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COURSE MANUAL

EK5003: Introduction to ecological field research in Northern

Lesley Lancaster and Julien Martin

School of Biological Sciences University of Aberdeen

Key info:  Depart from Aberdeen, Monday 28 Aug 09:00  Accommodation can be booked for night of Sun 27 Aug (see p 1)  For insurance purposes you must complete the first stage of e-registration before the field trip  Could you volunteer to drive one of the cars hired for the field trip? (see p 3)  All other logistics information on p 1-5

Contents Introduction ...... 1 Course logistics ...... 1 BEFORE WE LEAVE ...... 1 Course activities ...... 5 Class exercises ...... 5 Group projects ...... 7 Course assessment ...... 7 Background information on environment, flora and fauna ...... 8 Geology and soils...... 8 Climate ...... 8 Human impacts ...... 10 The flora ...... 10 The fauna ...... 12 References ...... 12 APPENDIX 1: Fieldcourse Risk Assessment ...... 13 APPENDIX 2: identification...... 18 Plant identification problems ...... 18 Plant identification solutions ...... 18 Plant list ...... 19

Introduction

Welcome to the Masters in Ecology and Conservation field course! This field course is not just about or animals. It is mainly about spending time outside to obtain a better grasp of various ecosystems and how to sample them. It is also about team building, drawing inspiration from nature, and learning to ask questions about ecological processes that we can answer with simple field techniques. To accomplish these goals, we will visit the North of Scotland with some breath taking and pristine environment.

The area The field course is situated in in the far north of Scotland which is 'quite unlike any other in Britain' (Kenworthy 1976). The vast comprises wild , mountains and precipitous cliffs. The fact that even scientists can get carried away in describing it perhaps indicates how evocative and unusual the area is. It is on the new scenic route “North Coast 500”.

Course logistics

Dates Depart Aberdeen Monday 28 August at 09:00 and return Sunday 3 September around 17:00.

Staff Dr Lesley Lancaster; [email protected], 07462 261900 Dr Julien Martin, [email protected], 07580 709014

Logistics: If you have any disabilities, medical conditions, or other circumstances which could limit your ability to participate in fieldwork, or which require you to be in close proximity to medical care, please contact the course staff immediately so that we can make suitable arrangements.

BEFORE WE LEAVE

Registration You must complete the first stage of the e-registration process before attending the field trip so that you are covered by University insurance. Please contact one of the course staff if you are uncertain.

Accommodation for Sun 27 Aug can be booked at Hillhead student accommodation, for £18. If you require this please inform Claire Buchan [email protected] as soon as possible. You should report to Hillhead reception on arrival and will pay then. The accommodation is self-catering and there is a shop (and bar) on site.

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Contacts Before departure exchange mobile phone numbers with staff. Make sure that phones are switched on during the journey so that any unforeseen changes of plan can be communicated to everyone en route (although mobile reception may not be possible in remote areas).

Accommodation Basic male or female dormitories with separate shower facilities are available; one dorm sleeps 18, the other 12. Staff stay in the adjacent Schoolhouse.

Catering Breakfasts and lunches are “self-sufficient” (i.e., everyone gets their own cornflakes and makes their own sandwiches). Evening meals work best by organising into appropriate ‘feeding guilds’ (e.g., vegetarians, carnivores, omnivores, etc.) each of about 4-8 people. Each guild works by having a rota for cooking and washing-up duties so that the work is shared evenly among everyone in each guild. Aim to have evening meals completed (i.e., the last washed-up spoon is back in its drawer) by 7.30 pm so that plenty of time is left for evening work.

Supplies You will need to purchase your own groceries for the trip. Bettyhill has two excellent small shops (but with an inevitably limited range, especially of fresh meat, , fruit and vegetables). Both shops will be very glad of our custom. We will stop at the Tesco supermarket in on the way north for the bulk of your grocery shopping for the week, however feel free to do some shopping in Aberdeen before we leave. We will plan to have a group barbecue on the final day, so bring something to grill.

What you will need to bring  Waterproof jacket and trousers.  Waterproof walking boots and a rucksack.  Cold-weather clothing suitable for a day’s walking in the hills.  Warm-weather clothing, sun hat, swimwear, insect repellent and sun-block.  Spare socks.  Thermos flask, water bottle or both.  Sleeping bag or sheets/duvet (single bed) and pillow cases.  Towels.  Cash (no ATM in Bettyhill).  Food and domestic necessities (see above).  The Course Manual.

What would be useful to bring if you need/have them:  Any special dietary items or medicines that you need.  Wellington boots.  Any specialist plant or animal ID books, maps, or small items of equipment, that you think you might need for your project.  OS Landranger map 10 ().  Binoculars.  Camera, spotting scope.  Laptop. 2

What will be provided at the Field Centre:  Mattresses, pillows and blankets (but not sheets or pillowcases).  Kitchen equipment.  Toilet paper.  Washing machine with detergent.  Basic field equipment (e.g., poly bags, trowels, marker pens, quadrats, sample bottles, hand lenses, etc.) and a few more esoteric items (e.g., nail varnish, double-sided sticky tape) which can have surprising ecological uses.  More sophisticated equipment (e.g., a handheld GPS; microscopes; pH and salinity meters; anemometer).  A modest library of ecological reference books.  Six laptops.  Digital projector for student presentations.  First-aid kit.

Transport We hire cars (people carriers) and a transit van (for equipment, luggage, supplies, etc.) for the field trip. We need volunteer student drivers for the cars, who should hold a clean, valid driving licence. If you are willing to do this please contact Lesley Lancaster [email protected]. You will be required to complete a form to put you on the university insurance; Lesley will arrange this with you. If you are driving a vehicle that requires re-fuelling, please inform Lesley otherwise pay for the fuel yourself and keep all receipts to reclaim the cost. If you wish to take your own vehicle, please contact Lesley.

Trip to Bettyhill (KW14 7SS), Monday 28 August 9:00 Meet time at the Zoology Building car park with prompt departure by 10:00. Travel north-west on the A96 towards Inverness via Inverurie, Elgin and Nairn, aiming to stop at the Tesco supermarket on the outskirts of Inverness for lunch (and shopping if necessary). Then, drive north on the A9, B9176 and A836 via Bonar Bridge, Field Centre and Altnaharra. North of Lairg the road is entirely single-track with passing places, so take particular care. After Altnaharra: Stay on the A836 signposted to Tongue; don’t take the B873 signposted to Bettyhill (nice scenery, but a rather tortuous road). Bettyhill is about 1 hour from Altnaharra. Getting to the Field Centre: Turn left at the General Merchants and Fuel Station, right at the Fire Station, and the Field Centre is 100 m down the hill on the left (entrance not immediately obvious because of overgrown vegetation). On arrival, unpack, unwind, get your bearings, prepare and have dinner, and be ready for the first formal session at 19:30 in the lab.

Departure for Aberdeen on Sunday 3 September We will leave the Field Centre promptly at 09:30. Before leaving it is essential that equipment is packed away and the Field Centre is left as we found it. The kitchen, lab and dormitory areas must be cleaned, tidied and emptied of rubbish. We should arrive back in Aberdeen by 17:00.

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Some house rules and other considerations a) The Field Centre is strictly a no-smoking establishment. b) Staff have one set of keys to the Field Centre; a second set, should it be required, is left in the boiler house (behind the lab block, near the oil tank). In emergencies only, keys are also available from The Store (see below) and from Kath Spiers (Lochnagar, next door to the Fire Station, 100 m from the Field Centre). The Centre is locked while we are out on the class exercises. c) Please take a fair share of domestic duties and in keeping the place (especially the kitchen) clean and tidy, don’t let unwashed pots accumulate because others will need to use them. Be considerate of others. d) For the first two days it is essential that you are present in the lab promptly at 09:00, having breakfasted, prepared packed lunches, and done the washing up, ready for a briefing about the day’s activities. e) Please try not to get left behind when we leave the Field Centre each day. f) There is a phone at the Field Centre for use in emergencies only (01641 521289). Mobile phone reception is not ideal, but is usually ok if you stand on the grassy knoll behind the lab block. g) There is no internet access from the field centre, but there is an internet café in Bettyhill for emergencies.

Safety in the field When working in the field, take all reasonable care for your safety and for the safety of others. Please read the School of Biological Sciences' Fieldwork Handbook for general information about safety in the field and the rules for residential field courses: you will be able to access this on “MyAberdeen” once you have begun e-registration and a copy is also available at the Field Centre. Please also read the Risk Assessment form included in this manual (p 13). When at Bettyhill, do not climb cliffs or trees, try to cross deep water or swim in rough sea conditions. When in the field please take particular care to avoid contact with and ticks, which are potential carriers of Lyme disease.

Leisure activities If the Course activities are being done satisfactorily, and if the weather is suitable, our schedule should be sufficiently flexible to allow some time for relaxation. Please inform a member of staff where you plan to be and what you intend doing, but remember that anything that you do in spare time is at your own risk.

Local facilities There two pubs/hotels in Bettyhill, the Bettyhill Hotel (www.bettyhillhotel.com) and the Farr Bay Inn www.farrbayinn.co.uk.

The Cafe at Bettyhill is open every day 12:00-20:00 for tea, coffee, cakes and Tourist Information: 10 mins walk.

Both village shops stock good ranges of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. The Store (01641 521207) is open 08:00-18:00; from 14:30 pm Sunday; The General Merchants and Fuel Station (01641 521201) is open only every day (08:00-20:00; 10:00-13:00 Sundays)

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Internet: limited (but free) internet access is available (09:00-13:00, Monday-Friday) at the Naver Telecentre in the village (01641 521 385).

Bank: the Royal is open 10:00-12:00 on Friday at the Telecentre.

Some recycling facilities are available at the Hotel (see above). There is a compost bin behind the Field Centre for decomposable waste. For non-recyclable waste, the bins at the Field Centre are emptied early every Monday.

Doctor's surgery: Mon-Sat, is at Armadale (01641 541212).

For more information about Bettyhill: www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/bettyhill/bettyhill

Medical conditions It is vital that you inform staff before the course of any medical condition (including allergies) that might affect your ability to complete the various exercises on the course.

Course activities

The purpose of the course is to develop and consolidate a range of skills needed for ecological studies. Many of these skills are transferable between studies.

Schedule Day Evening 1. Monday Trip to Bettyhill Welcome and course outline 2. Tuesday Community ecology Analysis 3. Wednesday Behavioural ecology Analysis 4. Thursday Group project: data collection Analysis 5. Friday Group project: data collection Analysis 6. Saturday Analysis / Cleaning & packing Presentations 7. Sunday Trip back to Aberdeen

Class exercises These occur during the first two full days of the course, mainly to give you a chance to learn/revise skills, and to get familiar with the ecosystems. Although the exercises are ‘organised’, we try to do this in relaxed and enjoyable way. While you’re doing the class exercises, try to be seeking inspiration for, and even planning, your group project. Although we will work on common problems and data sets, the actual fieldwork will be done in small groups. We leave it to you to decide if/how tasks are divided within your group. Importantly, you will have to solve the problem(s) of how to organise sampling, data collection and analysis to answer the ecological questions posed.

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Day 2: Community ecology ( and pond dipping) We will drive round to the NW side of Invernaver (NC680611; map references are to Ordnance Survey Landranger map 10), until recently a National . We walk across a raised beach (now a sheepfold) to a gully (NC688609) which houses a complex ecological community. This exercise aims to determine some of the main environmental drivers of community composition in complex habitats. We will look at an east-west gully that rises from sea level to about 100 m. Think about the factors that could vary with aspect, altitude, distance...and how you would collect and analyse the class data to draw some firm conclusions. Data collection will take most of the morning.

In the afternoon, we will visit a pond adjacent to the field station to provide you with the opportunity to dip for freshwater and think more carefully about sampling designs. You will then have time to gain familiarity with taxonomic keys for identification of plants and invertebrates.

In the evening, compile and analyse the class data for all the day’s exercise.

Day 3: Behavioural ecology (Strathnaver Wood, Point and Strathy Bay ) We will first drive to the south of Bettyhill, to Strathnaver Wood (NC712570). There, we will set- up a series of sand tracks to be able to estimate habitat selection and species distribution of small animals.

We will then head eastwards, via the Field Centre, to the spectacular Strathy Point (NC828697). There, we observe clifftop vegetation, particularly the rare species scotica; also good for (e.g., sea eagle), sea (e.g., ) and Dounreay watching.

We will do behavioural observations of on sea-cliffs and marine (if we are lucky).

We then drive a short distance to Strathy (NC837652) and enjoy the scenic delights of Strathy Bay (where there’s an extensive sand dune system containing a large population of banded snails, and some impressive cliffs).

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In the afternoon, an introduction to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and their use in ecology will be provided. Depending on the weather, an introduction to piloting a UAV will be offered.

In the evening, the class data from the and observations will be analysed and discussed.

Group projects Days 4-6: This will probably be your main learning opportunity on the course, not least because you get to choose the subject.

Part of the challenge of group projects will involve solving logistical problems (especially if your project is based at a remote site, and/or if it involves frequent sampling over time). But the most important challenge (which we will be assessing) is to come up with a robust and valid study. The key elements of your study should be that it:

 Is field-based  Is feasible given the constraints of time and logistics  Addresses at least one testable hypothesis  Involves appropriate data collection and statistical analysis  Reaches sound conclusions that are justified by the analyses

The size of each group depends on the project: more ambitious projects demand more team members. But for each student to get most out of the experience, the ideal group will contain two or three people.

The kinds of projects tackled in recent years cover a surprisingly wide range of ecological subjects including, as examples:

 Trapping strategies of insectivorous plants  Feeding preferences of dune snails  Nematode abundances in grazed and ungrazed soil  Effects of exposure to wind on the micro-distributions of plants on rocky outcrops  Causes of clumped distributions of a rare Scottish plant  diversity and the sizes of rock pools  Bird abundances in relation to land-use types  Natural grazing protection by juniper

Despite not having high-tech lab or field facilities – or easy access to the internet – you can make robust ecological investigations with a minimum of resources, some ingenuity and improvisation, and a lot of hard work: this is the ethos of this part of the course. The staff’s role is to advise, encourage, inspire and help you – as well as to observe and assess how each group sets about its chosen task.

Course assessment

This will be based on field notebooks and the group project presentation on day 6. Details on assessment criteria on both notebooks and presentations will be given on the evening of day 1. 7

Background information on Bettyhill environment, flora and fauna

Geology and soils Moine Schists dominate the central area of Sutherland. The oldest rocks in the region are Lewisian gneisses, which are highly folded and metamorphosed. Traces of Old Red Sandstone occur on the coast. There are also newer formations of sandstone, shale and limestone, overlaid with glacial drifts and boulder clay (Kenworthy 1976). Surfaces are covered in places with much more recent peat deposits, and by blown sand.

There is a wide range of soils, which are a product of the complex geology (particularly involving older metamorphic rocks) and the extreme climatic conditions in the area. Soil development since the last glaciation (10,000-15,000 yr BP) has been dominated by the combination of high rainfall (most of which usually occurs during the field course) and low evaporation, with an overall downward movement of water. The net result of the interaction between geological and climatic factors is soil which is generally acidic. This is because soils are derived from parent material that is low in bases (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+), because the rocks are resistant to weathering, and because ions (including potential plant nutrients) are rapidly leached.

For many of the plants, any nutrient inputs are primarily from atmospheric sources. To put it another way, the communities we look at are mainly nutrient-poor or easily influenced by incoming nutrients from ‘outside’ the system. Areas occur which have outcrops of limestone, dolomite, calcareous schists, hornblende schists or calcareous sandstone. In such cases, weathering releases bases (e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+), so reducing soil acidity. Similar affects occur where sand (containing 24 % CaCO3, derived from shell fragments) is blown in (up to 120 m) by strong onshore winds (Kenworthy 1976).

Expect to see more calcium-loving plant species in these areas (a possible project for someone here?). Some plants (e.g., on Strathy Point) are calcium-loving, but can only grow where grazing (or wind-clipping) hold back strong competitors.

A lot of the ‘soil’ we will be looking at is peat, i.e., organic remains of plants accumulated under anaerobic conditions. The thickness of the peat layer is generally 0.02 m to >1 m, lying over bare rock or (more often) a skeletal mineral soil (Kenworthy 1976). In waterlogged areas (e.g., in enclosed depressions in the landscape), peat can be >10 m deep. Tree trunks (Betula, Pinus) occur in the peat, indicating that the area was once wooded, at least in patches.

Where heather has become dominant due to burning or grazing, podsols may have developed. In such cases, sesquioxides of Fe and Al have been leached from the A horizon and deposited in lower (20-30 cm depth) soil horizons as red or black stains. You might see evidence of this where roadside excavations have been made on the A836.

Climate Kenworthy (1976) is obviously much in awe of the weather in Sutherland, and describes, with relish, the winters as being ‘long, dark, dreary and boisterous’. The weather in the area certainly commands a lot of respect (and, in the context of this course, some amazement that there is much of anything living here at all). 8

The basic statistics (Kenworthy 1976) emphasise seasonal and even daily variation in rainfall, temperature, and daylight. Rainfall (mean 1500 mm a-1) falls on >200 days per year. Mean annual temperature is 6.2°C (!), though winters are relatively mild for this latitude (62°N), and snow is short-lived in the coastal area. Winds can be very strong during autumn and winter, and on the coast, cold N and NE winds even blow during spring and early summer, sometimes bringing sea fog inland. Daylight (often quite diffuse) varies between 6 h (January) and 20 h (June), and mean daily sunshine varies between 1 h (winter) and 3 h (summer).

From a plant’s point of view, the dominant climatic factors are moisture (the coastal zone is classified as ‘fairly warm moist lowland’) and exposure (with mean wind speeds ranging from 4.4 m s-1 (‘moderately exposed’) to 8.9 m s-1 (‘extremely exposed’). In very exposed sites (such as Strathy Point, which we visit on Day 3), ‘wind-clipping’ has a similar effect on plants as grazing, which may be occurring simultaneously. (An interesting project might be to isolate the relative effects of wind and grazing). Ecologists have an understandable respect for the effects of wind on plant communities and on themselves, as the following table illustrates (after Jones & Reynolds (1996) in Ecological Census Techniques p. 283, ed Sutherland WJ. Cambridge University Press.)

The Beaufort Scale for Ecologists

Wind velocity Beaufort m s-1 Name of wind Observable features Field ecologist’s impression number (km h-1) 0 <0.5 Calm Smoke rises vertically You’re having a good time (<2) 1 0.5 – 1 Light air Smoke drifts downwind You’re still having a good time (2 - 4) 2 1 – 3 Light breeze Wind felt on face; leaves It’s a bit tricky to photograph insects on (4 - 11) rustle plants 3 3 – 6 Gentle breeze Leaves and twigs in constant At least there are no midges to contend (11 - 22) motion; wind extends light with flag 4 6 – 8 Moderate Raises dust and loose paper; It’s hard to keep your notes from flapping (22 - 29) breeze small branches are moved 5 8 – 11 Fresh breeze Small trees in leaf begin to You prefer to work in sheltered places (29 - 40) sway; crested wavelets form in inland waters 6 11 – 14 Strong breeze Large branches move; wires Your tripod is blowing over (40 - 50) hum; umbrellas used with difficulty 7 14 – 17 Moderate gale Whole trees in motion; You’re doing this for the good of science (50 - 61) inconvenience felt in walking against wind 8 17 – 21 Fresh gale Twigs break off trees; You’re not being paid enough (61 - 75) progress generally impeded 9 21 – 24 Strong gale Slight structural damage You’re thinking about where you’ve (75 - 86) occurs parked your vehicle 10 24 – 28 Whole gale Trees uprooted; considerable You’re wondering how you’ll get home (86 - 100) structural damage 11 28 – 34 Storm Widespread destruction You’re wondering what shape your home (100 - 122) is in

12 > 34 Hurricane Sea completely white Time to find a new study site (> 122)

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Only 10 % of Sutherland is classed as ‘sheltered’ or ‘moderately exposed’, but these areas are botanically important because they often correspond with the distributions of (extant or extinct) natural woodland. These areas often include valleys, including the River Naver that runs close to Strathnaver birch woodland, which we will visit on Day 3. The presence of trees tells us a lot about local climate. For example, Betula pendula tends to grow only in ‘moderate’ climatic conditions. However, non-native tree species may be better adapted than native species to grow at sites with more marginal climates. Just before reaching Bettyhill on the A836, you will see the most northerly plantation in Britain (comprising Picea abies and Pinus contorta, possibly), in an area that did not previously support extensive tracts of native tree species. This region (‘the far north’) is beyond the natural limit of continuous woodland in Britain (Rackham 1986), so the protected areas make interesting exceptions.

Human impacts Sparse pockets of humanity have lived (‘thrived’ would perhaps be overstating it) in the coastal margins (about 8 km wide) for millennia. The communities are dominated by subsistence farming, or crofting. ‘A croft is a piece of land surrounded by regulations’ (quote provided by Anita Hogan), and if you talk to local crofters you might get a sense of how precarious their existence is.

The main human activities that have affected (and still affect) the landscape are grazing and burning. There was quite an extensive fire on Invernaver in 1999 and along Strathnaver in 2008. The dramatic effects of grazing are apparent when you have grazed areas with adjacent inaccessible patches, e.g., rocky ledges in the gully at Invernaver (another possible project?).

Peat cutting is still practised around Bettyhill; the brownish, fibrous peat comes from areas dominated by Calluna and Erica, whereas the dark, amorphous peat is from Sphagnum-dominated sites.

The flora A major effect of extreme climatic conditions in Sutherland is the compression of altitudinal effects on the life-forms of dominant vegetation. In other words, the progression of (lowland) trees through heather- dominated to -dominated heaths (upland) occurs over a much shorter range of height differences. For example, species found above 600 m in central Scotland occur at sea-level in coastal areas of Sutherland (Kenworthy 1976). This is why you will encounter ‘montane’ species (e.g., Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga oppositifolia, and Empetrum hermaphroditum) at about only 100 m elevation on Invernaver. However, as Kenworthy (1976) points out, the treeline is at 300 m on Ben Loyal (16 km inland), because the coastal influence declines rapidly.

Forest, scrub Birch (Betula) is now one of the most extensive types of woodland in Sutherland. However, the birch may have replaced oak (Quercus) ; both have a similar ground flora associated with them, probably because birch and oak have similar crown characteristics and hence allow similar amounts of light through to the ground. Ground flora in birch woodland is dominated by in north Sutherland, and characterised by Vaccinium myrtillus, Pteridium aquilinum and Deschampsia flexuosa. Native pinewood is absent from Sutherland.

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Dwarf shrub heath 60-70 % of Sutherland consists of dwarf shrub heath, dominated by Calluna vulgaris. Much of this heathland originated from, and is maintained by, burning and livestock grazing. At low altitudes, associated species are Erica cinerea, Empetrum nigrum, and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. A variation on dwarf shrub heath that you will see on Invernaver is Dryas heath, which typically contains a particularly rich species composition (e.g., 215 plant species; McVean & Ratcliffe 1962). One major source of the additional species richness is the presence of alkaline soils, resulting from deposits of calcareous shells (see above). The actual composition of Dryas communities on Invernaver is quite variable, with several different possible co- dominants (e.g., Empetrum nigrum, or Salix repens) (Kenworthy 1976).

Blanket bogs This vegetation type occurs where drainage is impeded (plateaux, hollows); where standing water is not free-flowing, the vegetation is almost entirely dependent on nutrient inputs from rain. Calluna vulgaris also occurs in these communities, and is accompanied by either Erica tetralix (wetter areas) or Erica cinerea (drier areas). These communities are often dominated by Sphagnum, and you will also see insectivorous plants (e.g., Drosera anglica, Pinguicula vulgaris – always good for a project or two).

Grassland This is not an extensive vegetation type in Sutherland. Where it occurs, the precise composition is strongly influenced by soil pH and nutrient status (Kenworthy 1976). At low altitudes Agrostis-Festuca grassland occurs, ranging from species-rich grassland (more alkaline), which includes Anthoxanthum odoratum as well as many herbs, to species-poor grassland (more acidic; pH 4.2-5.5), which includes Nardus stricta. In wetter conditions, Deschampsia caespitosa takes over from Agrostis and Festuca as the dominant grasses (a possible project perhaps?).

Herb meadows This is a rare vegetation type in Sutherland because grazing and herbicide spraying is widespread. However, we will be walking through an example of a meadow near Strathy, on Day 3.

Maritime communities The field course area comprises a long coastline, which includes cliffs and dunes (we will visit examples of each). The dominant influence on plant communities is sea spray (i.e., Na+, Cl-), though (Kenworthy 1976) indicates that, in dunes, the affect of CaCO3 may be more important. Cliff communities are also influenced by N additions from seabird guano. All coastal vegetation communities are also exposed to wind and tide effects, but sand dunes are particularly influenced by to their instability.

Cliff communities in the area are characterised by Plantago maritima, Armeria maritima, Ligusticum scoticum, Primula scotica and Scilla verna. Sand dunes are stabilised to some extent by marram grass, which dominates communities in the early stage of succession. The presence of other species depends partly on the chemical composition of the underlying sand; greater species richness occurs in the presence of shell fragments. Characteristic species include Armeria maritima, Glaux maritima, and Plantago maritima.

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The fauna The fauna of the Highlands is generally typical of the northwest European part of the Palearctic ecozone, although several of the country's larger mammals were hunted to in historic times and human activity has also led to various species of wildlife being introduced. Scotland's diverse temperate environments support 62 species of wild mammals, including a population of wild , important numbers of grey and harbour seals and the most northerly colony of bottlenose dolphins in the world. Many populations of moorland birds, including the black and live here, and the country has internationally significant nesting grounds for such as the . The has become a national icon, and white-tailed eagles and ospreys have recently re-colonised the land. The Scottish is the only endemic species in the UK. Scotland's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world; it is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000. The are an important area of deep sea cold water coral reefs discovered in 1998. Inland, nearly 400 genetically distinct populations of live in Scottish rivers. Of the 42 species of fish found in the country's fresh waters, half have arrived by natural colonisation and half by human introduction. Only six amphibians and four land reptiles are native to Scotland, but many species of invertebrates live there that are otherwise rare in the (UK). An estimated 14,000 species of insect, including rare and protected by conservation action plans, inhabit Scotland. Conservation agencies in the UK are concerned that , especially its potential effects on mountain plateaus and marine life, threaten much of the .

References

Clapham AR, Tutin TG & Warburg EF (1962) Flora of the . CUP Crawford CL (2001) Bryophytes of Native Woods. The Natural Resource Consultancy. Crawford RMM (1989) Studies in Plant Survival. Blackwell Scientific. Crawley MJ (ed) (1997) Plant Ecology. Blackwell Science. Hubbard CE (1968) Grasses, 2nd edition. Pelican. Jermy, A, Chater A & David R (1982) Sedges of the British Isles. BSBI. Kenworthy JB (ed) (1976) John Anthony's Flora of Sutherland. Botanical Society of . McVean DN & Ratcliffe DA (1962) Plant Communities of the . HMSO, . Merryweather J & Hill M (1992) The Fern Guide. Field Studies Council. Rackham O (1986) The History of the Countryside. Dent. Rodwell JS (ed) (1991 - 2000). British Plant Communities. CUP. Rose F (1981) The Wild Flower Key. Warne. Rose F (1989) Colour Identification Guide to the Grasses, Sedges, Rushes and Ferns of the British Isles and North West . Viking/Penguin. Stace CA (1997) New Flora of the British Isles. 2nd edition. CUP.

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APPENDIX 1: Fieldcourse Risk Assessment

Course EK5003 Start Date 28/08/17 Finish 03/09/17 Date

Location of Fieldwork Bettyhill and surrounding area, Sutherland. including Grid Refs.: OS grid reference · NC706618

Identity of Fieldworker(s): Dr Lesley Lancaster (Course leader) Attach student list Dr Julien Martin (Course leader) separately if necessary Up to 20 Masters students.

Fieldwork description and Class exercises: Visits to a range of hill, heathland, coastal and techniques to be used: woodland sites to collect data on vegetation composition. Transport will be via public roads, vehicles being parked off- road. These exercises will include visits to: Invernaver nature reserve (OS Landranger map 10, grid reference NC680611); Strathy Point (NC828697); Strathnaver woods (NC712570). Techniques = quadrats, pond dipping, animal observtions. Group projects: Groups, each comprising at least two students, will spend three days making field measurements at a range of locations around Bettyhill. Unless within walking distance, students will drive/be driven to/from these sites. Techniques are mainly field surveys and behavioural observations. Laboratory activities: Plant identification, basic soil analysis (moisture content, pH), microscopy, computing.

Staff member responsible Lesley Lancaster 07462261900 (mobile) for safety and contact no. on site:

Names of others who carry out a formal supervisory Julien Martin role for part of the course:

Specific Hazards (Tick all Applicable, indicate N/A where not; enter details in sections below as appropriate) Dangerous Dangerous Biological

Equipment Chemicals Hazards Working in Use of Boats Transport Water (To and from Site) Working at Lone Working Electro Fishing Heights Tropical Other - Please Specify Other - Please Specify

Working

Details of safety briefing All students taking the field course will be instructed by Lesley given to students: Lancaster or Julien Martin on safety issues and expected standards of working practices at the start of the course and

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before each class exercise.

Safety procedures and precautions adopted: 1. General: HAZARDS a) Vehicles. Risks: road traffic accident; breakdown or other malfunction of the vehicle; fire; chemicals; violent assault; debilitating medical condition; driver incompetence; weather. CONTROL MEASURES a) the vehicle before use each day. Ensure the vehicle is safely parked off-road. Segregate any passengers from moving traffic.

2. Class exercises and group projects: HAZARDS a) Climate. Risks: hypothermia; dehydration; heat stress; exhaustion. b) Habitat. Risks: falling on uneven surfaces; cuts from thorny vegetation; injury caused by steep terrain or slippery rocks. c) Biological. (i) Environmentally transmitted diseases. Risks: tick bites and associated Lyme disease; leptospirosis (Weil's disease); tetanus. Potentially debilitating, or even fatal consequences if untreated. (ii) Insects. Risks: midge and other insect bites; and wasp stings. d) Light: sunburn. CONTROL MEASURES a) Ensure students told to wear the correct clothing, including waterproofs. Withdraw to a warm vehicle as necessary. Ensure drinks are taken in vehicles. Obtain daily weather forecast. b) Ensure students told to wear suitable footwear. Take care when walking through gorse stands; take care when scrambling up grassy or stony terrain; take care when negotiating rocks. c) (i) Students to be advised on the risk and symptoms of Lyme disease and leptospirosis, and of the need to report flu-like symptoms and be aware that Lyme disease may be asymptomatic. If in rough pasture, wear long trousers tucked into socks or boots to reduce the risk of tick attachment. Check body for attached ticks each day. Clean hands thoroughly, and dress cuts. Keep tetanus vaccinations up to date. (ii) Carry insect repellent.

d) Use a high factor UV sun block.

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3. Laboratory activities: HAZARDS a) Infection. Risks: cuts; wounds from sharps. b) Fire. Risks: burns; asphyxiation; toxic fumes; death from fires started by: electrical faults; smoking; hot appliances; solvents. c) Heat. Risks: scalds, burns and shock from hot surfaces/equipment/liquids. d) Office and electrical equipment. Risks: electrocution caused by: faulty appliances; damage to appliances; incorrect usage of appliances; spillage of water on appliances. Eye and skeleto-muscular disorders caused by desktop PC use. f) Chemicals. Risks: use of acids, alkalis, stains and preservatives. CONTROL MEASURES a) Dispose of sharp implements in approved containers. Food and drink consumption to be separated from sample handling, and hands to be washed thoroughly before eating or drinking. b) No smoking is allowed in any building. Disconnect appliances after use. Do not use naked flames in any office, or close to flammable substances. Do not allow rubbish and paper to build up in work areas. c) Do not leave hot equipment running unattended or unnecessarily. Do not carry hot water, or hot equipment around unnecessarily. d) Withdraw faulty electrical equipment from service immediately, and report fault. Take adequate breaks when using computer equipment, and use appropriate furniture, lighting and posture. Water and drinks should not be taken into rooms with computer equipment. Do not use equipment near water unless it is designed for such locations. Computer equipment to be installed well away from areas where water is being used. e) All chemicals to be used in line with written procedures. f) fire evacuation plan made clear at the start of the trip.

Safety equipment provided: Rubber gloves

Procedures for reporting in each day: Visual inspection that all students are present at the start and end of each activity.

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Planned action in case of accident/emergency: Ensure safety of rescuers. Ensure safety of casualties and e.g. other persons. Contact emergency services, or General Minor/Major/Emergency Practitioner as appropriate. Provide first aid as necessary. Document incident and injuries using accident report form, and report damage to vehicles and third party property. Lesley Lancaster or Julien Martin to be informed at the time of the accident. Ensure appropriate follow up medical advice sought (e.g. in the case of possible infections).

Local Health & Emergency Services Doctor's surgery (Armadale) 01641 541212 Fire, Police, Ambulance & Coastguard: 999

Lone Working – (Give Details including bubby N/A names/contact numbers)

Working on Trees Cliffs or Isolated Sites Some work on cliff tops is planned in one of the class (Give Details including minimum exercises and may form part of one or more group training standard) projects. Students will be warned to avoid cliff edges, especially in stormy weather. No tree work is planned.

Working in Water (Give Details including minimum N/A training standard)

Use of Boats – (Give full details)

N/A

Dangerous Equipment (Give Details including minimum Ovens will be used in the field centre to dry soil. Students training standard) will be warned to take care in the use of the ovens.

Dangerous Chemicals (Give Details including Acids and bases will be used to calibrate pH metres. handling/storage/disposal) Students will be instructed to adopt good laboratory practice when using these chemicals.

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Biological Hazards (Give Details including source/ Biological hazards are those associated with handling/storage/disposal) environmentally transmitted diseases. Students will be advised on the risk and symptoms of Lyme disease and leptospirosis, of the need to report flu-like symptoms and be aware that Lyme disease may be asymptomatic, to wear long trousers tucked into socks or boots to reduce the risk of tick attachment when in rough pasture, to check body for attached ticks each day, to clean hands thoroughly, and dress cuts, to keep tetanus vaccinations up to date, and to carry insect repellent.

Tropical Working NA (Give Details)

DECLARATION

I/We confirm I/we have read the School Procedures for Fieldwork and have conducted this risk assessment on the fieldwork for this course.

I/We will follow the school risk assessment protocol for field work.

Lead Signature ______Date ______

Others with supervisory role Signature ______Date ______

Signature ______Date ______

Signature ______Date ______

Completed form must be retained by the Course Leader and a copy lodged with the School Safety Advisor (Coordinator) ([email protected])

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APPENDIX 2: Plant identification

‘The number of people who can identify plants continues to decline year by year. Do not be put off learning plant . It’s fun. Enjoy it.’ Crawley (1997).

Crawley makes two important points about plant identification: it’s a precious skill, and you can have a good time learning it. We shouldn’t just depend on the abilities of the experts (who have bothered to learn this skill) to help us put a name on a plant, without at least trying to develop our own plant identification skills. It’s clear that this skill comes to some of us rather slowly (mainly because we don’t practice enough), but any progress that we make in learning plant identification is something to be proud of.

But before we go any further, let’s remember that plant identification is a means to an end (unless you’re a phyto-trainspotter). Naming a plant simply gives it a ‘handle’, so that we know what we’re dealing with, can communicate meaningfully with others about the plant, and we can find out more from reference sources.

Plant identification problems

Identifying plants during this course will be challenging because of:

Stunted plants Plants are often ‘stunted’ by the constant onslaught of herbivores and ferocious winds. So you need to get down on hands and knees to take a good look at the plants. In any case, we will be looking at plants (e.g., mosses, liverworts) which have a prostrate growth-form.

Lack of flowers Many of the plants we will be looking at will not be flowering, either because of the time of year, or because they’re non-flowering species.

Remembering names There will be deluge of new names to try to remember (the species list does not include all of the 600+ species you could potentially encounter in the Bettyhill area).

Environmental stress It’s hard to peruse leisurely the flimsy pages of Clapham, Tutin and Warburg (1962) or Stace (1997) on the top of Invernaver when there’s a gale blowing hail and sand in your face, the rest of your group has moved on to the next site 20 minutes ago, and a sheep has just run off with your sandwiches. But fortunately there are more solutions than problems…

Plant identification solutions

Stunted plants The good news is that many of the more important ‘diagnostic’ features of plants remain, even in their stunted or ground-hugging form. Be prepared to get down with the plants, use a hand lens if necessary, and gently probe round at the base of plants to see their distinguishing basal features.

Lack of flowers We will be emphasising vegetative structures when pointing out key identification features. The Wild Flower Key (Rose 1981) has an excellent key 18 specifically for plants not in flower. Likewise Hubbard’s (1968) and Rose's (1989) books, and the key to Bettyhill’s common grasses in this manual, include descriptions of vegetative structures of grasses; Rose (1989); Jermy et al. (1982) has the equivalent descriptions for sedges. For the non-flowering plants, field guides and keys to ferns and bryophytes will also be available (Merryweather & Hill 1993; Crawford 2001).

Remembering names You will be surprised to find how quickly some names of some of the commoner plants come back to you. You can use either scientific names or common names to remember/record plants, or you can use your own system; whatever works for you is the best method.

Some of the scientific names are such fun they are unforgettable (like Anthoxanthum odoratum, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, and Blechnum spicant), so you just have to remember which plants they belong to. Many common names are even more memorable (eyebright, lady's bedstraw, yellow rattle), but unfortunately some of the more outrageous ones do not occur in the Bettyhill area (e.g., naked ladies, arse smart, priest's pintle).

Make notes on the species list (or anywhere else) to help you remember features (however trivial) that seem most helpful for you. Include information on touch and smell, as well as visual features.

Environmental stress Don't feel obliged to complete all identifications in the field. Only if the species is not rare (i.e., there are many plants around), take a discreet sample (only one per group) for identification back at the lab (don't forget to include the basal parts of stems). You can use the plastic bags provided (with a paper label thrown in), or you can make a labelled paper envelope.

Provisionally label your plant (e.g., 'sp. A', 'sp. B', etc, or 'the little thing with light greyish leaves') while you are awaiting positive identification. As with everything else in plant identification, do what works for you.

Plant species list

This list contains some (but not necessarily all) of the plant species that you are likely to encounter around Bettyhill.

Forbs Family Species 1 Asteraceae Achillea millefolium Yarrow 2 Labiatae Ajuga pyramidalis Pyramidal bugle 3 Rosaceae Alchemilla vulgaris Lady’s mantle 4 Ranunculaceae Anemone nemorosa Wood anemone 5 Compositae Antennaria dioica Mountain everlasting 6 Cruciferae Arabis hirsuta Hairy rock-cress 7 Plumbaginaceae Armeria maritima Thrift, sea pink 8 Compositae Bellis perennis Daisy 9 Ranunculaceae Caltha palustris Marsh marigold 10 Campanulaceae Campanula rotundifolia Harebell 11 Cruciferae Cardamine pratensis Lady’s smock/cuckoo flower 12 Compositae Centaurea scabiosa Greater knapweed 13 Caryophyllaceae Cerastium fontanum Mouse-ear 14 Compositae Cirsium arvense Creeping thistle 15 Compositae Cirsium palustre Marsh thistle 19

16 Compositae Cirsium vulgare Spear thistle 17 Brassicaceae Cochlearia officinalis Scurvy grass 18 Orchidaceae Coeloglossum viride Frog orchid 19 Umbelliferae Conopodium majus Pignut 20 Orchidaceae Dactylorrhiza sp. Orchid 21 Scrophulariaceae Digitalis purpurea Foxglove 22 Brassicaceae Draba incana Whitlow grass 23 Droseraceae Drosera rotundifolia Round-leaved sundew 24 Rosaceae Dryas octopetala Mountain avens 25 Onagraceae Epilobium montanum Broad-leaved willow herb 26 Orchidaceae Epipactis atrorubens Helleborine 27 Scrophulariaceae Erinus alpinus Fairy foxglove 28 Scrophulariaceae Euphrasia officianalis agg. Eyebright 29 Rosaceae Filipendula ulmaria Meadowsweet 30 Rosaceae Fragaria vesca Wild strawberry 31 Rubiaceae Galium aparine Cleavers 32 Rubiaceae Galium saxatile Heath bedstraw 33 Rubiaceae Galium verum Lady’s bedstraw 34 Gentianaceae Gentiana campestris Field gentian 35 Gentianaceae Gentianella amarella Autumn gentian 36 Geraniaceae Geranium sylvaticum Wood cranesbill 37 Compositae Hieracium sp. Hawkweed 38 Hypericaceae Hypericum perforatum Perforate St. John’s wort 39 Hypericaceae Hypericum pulchrum Slender St. John’s wort 40 Fabaceae Lathyrus montanus Bitter vetch 41 Umbelliferae Ligusticum scoticum Scots lovage 42 Frankeniaceae Linum catharticum Fairy flax 43 Orchidaceae Listera ovata Common twayblade 44 Leguminoseae Lotus corniculatus Bird’s foot trefoil 45 Menyanthaceae Menyanthes trifoliata Bogbean 46 Fabaceae Ononis repens Rest-harrow 47 Rutaceae Oxalis acetosella Wood sorrel 48 Fabaceae Oxytropis halleri Purple oxytropis 49 Polygonaceae Polygonum viviparum Alpine bistort 50 Apiaceae Pimpinella saxifraga Burnet-saxifrage 51 Lentibulariaceae Pinguicula vulgaris Common butterwort 52 Plantaginaceae Plantago coronopus Buck’s horn plantain 53 Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata Ribwort plantain 54 Plantaginaceae Plantago maritima Sea plantain 55 Polygalaceae Polygala serpyllifolia Heath milkwort 56 Polygalaceae Polygala vulgaris Common milkwort 57 Rosaceae Potentilla anserina Silverweed 58 Rosaceae Potentilla erecta Tormentil 59 Rosaceae Potentilla palustris Marsh cinquefoil 60 Primula scotica Scottish primrose 61 Primulaceae Primula veris Cowslip 62 Primulaceae Primula vulgaris Primrose 63 Labiatae Prunella vulgaris Selfheal 64 Ranunculaceae Ranunculus acris Meadow buttercup 65 Ranunculaceae Ranunculus bulbosus Bulbous buttercup 66 Ranunculaceae Ranunculus ficaria Lesser celandine 67 Ranunculaceae Ranunculus repens Creeping buttercup 68 Scrophulariaceae Rhinanthus minor Yellow rattle 20

69 Polygonaceae Rumex obtusifolius Broad-leaved dock 70 Caryophyllaceae Sagina maritima Sea pearlwort 71 Caryophyllaceae Sagina saginoides Alpine pearlwort 72 Saxifragaceae Saxifraga aizoides Yellow saxifrage 73 Saxifragaceae Saxifraga oppositifolia Purple saxifrage 74 Liliaceae Scilla verna Spring squill 75 Crassulaceae Sedum rosea Roseroot 76 Asteraceae Senecio jacobaea Ragwort 77 Caryophyllaceae Silene maritima Sea campion 78 Caryophyllaceae Stellaria graminea Lesser stitchwort 79 Asteraceae Taraxacum officinale Dandelion 80 Labiatae Thymus praecox (=drucei) Wild thyme 81 Asteraceae Tragopogon minor ’s beard 82 Primulaceae Trientalis europeae Chickweed wintergreen 83 Leguminoseae Trifolium repens White clover 84 Compositae Tripleurospermum Mayweed maritimum 85 Asteraceae Tussilago farfara Coltsfoot 86 Scrophulariaceae Veronica chamedrys Germander speedwell 87 Scrophulariaceae Veronica officinalis Heath speedwell 88 Leguminoseae Vicia sylvatica Wood vetch 89 Violaceae Viola canina Heath dog-violet 90 Violaceae Viola riviniana Common dog-violet

Grasses Family Species 1 Poaceae Agrostis canina Velvet bent 2 Poaceae Agrostis capillaris (=tenuis) Common bent 3 Poaceae Agrostis stolonifera Creeping bent 4 Poaceae Aira praecox Early hair-grass 5 Poaceae Ammophila arenaria Marram grass 6 Poaceae Anthoxanthum odoratum Sweet vernal grass 7 Poaceae Dactylis glomerata Cocksfoot 8 Poaceae Deschampsia flexuosa Wavy hair grass 9 Poaceae Festuca ovina Sheep’s fescue 10 Poaceae Festuca rubra Red fescue 11 Poaceae Holcus lanatus Yorkshire fog 12 Poaceae Holcus mollis Creeping soft grass 13 Poaceae Koeleria macrantha Crested hair-grass 14 Poaceae Lolium sp. Rye-grass 15 Poaceae Molinia caerulea Purple moor-grass 16 Poaceae Nardus stricta Mat grass 17 Poaceae Phragmites communis Common reed 18 Poaceae Poa sp. Meadow-grass

Sedges and rushes Family Species 1 Cyperaceae Carex binervis Green-ribbed sedge 2 Cyperaceae Carex chordorrhiza String sedge 3 Cyperaceae Carex flacca (panicea?) Glaucous sedge 4 Cyperaceae Carex maritima Curved sedge 5 Cyperaceae Carex nigra Black sedge 6 Cyperaceae Carex pulicaris sedge 21

7 Cyperaceae Carex sylvatica Wood sedge 8 Cyperaceae Eriophorum angustifolium Cotton-grass 9 Cyperaceae Eriophorum vaginatum Hares-tail cotton grass 10 Juncaceae Juncus bufonius Rush 11 Juncaceae Juncus effusus Soft rush 12 Juncaceae Luzula campestris Field wood-rush 13 Juncaceae Luzula pilosa Hairy wood-rush 14 Cyperaceae Schoenus nigricans Black bog-rush 15 Trichostomoideae Trichophorum caespitosum Deergrass

Mosses Family Species 1 Bartramiaceae Breutelia chrysocoma 2 Amblystegiaceae Calliergon cuspidatum 3 Climaciaceae Climacium dendroides 4 Hypnaceae Ctenidium moluscum 5 Dicranaceae Dicranum scoparium Fork-moss 6 Funariaceae Funaria hygrometrica 7 Brachytheciaceae Homalothecium sericeum 8 Hylocomiodeae Hylocomium splendens Step-moss 9 Hypnaceae Hypnum cupressiforme Cypress-moss(es) 10 Bryaceae Leptobryum pyriforme 11 Mniaceae Mnium marginatum 12 Mniaceae Mnium tomsonii 13 Plagiotheciaceae Plagiothecium undulatum Wavy flat-moss 14 Hypnaceae Pleurozium schreberi Red-stem 15 Hypnaceae Polytrichum formosum Wood hair-moss 16 Hypnaceae Polytrichum juniperinum 17 Brachytheciaceae Pseudoscleropodium purum Neat-moss 18 Grimmiaceae Racomitrium lanuginosum Woolly hair-moss 19 Hypnaceae Rhytidiadelphus loreus Stiff-moss 20 Hypnaceae Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus Lawn-moss 21 Hypnaceae Rhytidiadelphus triquetrus Shaggy-moss 22 Sphagnaceae Sphagnum spp. Bog-moss(es) 23 Thuidiaceae Thuidium tamariscinum Tamarisk-moss 24 Pottiaceae Tortula tortuosa

Clubmosses Family Species 1 Selaginellaceae Selaginella selaginoides Lesser clubmoss

Dwarf shrubs Family Species 1 Ericaceae Arctous alpinus Alpine bearberry 2 Ericaceae Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Bearberry 3 Ericaceae Calluna vulgaris Heather, ling 4 Empetraceae Empetrum nigrum Crowberry 5 Ericaceae Erica cinerea Bell heather 6 Ericaceae Erica tetralix Cross-leaved heath 7 Ericaceae Vaccinium myrtillus Blaeberry 8 Rosaceae Rubus idaeus Raspberry

Shrubs and trees 22

Family Species 1 Betulaceae Alnus glutinonsa Alder 2 Betulaceae Betula pendula Silver birch 3 Betulaceae Betula pubescens Downy birch 4 Betulaceae Corylus avellana Hazel 5 Cupressaceae Juniperus communis Juniper 6 Umbelliferae Myrica gale Bog myrtle 7 Salicaceae Salix caprea Goat willow 8 Salicaceae Salix cinerea Grey willow 9 Salicaceae Salix repens Creeping willow 10 Rosaceae Sorbus aucuparia Rowan

Ferns Family Species 1 Aspleniaceae Asplenium adiantum-nigrum Black spleenwort 2 Aspleniaceae Asplenium marinum Sea spleenwort 3 Aspleniaceae Asplenium ruta-muraria Wall rue 4 Aspleniaceae Asplenium trichomanes Maidenhair spleenwort 5 Blechnaceae Blechnum spicant Hard fern 6 Ophioglossaceae Botrychium lunaria Moonwort 7 Pteropsida Cystopteris fragilis Brittle bladder-fern 8 Pteropsida Dryopteris filix-mas Buckler fern 9 Dennstaedtiaceae Pteridium aquilinum Bracken

Liverworts Family Species 1 Frullaniaceae Frullania tamarisci Tamarisk Scalewort 2 Marchantiatae Lophocolea bidentata Bifid Crestwort

Lichens Family Species 1 Cladoniaceae Cladonia sp. Cup- 2 Peltigerales Peltigera canina Dog-lichen

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