty, Shang. Very little information is available on military matters in these dynasties, although the Zhou used the Shang dynasty as a basis for its own dynasty. However, according to legend, before Xia there was a succession of

Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors that ruled China. The first of the five emperors was

Huang Di, also known as the "Yellow Emperor", who is said to have invented armor in its earliest form and used it to defend and protect the empire. (Hook 1991: 137)

Zhou (1100 BC - 250 BC)

The Zhou armies were composites of the Shang dynasty, which ended in 1122

BC, and of the Zhou dynasty, which ran from 1122 BC - 221 BC. The military of China from 1100 BC until around 250 BC was very simple, yet effective. Armies were mainly composed of heavy chariots, "tiger troops", bowmen, spearmen, and allied barbarians.

The chariots were ridden by nobles and highly ranked generals and were generally used for swift and powerful attacks; they would ride in and trample the enemy. The "tiger troops" were the swordsmen: they consisted of the upper-class citizens and were used as shock troops. The archers were a mix of peasants and upper-class, the upper-class being distinguished by the silk that they wore into battle. The spearmen were mainly armed with halberds and consisted of peasants, prisoners and criminals. The ratios of these troops were almost always the same. There were approximately three chariots for every four groups of tiger troops, ranging from five to ten per group, and for every four groups of tiger troops there would be two groups of archers and spearmen, which consisted of up

142 to five troops per group. The military set up camps by using the chariots, lining them up facing each other and creating a hallway of chariots, from which they flew their flags and banners. The Chinese military at this time was fighting against a variety of enemies, the northern barbarians, who invaded China repeatedly throughout its history, and each other, whether it be Shang versus Zhou, or rebellions within a dynasty, and, towards the end of the Zhou dynasty, against the competing kingdoms of the Warring States period

(discussed in the second section).

In battle, the tactics used were quite ingenious. The front line was set up with the general in his chariot to the left, the spearmen in the center and the rest of the chariots off to the right. The archers and swordsmen were stationed in back as a second defense and used as flankers. The light troops would protect the chariots on rough ground to prevent them from toppling. Outflanking maneuvers were a typical feature of Chinese military tactics, and ambushes and flank marches were used repeatedly.

The effectiveness of the military tactics of this time can be seen in the three decisive battles of Mu, Pi and Cheng Pu. The battle of Mu took place in 1027 BC; this was the last battle of the Zhou against the Shang dynasty. The Zhou army has composed of a mere 3000 nobles and 800 Shang defectors, while the Shang army greatly outnumbered the Zhou. The Zhou commander ordered his troops to march in strict formation, and to stay close and not break ranks. The Shang had advanced in two lines with their infantry in front. As the Zhou forces advanced, the Shang front line fell back into the second line and the Shang were thrown into confusion. The Zhou were victorious as they "drew enough blood to float a log".

143 The battle of Pi took place in 645 BC between the states of Jin and Chu. The Chu began the attack with chariots on both flanks and more than forty chariots waiting in the rear. As the Chu began to pick away the Jin they brought in their forty reserves and the

Jin fled in fear.

The battle of Cheng Pu, in 632 BC, was the final decisive battle between the states of Jin and Chu. Chu's troops had consisted mostly of barbarians at this point. The

Jin leader rode on the left side of his line, while the Chu leader rode on the right side of his, so that the leaders were directly across from one another. The Jin left flank rode straight for the right side of Chu's line, pinning it down. Meanwhile, the right side of the

Jin retreated, using branches attached to the backs of chariots to create a smoke screen, and the remaining Chu forces chased them down. As the Chu advanced, the "retreating" chariots turned and attacked while the awaiting central line of Jin forces flanked the Chu.

The Chu leader was killed and the Jin were victorious.

(http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/armies/dbal6b.html)

It was also around 600 BC that one of the greatest books on Chinese military thought was written. The Art of War, by Sun Tzu, shows, in a highly literary style, the how and why of Chinese military practices of the day. The book focuses more of its energy on the theory and rationale behind the military, and less on practical matters. An example of the text is as follows:

And so it is said— Know the other and know oneself, Then victory is not in danger. Know earth and know heaven, Then victory can be complete. (Sun Tzu 2002: 44)

144 The book also discusses the mindset of the generals and other military leaders.

Sun Tzu describes them as being "untuned yet disciplined, unsought yet obtained, without covenant yet in kinship, without orders yet trusting."(Sun Tzu 2002: 48). The military was hired under the assumption that they would do anything out of the love of their country. No one would ask questions, everyone would just do. They were trained to do whatever it took to win, whether it be attacking where the enemy had not made defensive action, or taking hostages and offering negotiations. The only goal was to win and conquer, their only mindset was kill or be killed, and if killed the enemy should be dying along side of them. When it came to occupying land, the military made every effort to obtain all types of ground, hard and soft, high and low, thus giving them the strategy on every level. There was also the firm belief that one was better than many. The armies were very focused on infiltration and invasion, and that one skilled soldier is more powerful behind enemy lines than an army of men attacking in the open. This book became a focal point in the military culture of the Zhou dynasty and many other dynasties to follow. Many of the ideas and theories behind this book are still followed in many militaries and it remains one of the most important manifestations of Chinese military thought to date.

Warring States Period and Qin (481 BC - 206 BC) Through constant barbarian attacks from the north, the Chinese began to realize the effectiveness of the barbarian tactics and began to adopt these tactics. They had adopted the use of cavalry, which they used alongside the chariots for some time, and employed defecting barbarians. These armies still had the same enemies as the previous

145 period, with the northern barbarians and wars among themselves, only now they were also starting battles with the bordering nomads, who were mainly to the south and west.

With the added military techniques, the composition of the military changed slightly as well. For every three chariots there were two groups of spearmen, two groups of barbarians, two groups of light cavalry, one group of heavy cavalry, two groups of archers, now using crossbows, and two groups of lightly armed and unarmored prisoners.

These armies formed camps along the Great Wall, within imperial palaces, and by setting up general's tents with sentries and banners.

The Qin warriors were considered to be the most vicious warriors in all of history.

The soldiers of the Qin dynasty were only paid for services after they presented their generals with the cut off heads of their enemies, as a means of proof.

The military tactics at this time varied from enemy to enemy, depending on whom and where they were fighting. Early battles with the barbarians had the forces using aggressive tactics with the chariots and heavy foot soldiers, while the spearmen and archery units would make quick, effective work of the enemy. The only threat to this tactic came from the barbarian cavalry either breaking through the lines, or outflanking the forces. Against other enemies, mainly other Chinese, a holding force would be used to occupy the enemy's attention while a second force attacked at a surprise location at an unexpected time to destroy the enemy. Whichever one of these groups encountered the enemy first would become the holding force, and the other would be the flanking force.

In general, the mobile forces would be the forces doing the flanking while archers and heavy troops held off the enemy. While fighting against other Chinese regimes with similarly composed, the chariots would be sent against the spear and heavy troops, while

146 the archers focused on the chariots and cavalry, with the hope that the spear and heavy troops would take care of the enemy's archers before they got to one's own chariots. Both sides were using the same tactics, so speed became an important issue. Whichever side could complete the fastest, most effective flanking maneuvers first would come out victorious. (http://www.fanaticus.org/DB A/arm ies/dbal6c.html)

Terracotta Warriors of Shihuang The most accurate visualization of the Chinese military of the time was buried underground for centuries. The Terracotta Warriors, dating to the third century B.C., are depictive of not only the composition of the military, but also give a better look at tactics used, and even garments worn into battle. Considered to be the most significant archaeological find in all of Chinese history, the Terracotta Warriors were found by a couple of Chinese farmers digging a well in search of water for their village in 1974.

Each soldier is life-size, or a bit larger, and weighs as much as 400 pounds. They are each molded to be "standing at attention" and awaiting command. While none of the soldiers are actually carrying weapons, their hands are positioned in a way that they could be. The weapons were found a short time later in a nearby room in pristine condition, and once cleaned and restored the weapons were still capable of splitting a hair.

Experts approximate the total number of soldiers to be around 7500. These magnificent soldiers are spread out over several acres near Xian. They are believed to have been created and placed there by "the fierce tiger of Qin", Shihuang (who is also considered to be the first emperor of China). These soldiers were placed as defenders of

Shihuang's tomb, which is bigger than his largest palace. Also protecting his tomb were

147 booby traps consisting of machines used to produce loud noises, to scare off tomb raiders, and automatic crossbows. These Terracotta Warriors were set up in underground trenches less than a mile from the emperor's tomb. To prevent the finding of the tombs the last men to carry the emperor's body into the tomb were trapped by a stone door and left to die.

The soldiers were found in three separate pits that are relatively close to one another (a fourth pit was found, but it was empty). The main body of the army of terracotta faces towards the east, which is probably because Shihuang had conquered lands to the east and any attack on him would come from that direction. The first pit is the largest of the three. It is around 200 yards long and holds around 6000 soldiers and horses. None of these soldiers are wearing helmets or carrying shields, which is proof of the fearlessness of the Qin army. Even more proof comes with the archers on the front lines, who wear no armor at all, to allow for free, easy movement. These archers had to be more fearless than the rest because they were the first targets and wore the least armor.

The archers lack of armor also allowed for quick easy skirmishes to flank the enemy from any direction. The archers are situated in three rows and in battle-ready positions; the archers are standing in a firing position while the crossbows are kneeling in a reloading position. Behind the front lines of archers are eleven long columns containing the main body of the army, which consists of foot soldiers and low-ranking officers. The soldiers on the extreme left and right lines face outward to defend against a flanking attack. At the rear are three rows of soldiers facing the opposite direction to defend against a rear attack

from the west. Stationed throughout the main body of the army are approximately fifty chariots drawn by four horses and driven by a soldier in full-length armor. Some of the

148 carts contain a general beside the driver waiting to beat a drum for an attack, or ring a bell for a retreat. The soldiers are arranged in a long rectangular formation, which was used in actual battle situations. This formation is referred to as a "sword formation"; the archers represent the tip, the main body soldiers are the blade and the rear guard is the handle.

The second pit is much smaller, containing around 900 warriors of different ranks.

The position of the second pit, behind the first pit, causes it to come across as a backup force to aid the army of the first pit. This pit also contains around 500 horses, 350 chariot horses and more than 100 cavalry horses. The horses represented are believed to be

Mongolian ponies, they are small but muscular and full of power. These horses are molded to look as though they are ready to charge into battle. Their manes are trimmed short and the tails are braided to prevent the hair from getting caught in the harness, and there are no , as they hadn't come into use yet.

The third pit is even smaller with less than seventy soldiers and only one team of horses. Historians believe that the third pit represents army headquarters because the soldiers are not set up in an attack formation. They are, rather, set up in a "U" shape, all facing each other as if discussing. These three pits form a virtually unstoppable army with each soldier strategically stationed as if in real combat.

The reason for these warriors traces back to the ancient Chinese tradition in which soldiers that died in battle, or were sacrificed, would be buried next to dead rulers to protect him in death. Shihuang changed this tradition by substituting clay figures of the soldiers to be buried in the place of the fallen warriors. Superstition said that, once

149 buried, the clay soldiers would come to life and protect the ruler in death, from both real

people and evil spirits from entering the tomb.

Of the more than 7000 soldiers, no two are identical. The soldiers range from

young to old and also range in moods. The younger soldiers appear excited and nervous

while the older generals appear calm, if not tired, others appear lost in thought and still

others seem proud and confident. These soldiers even differ in how the uniforms were

worn. The uniforms are exact copies of what would have been worn by actual soldiers of

the Qin army. The uniforms vary by rank and are accurate down to the last detail,

including designs and tassels. Bits of paint found on the soldiers indicate that they were

originally brightly colored, but due to time are now the gray color of baked clay. The

color would have showed rank in the army and also to which part of the army one

belonged (cavalry or infantry).

Some of the soldiers are actually signed by the craftsman that created then, but

since craftsmanship was originally considered lowly work many craftsmen remained

anonymous. These soldiers were made only to be seen by the emperor and were buried as

soon as they were created. The "tomb" in which the Terracotta Warriors were buried was

very elaborate; the soldiers were placed on a green tiled floor, then a wooden roof was

constructed over them, and then they were buried under ten feet of dirt.

There is no record anywhere in Chinese manuscripts regarding the buried army.

Was this because it was not worthy of mention, or was it kept secret for a reason? It is

known that the soldiers are guarding the tomb of Shihuang, but what else is in there? The

Chinese government won't allow for an excavation of the tomb to find out if anything

else is in Shihuang's tomb.

150 Even to this day, 30 years later, Terracotta Warriors are still being discovered and restored by archaeologists and historians. (O'Connor, 2002: pages throughout)

Han Dynasty (202 BC - AD 220) The Han Dynasty used very similar tactics to those of the Warring States and Qin periods. There were slight differences in the composition of its armies, however. The Han military still used chariots, though not nearly as many as previous dynasties had, and most of their fighting was done with light and heavy cavalry, while the backbone of the army was the crossbowmen in the back line. For every one chariot there were now two groups of heavy cavalry, usually consisting of three to five per group, two groups of light horse, consisting of one or two per group, four groups of archers, with five to ten per group, two groups of spearmen, with five per group, and a couple of prisoners on the front line. The Han's enemies were mainly the competing kingdoms of the Warring

States period and the Qin, since that is who they stole power from, and they also had battles with the Parthians, a developing empire located in present-day Iran, and the border nomads. The tactics employed by the Han dynasty were similar to the Warring States and

Qin, in that they used the distraction and flanking methods of fighting, the only major difference being that the chariots were less used for battle and more used for transportation of supplies and/or men. By the end of the Han Dynasty and the start of the

Tang and the Five Dynasties, chariots had been abandoned as a means of military attacks.

(http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Vault/5741/miniatures/han.html)

151 Tang and the Five Dynasties (AD 618 - AD 960) The only major change in the military of the Tang and the Five Dynasties was that they had abandoned the use of chariots in warfare. The armies were very well equipped and, when led well, won outstanding victories over their enemies, mainly the bordering nomads, as had the previous dynasties. Armies became heavily reliant on cavalry and even began to reduce their need for foot soldiers, and put less and less of them on the field. The cavalry began to rule the battlefield: the Chinese military had adapted to the increase in the need for quick attacks for which chariots were too large and foot soldiers too slow. The cavalry outnumbered the foot soldiers by almost five to one, except for the archers, who proved time and time again that the crossbow was one of the most significant advancements in Chinese weaponry. This period also saw an increase in the use of prisoners as soldiers. Many of the prisoners were forced to do battle, while some chose to go to avoid being punished at court, or killed - at least going into battle there was still a chance to make it home alive.

(http://www.geocities.com/Area5 1/Vault/5741 /miniatures/tang.html)

These tactics maintained a strong foothold through Chinese history. Even after the introduction of gunpowder to the Mongols in the early 14 th century as a means of creating firearms, the cavalry still stood strong and was the main fighting force of the Chinese military for the next few centuries. The tactics that were dominant within the Chinese military system remained the same throughout the following generations as well. The distraction and flanking of enemies is still used today, and has been adopted into militaries all over the world. The Chinese military also used single soldiers to infiltrate enemies, which, of course, is widely used today through intelligence agencies and secret organizations throughout the world. The genius behind the Chinese generals and their

152 military thinking can be seen the way that, regardless of advancements, the basic tactics remained the same throughout history and eventually spread throughout the world.

Military Aspects of Korea

Korea was originally known as ancient Choson, and was referred to by the

Chinese as the "Eastern Barbarian Bowmen". They made a majority of their military advancements during the Warring States period in China, when they spent most of their energy defending their land against the Zhou dynasty's campaign of expansion. The ancient Choson armies managed to defend themselves against the Zhou but their numbers were greatly decreased and they lost a lot of military strength. The Choson's military strength mainly came from their numbers. The entire nation, peasants and nobles alike, fought side-by-side when it came to defending the country. Therefore, the massive loss of numbers during the wars with the Zhou made for a very weak military. This weakness offered an opportunity to the Han dynasty in China. The Han dynasty was under constant threat from its bordering nomadic tribes, and they turned on Ancient Choson as the weakest bordering area. After a short two years the ancient Choson armies were destroyed by the Han conquerors.

In AD 313 the Koguryo warriors, one of the bordering nomadic tribes of China, rode into Korea and overthrew the Chinese. The Koguryo warriors were so skilled and so fast on horseback that they were able to easily outflank the Chinese. The Koguryo warriors fought with what appeared to be chaotic riding and the Chinese thought they could suppress the attackers. Before the Chinese military knew what had happened, the

Koguryo riders had overcome them and were attacking from all sides, and the Chinese

153 had nowhere to go. Korea was now under control of the Koguryo, and now had one of the fastest and most skilled military of the times.

Until AD 342, Korea fought in constant battles with China, successfully defending their land time after time and causing eventual Chinese retreat. In AD 342, there was a major battle in which the Koguryo warriors of Korea destroyed the Chinese

attackers and the Chinese fell with massive military losses. After this victory Korea experienced peace for the next three hundred years. In AD 612 the declining Sui dynasty

of China looked to regain power by attempting to take Korea. The still elite Koguryo

warriors quickly defeated the Sui dynasty. This defeat of the Sui led China to be taken by

the Tang dynasty and Korea enjoyed a period of peace and serenity.

In the meantime, Korea had been separated into three kingdoms and it wasn't long

before these kingdoms turned and started fighting amongst one another in an effort for

total control of Korea. The Tang dynasty, looking to expand its power, sat back at first

and watched the ongoing battles between the kingdoms until one kingdom, Shilla, began

to come out on top. The Tang then allied with Shilla in 668 BC, and the combination of

the military techniques of China, and the speed and riding ability of the Koreans, allowed

Shilla to take over the other two kingdoms. The Tang, however, turned on Shilla and

occupied the other two instead. The Koreans revolted against the Tang, and Shilla sided

with the uprisings. After the uprisings had weakened the Tang influences in Korea, the

Koguryo riders of Shilla came in and defeated the Tang.

Due to the strength of the military and the combination of nobles and peasants,

the military had control of the Korean throne for most of the . The

generals and other military leaders led the country also because of the constant warring

154 that was going on with China. The military standpoint in Korea was not to spread power, but just to maintain peace. The Koreans wanted nothing to do with expansion. The only reason the military existed was for defense, and they used the strategic peninsula location to their full advantage. They had natural defenses with the water on either side, which prevented the Chinese from using their flanking maneuvers, while the Korean defenders could use their knowledge of the land to flank out the Chinese instead. Most of the tactics used by the Korean military came from the Chinese, mainly the distraction and flanking

methods of attack. The major difference in the military was that the Koreans realized the

strength of cavalry before the Chinese, and therefore became better at it, and were able to

outride and outfight the would-be conquerors. (Korean History 1986: 5-16)

Military Aspects of Thailand

Military strength in Thailand was basically non-existent until the middle 8 th

century, other than a few tribal militia armies, of which very little is known. A new form

of recruitment and training was formed in which male householders were subject to

military services. As an added bonus to military officials they were given land based

upon their rank in the military, the higher ranks receiving more land. The Board of War

was established around this time and each year they would make a call for men to come

for tests and maneuvers in the military. The men that were called to arms at these times

were able to take tests of skill and endurance in cavalry and infantry, based upon these

tests any man could be promoted in rank and were rewarded with land for passing. Due to

this type of training and rewarding the Thai armies were powerful, efficient, well

disciplined and incredibly effective on the battlefield for centuries to come. From the mid

155 8th to the end of the 9 th century the military of Thailand was a major power in southeast

Asia and southern China. Constant, focused attacks on Burma and northern Vietnam began to reshape the northern part of southeast Asia. (Wyatt 1984: 14)

The military training and recruitment methods of this time remained predominant

in Thailand for nearly a millennium. It was in the 1800s when Thailand began to change

its recruitment and training methods. Military officials began to send commoners and

others abroad to train in the military academies in India, England and Germany. While

still others remained in Thailand to study at special training schools established in

Thailand, including a large, effective military academy. In each of these methods, the

emphasis in recruitment was on educational qualifications. It was also through these

recruitment methods that Thailand defined the elite armies of the early 20 th century.

(Wyatt 1984: 219)

In 1932 the military had completely overthrown the absolute monarchy and began

its rise to its strongest point in Thai history. The Thai military is said to have reached its

peak between the years 1932 and 1957, because once the monarchy was overthrown the

military had complete power and by 1957 the military power be began to be undermined.

Throughout Thai history the military had been a social institution just as much as

a political and military one. It also had very high prestige as a social institution, and was

the favored occupation of princes throughout the reigns. The respect in the military was

very high and every soldier knew his place in military society and dressed according to

rank. The strength in the social cohesion of the military came from the fact that the entire

military went through a single military academy. The soldiers were shaped by the same

curriculum and taught the same values, which laid stress upon the role of the military as a

156 guardian of the nation. The social strength within the military was stronger than that of civilian groups and cliques. This also showed through in the political spectrum in that a military official running for office stood a much greater chance of being elected than a civilian because of the high respect for the military.

Thailand military is still being trained as a high social group and tightly bonded institution. The soldiers all training together and learning all the same things makes them a stronger whole, in that there are no conflicts of interests and each soldier knows what the next soldier does. The military of Thailand is still looked upon with high respect from the civilians and every man waits for the opportunity to become part of that institution.

(Wyatt 1984: 243-245)

Martial Arts

Over the course of its history, Southeast Asia has developed a few forms of martial arts, most notably and pentjak-. Other forms have been developed and are used, but not nearly as widely or commonly as the previous two and are either very specific to a location or have not been standardized in any identifiable way.

(Draeger 1972; p31)

Kuntao is a form that is really a combination of other forms of martial arts from

Mainland China. It is the oldest martial arts form in Southeast Asia and is believed to be dated back even to the very first migrants to come to Southeast Asia from China.

Surrounding kuntao is a certain sense of privacy and secrecy in that it is not taught or shown to those who are not Chinese or Southeast Asian with a strong Chinese family background. This has led to its not having a great impact on other forms, although it has had some influence on pentjak-silat for instance, and its not being as widely used.

157 Pentjak-silat is the most widely used and standardized form of martial arts found jn Southeast Asia. Much of what is today pentjak-silat has been formed over time from the Chinese, Hindu and Islamic influences so that it uses a range of various styles and weapons. Although it is used for non-combative use in society (i.e. ritual dances) it can not be thought of as similar to more domestic forms of martial arts such as Karate that are mostly for use without a weapon. It is a very practical form that, although it does allow for and can be used with no weapons, makes it quite clear that it is a form for use in combat. The reality, practicality and sufficiency of the form can be seen in one of the tests given to test the abilities of a fighter. One man is put against as many as eight or more other fighters at the same time who may use any weapon they choose but he is not allowed to use a weapon himself.

Like the weapons it uses, pentjak-silat varies greatly by region and has nearly 200 official forms and variations with many more that are not widely recognized. Nearly all of the classical, standardized forms use the pisau, parang, kris, tjabang and toya. These weapons can be found in many different areas and used in different forms of pentjak- silat. Other forms may also use the tongkat, pedang, arit, golok, klewang or tombak, which depend more on the specific variation of the form used and the region in which it is used. (Draeger 1972: referenced throughout book.)

158 Conclusion

The Arms and Armor of East and South East Asia IQP was a year long project. We started out with background research on the various countries of East and South East

Asia, paying particular attention to the types and origins of artifacts in the East Asian collection at the Higgins Armory. A good deal of these artifacts orginated in China, with some pieces from Korea and Tibet. We also had a great deal of items from Southeast

Asia: including Burma, Malaya, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, and New Guinea.

The team was then separated in to two research groups, one on history and the other on arms and armor. Another student who joined the project soon after its inception was offered to research on the military tactics and military history across the countries, giving an important insight into weapons development.

Since every good research project starts with a good list of sources we started the project in A-Term by finding resources by scouring WPI' s own library, the Higgins

Armory Library (which was an excellent source for rare texts on weaponry), local

Worcester public libraries, and the internet. The bulk of the actual research occurred in B-

Term, with the students working on the history component examining general geography and the history of the regions. They found that a significant part of the East Asian history component was centered on China and many of the surrounding countries were also influenced by Chinese culture and its military power. We therefore began with an in- depth history research of China. Korean history followed, due to the number of Korean artifacts in our collection, making it important to understand its history and weapons.

159 The research on Southeast Asia began with a search for books on Southeast Asia in general. After getting a general overview of Southeast Asia and understanding the basics of its history, more in-depth research could be conducted. A significant part of

Southeast Asian history appeared to revolve around Malaya and the city of Malacca so in-depth research began with Malaya. After Malaya, the countries of Indonesia, the

Philippines, New Guinea, Thailand, and Burma were looked at extensively in order for our IQP group to understand the history behind many of the artifacts.

Although the WPI library had only a few books on Southeast Asia, the library at

Clark University had far more resources. These books were invaluable throughout the research process and offered an in-depth look at the culture, society, economic history, as well as the political and military history of each country. In the case where certain parts of the histories were confusing, certain web sites were carefully chosen to provide a less detailed look in order to make the history more easily understood.

Arms and armor research was generally more difficult than that of the history component. This was especially true for the Chinese and Korean components of the project, as their military histories are often overshadowed by Japan's. The best resource available proved to be the Higgins Armory library. There are few good sources on the internet or at Consortium colleges and public libraries. We compiled any information collected attempting to form a good list of examples and evolution of the weapons of the

East and South East Asia.

Durinti, C term, we began inspecting and photographing the artifacts for the database. The photography required even lighting and good background in order to show much of the artifact with minimal shadow. At first, we had to build our own light

160 diffusers using PVC pipes and white stock nylon and, to everyone's surprise, it worked quite well. The artifacts were first carefully measured for their weight and length and outdated identification tags updated. Photographs were then taken with a Minolta

Dlmage7 digital camera with various light apparati and images transferred onto a CD in

.tif format for later processing. During the course of 7 we photographed approximately 100 artifacts.

After completing the artifact photography in C term, D term was needed to create a website in order to present the project on the internet. Design of the web site began in C term with creating mockups which were finalized in D term.

More components and extras for the web site were decided on during the first few meetings. We decided on using Zoomview and Flash animation as eye for the site.

Zoomview would enable users to zoom in and see the details of the artifacts on the web.

We later discovered that in order to use Zoomview we would have to purchase a commercial license, so the Zoomview eye-candy component was dropped from the project. Flash animation would be used to construct a walkthrough for the user identifying and describing the different parts of selected artifacts. After some discussion and examining of suitable artifacts, we decided to use only one kris from the collection.

Next was the imaging processing. Even with the best lighting, color correction and cropping of the images was still needed. This was done using Adobe Photoshop 7 on computers running Microsoft Windows XP in a WPI lab. Identification tags in the images were also removed when possible during processing.

Once the images were processed and ready for production usage, they were once again moved to CD-R and later batch-processed to convert from .tif to the compressed,

161 web-ready .jpeg format using ImageMagick's "mogrify" command on a system running

Redhat Linux 8.0. Two batches of images were created for the website, larger images

(400 pixels maximum width) for the artifact detail pages as well as thumbnails for the search results page. Later, two more batches were processed, incorporating images for artifacts that were already photographed into the set of images we had done ourselves.

The database for the website was implemented using the MySQL database system. Tables were created to represent the data already contained in the Higgins

Armory database in an optimized form. Tab-delimited exports from the database were then edited and imported into the MySQL database for website usage. Since many of the artifact images needed for the website were already contained in the Higgins Armory database, they had to be manually extracted and incorporated into the current set.

The original design mockups for the website were created in Adobe Photoshop 7.

As a web development note, paper or graphical mockups should always be created before writing even a line of HTML; this will save a great deal of development time and effort and increase the quality of the project. Initially paper mockups were created to identify possible general layouts and determine general placement of content and features. After deciding on a general layout, graphical mockups were created to deal with specific design considerations. Graphical mockups are also necessary for finalizing a design to implement.

The implementation of the website was hand-written in the PHP scripting language. By making use of the full-text search capabilities of MySQL, the search component was created with minimal development effort. Any browsing of artifacts by

162 either category or region is done dynamically using data provided by the database. Doing so reduced development time and increased flexibility.

The last step was to integrate the documents into the website. We accomplished this by copying the text from the documents and inserting any need HTML. It all went smoothly without a problem.

However, there are many things we would like to improve if there were more time. The background material on weapons and armors was hard to find, therefore making the research considerably harder and time consuming. The military history faced the same problem. Many of the military tactics and strategies could only be found in bits and pieces. Lastly, Zoomview, one of the extra for the webpage, didn't make to the final website as we did not know that Zoomview required a license for public use. Given more time, we could have found similar products or added new extras to the webpage.

During this project, we learned the history of the East and Southeast Asia, the arms and armors of the region and their militaries. We gained knowledge of how to handle and photograph the museum artifacts. What made this project possible was the teamwork; everyone contributed to the work and the final result was the collection of our efforts.

163 Bibliography

1 .General History and General Arms and Armor Information

1.1 General Arms and Armor sources Bull, Stephen. 1991. An Historical Guide to Arms & Armor. New York: Facts on .

Burton, Richard F. 1884. The Book of The Sword. New York: Dover Publications

Demmin, Auguste. 1870. Weapons of war; being a history of arms and armour from the earliest period to the present time. London: Bell & Daldy.

Laufer, Berthold. 1914. Chinese clay figures. Pt. 1. Prolegomena on the history of defensive Armor. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History.

O'Connell, Robert L. 2002. The Soul Of The Sword: An Illustrated History of Weaponry and Warfare from Prehistory to the Present. New York: Simon & Schuster

Stone, George Cameron. 1961. A Glossary of the Construction and Use of Arms and Armor. New York: Jack Brussel.

Tarassuk, Leonid and Claude, Blair. 1986. The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms & Weapons. New York: Bonanza Books.

Coe, Michael, et al. 1989. Swords and Hilt Weapons. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.

Wilkinson, Frederick. 1970. Edged Weapons. New York: Doubleday.

1.2 General History Cady, John Frank.1964. Southeast Asia: its historical development. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cady, John Frank. 1966. Thailand, Burma, Laos & Cambodia. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Cressey, George Babcock. 1963. Asia's lands and peoples, a geography of one-third of the earth and two-thirds of its people. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Fisher, Charles Alfred. 1966. South-East Asia: a social, economic and political Geography. London: Methuen; New York: Dutton.

164 Meyer, Milton Walter. 1997. Asia : a concise history. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Poole, Frederick King. 1972. Southeast Asia. New York: F. Watts, 1972.

1.3 Military History and Martial Arts Hall, D.G.E. 1964. A History of South East Asia. London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

2. Southeast Asia

2.1 Malaya

2.1.1 Arms and Armor Gardner, G. B. 1992. Keris and other Malay weapons. Singapore: Propressive Pub. Co.

Hill, A. H. 1956. The Malay keris and other weapons. Singapore: Govt. Print. Off.

Scott, James C. 1985. Weapons of the weak: everyday forms of peasant resistance. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Shahrum bin Yub. 1991 The keris & other short weapons. Malaysia: Museum Association of Malaysia.

2.1.2 History Andaya, Barbara and Leonard. 1982. A History of Malaysia. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Cole, Fay-Cooper. 1945. The Peoples of Malaysia. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.

Emerson, Rupert. 1937. Malaysia: a study in direct and . New York: The Macmillan company.

Ryan, N. J. 1963. The making of modern Malaya: a history from earliest times to the present. : Oxford University Press.

2.1.3 Military History and Martial Arts Allen, Richard. 1968. Malaysia: Prospects and Retrospects.

165 Oxford University Press.

2.2Philippines

2.2.1 Arms and Armor Krieger, Herbert William. 1926. The collection of primitive weapons and armor of the Philippine Islands in the United States National Museum. Washington: Govt. Print. Off.

Seoane, Rhoda Low. 1965. The whole armor. New York: R. Speller

2.2.1 History Barrows, David Prescott. 1925. History of the Philippines. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., Chicago: World Book Company.

Blair, Emma Helen. 1903-09. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803: explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century. (V.1-V.55). Cleveland: The A.H. Clark Company.

Corpuz, Onofre. 1965. The Philippines Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

Goodno, James B. 1991. The Philippines: land of broken promises. London: Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.

Keesing, Felix M. 1937. The Philippines: A Nation in the Making Shanghai-Hong Kong-Singapore, Kelly & Walsh, Limited.

Worcester, Dean Conant. 1914 The Philippines past and present. (V.1-V.2). New York: The Macmillan company.

2.2.1 Military History and Martial Arts Allen, Richard. 1968. Malaysia: Prospects and Retrospects. Oxford University Press.

Wiley, Mark V. 2001. : history and development of the . Boston: Tuttle Pub.

166 Wiley, Mark V. 1994. Filipino martial arts: Cabales serrada escrima. Rutland, Vt. C.E. Tuttle.

Campbell, Sid. 1986. Balisong: the lethal art of knife fighting. Boulder, Colo: Paladin Press.

Presas, Ernesto Amador. 1998 Filipino knife fighting. Philippines: E. A. Presas.

2.3 Indonesia

2.3.1 Arms and Armor Draeger, Donn F. 1972. Weapons and fighting arts of the Indonesian archipelago. Rutland, Vt. CE Tuttle Co.

Hamzuri. 1984. Keris. Jakarta: Jambatan.

Moebirman. 1970. Keris and other weapons of Indonesia. Djakarta: Pariwisata Pub. Agency.

Museum Indonesia. 1956. Exhibition of krisses. Djakarta: Museum Djakarta.

Piaskowski, Jerzy. 1995. Technology of early Indonesian keris : the results of metallographic examinations of ganja's (upper part of the keris) separately forged. Warsaw: Asia and Pacific Museum in Warsaw.

Zonneveld, Albert G. 2001. Traditional weapons of the Indonesian archipelago. Leiden: C. Zwartenkot Art Books.

2.3.2 History Legge, John David, (1965) Indonesia. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall.

Vlekke, Bernard H.M. 1960. : A History of Indonesia Chicago, Quadrangle Books

Zainu'ddin, Ailsa. 1968. A Short History of Indonesia New York, Praeger Publishers.

2.3.3 Military History and Martial Arts Draeger, Donn F. 1992. Weapons and fighting arts of Indonesia. Rutland, Vt: Charles E. Tuttle Co.

Orlando, Bob. 1996. Indonesian fighting fundamentals: the brutal arts of the Archipelago. Boulder, Colo.: Paladin Press.

167 Palmier, Leslie. 1965. Indonesia: New nations and peoples. Thames & Hudson.

Zainu'ddin, Aisla. 1968. A Short History of Indonesia.

2.4 Thailand

2.4.1 Arms and Armor None

2.4.2 History Thompson, Virginia McLean. 1941. Thailand, the new Siam. New York: The Macmillan company.

Office of the Prime Minister, Royal Thai Government. 1979. Thailand into the 80's. Office of the Prime Minster of Thailand.

Wyatt, David K. 1984. Thailand : a short history. New Haven [Conn.] : Yale University Press.

2.4.3 Military History and Martial Arts

Wyatt, David K. 1984. A Short .

2.5 Burma

2.5.1 Arms and Armors None

2.5.2 Arms and Armor Harvey, G. E. 1974. . London: Faber and Faber.

Aung, Htin, U. 1967. A history of Burma. New York: Columbia University Press.

2.5.3 Military History and Martial Arts None

168 3. East Asian

3.1 General History and Arms and Armor

3.1.1 Arms and Armor None

3.1.2 History Bingham, Woodbridge. 1964-65. . Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Clyde, Paul Hibbert. 1958. The Far East; a history of the impact of the West on eastern Asia. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Crystal, David. 1987. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Languages. New York : Cambridge University Press.

Fairbank, . 1973. East Asia: tradition and transformation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Harrison, Brian. 1966. South-East Asia A Short History New York, St. Martin's Press

Robequain, Charles. 1954. Malaya, Indonesia, Borneo, and the Philippines; a geographical, economic and political description of Malaya, the East Indies and the Philippines. London, Longmans, Green.

Wint, Guy. 1966. Asia; a handbook. New York: Praeger.

3.1.3 Military History and Martial Arts Fairbank, Reischouer and Craig. 1973. East Asia: Tradition and Transformation. Houghton Mifflin Company.

Johnson, Stuart E. 1979. The Military Equation in Northeast Asia. The Brookings Institution.

Kim, Key-Hiuk. 1980. The Last Phase of the East Asian World Order. Berkley, LA and London:University of Columbia Press.

3.2 China

169 3.2.1 Arms and Armor Sawyer, Ralph D. (Translator). 1993. The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China (Including "The Art Of War"). Boulder: Westview Press

3.2.2 History Latourette, Kenneth Scott. 1964. The Chinese, their history and culture. New York:Macmillan.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1981. Chinese civilization and society: a sourcebook. New York: Free Press.

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wright, Arthur F.1959. Buddhism in Chinese history. Stanford, Calif., Stanford University Press

3.2.3 Military History and Martial Arts Encyclopedia Americana. 1978. China: History and Government (volume 6)

Hook, Brian. 1991. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of China. Cambridge University Press.

Liu, F.F. 1956. A Military History of Modern China 1924-1949. Princeton University Press.

O'Connor, Jane. 2002. The Emperor's Silent Army.

Powell, Ralph L. 1955. The Rise of Chinese Military Power 1895-1912. Princeton University Press.

Tzu, Sun (2002, original 6 th century BC) The Art of War. Shambhala Publications Inc. http://www.fanaticus.org/DBAJarmies/ancients.html A website with detailed descriptions of ancient armies, with some focuses on the ancient armies of China.

3.3 Tibet

3.3.1 Arms and Armor Evans-Wentz, W.Y. 2000. The Tibetan Book of The Dead. London: Oxford University Press

170 Schlagintweit, Emil. 1968. Buddhism In Tibet: Illustrated Documents and Objects of Religious Worship with an Account of the Buddhist Systems Preceding it in India. London: Susil Gupta Ltd.

3.3.2 History Donald S. Lopez, Jr. 1997. Religions of Tibet in practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

3.3.3 Military History and Martial Arts None

3.4 Mongols

3.4.1 Arms and Armor None

3.4.2 History Prawdin, Michael. 1961. The ; its rise and legacy. London: G. Allen and Unwin.

Spuler, Bertold. 1971. Mongols in history. New York: Praeger.

Chambers, James. 1979. The Devil's horsemen : the Mongol invasion of Europe. [London] : Book Club Associates.

3.4.3 Military History None

3.5 Korea

3.5.1 Arms and Armor None

171 3.5.2 History Hulbert, Homer B. 1962. History of Korea. New York: Hillary House Publishers.

Nahm, Andrew C. 1988. Korea : tradition & transformation : a history of the Korean People. Elizabeth, N.J., U.S.A. : Hollym International Corp.

Peter Hyun. 1987. Introducing Korea : historical legacy, acts of creation, way of life, food and games, discovering Korea. Seoul, Korea : Jungwoo-sa

3.5.3 Military History and Martial Arts None

Web-related Resources http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html Good information on the current status of countries from the CIA's website

TherionArms http://therionarms.com/old_armor_page.shtml Has many images of weapons from around the world. In particular has four images of Malaysian weapons and a page with a detailed description and color images of a golok.

Knife Identification http://arms2armor.com/Knives/knives.htm Online private service for identifying arms and armor. Has detailed pages on southeast Asian items such as the kris.

Asian and African Edged Weapons http://www.antiqueswords.com/Asian_and_African_Edged_Weapons.htm Detailed descriptions and images of many weapons incuding rarer ones such as several pages on the parang and the panabas. http://www.nexus.net/-911gfx/sea-ao.html Highly detailed maps of SE Asia; mostly Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and North/South Vietnam. Maps sizes range from country view to street level view. Extremely detailed.

World Atlas http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/as.htm This site has many maps of different sizes from continent to country. For each country it also has information such as the capitol, population, the countries flag, etc. It could be a very useful general resource.

Filipino Martial Arts

172 http://www.trainingblades.comimainfo/martialarts/fma.htm Images of each of the weapons used in Filipino martial arts as well as some additional information on martial arts.

Oriental-Arms: Antique Asian and African weapons http://www.oriental-arms.co.i1/0A/main.html An online weapons gallery. Has many items with photos and descriptions from Southeast Asia.

Malay World Edged Weapons http://perso.wanadoo.fr/taman.sari/home.htm Historical background, information, and photos of weapons from Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.

A Look at the Famous Blades of the Moro Filipinos http://www.inayan.com/Bladesarticle.htm Good background of the kris and barong with photos. http://www.nexus.net/-911gfx/sea-ao.html Highly detailed maps of SE Asia; mostly Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and http://www.geographia.com/ History information http://www.travel-burma.com/history.html Information on Burma's history. http://www.papuaweb.org/ Information on New Guinea http://www.worldrover.com Histories of various countries.

173 About the IQP Team

Left to right: Dan Adams, Sean Gardell, Eric Kelley, Wei-Yu Chen, John LaFleur

Dan Adams is a junior at WPI majoring in Computer Science and working toward a

Masters in Computer Science through the BS/MS program. His preferred operating

system is Redhat Linux and his favorite activities include hiking, playing guitar, and coding while drinking a cool can of Mountain Dew.

Sean Gardell is a junior at WPI majoring in Mechanical Engineering with a focus in

design. He chose this IQP because he has always had an interest in Arms and Armor and

wanted to learn more about them. Free time is usually spent with a good book written by

Chuck Palahniuk, Dan Brown or Jeff Noon.

174 Eric Kelley: A graduate of Sutton High School in 2000, Eric has attended Worcester

Polytechnic Institute since 2000 and is anticipating graduation in May of 2004 with a computer science degree.

Wei-yu Chen graduated from Farmington High school in Farmington CT. He went to

WPI in September 200 for an electronic engineer degree. He is expected to graduate in

May, 2004.

John LaFleur graduated from Alvirne High School in Hudson, New Hampshire in May

2000. He went on to WPI to work towards getting a degree in Computer Science. He is interested in Asian cultures, and plans to travel to Asia after he graduates.

175