174 PROCEEDINGS of the SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937. II. W. J. Mccallien, D.Sc

174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

II.

LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLANDY B . W . J McCALLIEN. , D.Sc., F.R.S.E., GLASGOW UNIVERSITY.

I. INTRODUCTION. It is unnecessary for the writer to emphasise the interdependence of the two sciences, Geology and Prehistory. It is well known that e geologisth s dependeni t e archaeologisth n e interpretatioo tth r fo t n e fossilsoth f e theb , y human remain r implementso s ,r founou n i d superficial deposits d thaan ,t geological method e constantlar s y used archaeologiste th y b . Nevertheless face spitn th i ,t f ethao t everybody realises that this interdependence theoretically exists, it is remarkable how seldom marke y theran s ei d co-operation betwee e workernth n i s these two fields. This is perhaps particularly so in Scotland. remaine r earlTh ou yf so ancestor s come withi sphere nth geologf eo y e fossie studth th f ls o y a remaine samy th ewa n f i ancien o s t plants animald an e everyda s parth i s f o t ye geologist tasth f ko . Geologs yi concerned with the history of the earth, of its fauna and flora. The geologist doe t thin no sf stoppin o k s researcheghi y timan e t a befors e e presenth s jus i ts activ a daye t H e. watchin e actiogth f mano n , or of the sea, or of the rivers of to-day, as he is in unravelling the history of a thousand million years ago when our oldest rocks were being formed. The geologist arranges the events of the past history of the earth in a chronological sequence beginning with the oldest and finishing with the youngest. The largest of the units into which geological time is divided are called eras, and these in turn are divided into periods, periode th d san into epochs. n thiI s pape shale w e concernerb l d wit e historth h f Scotlano y d during the Quaternary Period, the youngest of the subdivisions of the e shortestrecordth d an , . Becaus e opinioth f o f o es n ha whic n hma his own importance the Quaternary is often spoken of as the Age of Man, thereby comparind givinan a t gmori er r lesn ge rano a sth f ko it in magnitude with the great eras of geological time. We know, however, that, geologically speaking, the Quaternary was very short and actuallthan tma y precedin e liveth n di g Pliocene epoch. The Quaternary Perio s furthei d r subdivided inte Recenoth d an t LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND5 17 .

Pleistocene epochs. The latter is the epoch of the Great Ice Age. In its turn it is again subdivided into a great many stages of human culture, mostly by the joint work of the archa3ologist and the geologist. Here we shall consider Pleistocen d Palaeolithian e s synonymousa c e Th . geologis rula s ea t think termPleistocene n si th f archaeologise so th d ean t in terms of the Palaeolithic. The geologist often uses both terms, Palaeolithic usually referring to the older Quaternary history of the ungla'ciated parts of our country, whereas the same time in glaciated regions is thought of as the Pleistocene. Pre-Palseolithic tim s undoubtedli e e provinc th ye geologist th f o e , and in the study of more recent times the archaeologist may succeed without geological advice. Nevertheless, so much archaeological research has been carried out in post-Palaeolithic studies, both in Scotland and in Ireland, with results which are entirely at variance with geological observations, tha t seemti s necessar archaeologise th r ygeologisfo e th d tan t to work together when studying deposits up to, and perhaps including, the Neolithic. From wha s jusha tt been written, therefore t i wil, e cleab l r that, in the writer's opinion at least, the archaeologist who tries to interpret the Palaeolithic history of Scotland without the collaboration of the geologist will be making a much less profitable contribution to scientific knowledge tha s deserveni e amounth y f worb d o d thought an k t pu t int researchs ohi . To take a case in point, it has been written in a discussion of the question of the Assynt Caves that, "It will no doubt be asked when the last ice period terminated in this country. The question is purely a e takegeologicalb y n ma thae fina t i th te one,lt ic meltin bu e th f o g occurred many thousand f yearo s s ago." (Th ey own. m italic )e ar s same th en I note, however theore t forwarth , pu s yi d tha cavee th t s were occupied by Palaeolithic man, without any geological evidence whatever in its favour. We hav intentioo en f referrinno e greath o tgt numbe f referenceo r s which have been made in non-scientific publications to the occurrence of Palaeolithi Scotlandn i n t musi ct ma pointee b tbu , t tha dNatureou n ti (19th September 1936) Mann claime o havt d e foun a numbe" d f o r rolled stone implement f typeo s s simila e palaeolithio thost th r f o e c cultures of England and France" in "the glacial clays and derived gravels f Shetlando " f thesI . e deposit o contaid s n implements they should certainl studiee yb groua y f dgeologistb po archaeologistsd an s . So far no glacial deposit in this country has yielded human implements and it is highly improbable that the Shetland finds are artifacts. 176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

The glacial history of Ireland is rather similar to that of Scotland, and in recent years a great deal has been written about Palaeolithic man in that country, particularly in Sligo and Waterford. It was in 1927 that Burchell announced the discovery of supposed Palaeolithic implement followine th n i Sligon si d g an ,year s about forty papers on the subject appeared in various scientific journals. A careful stud yProfessory 1b s Macaliste Charleswortd an r sitee th sl whical f ho h were supposed to have yielded implements suggested that what was localite cava on se n ei d yconsidere ol (Gone n a e b y Islando dt realitn i s )i y a very recent product of the marine erosion which is still so actively in progress on that coast. Actually, the cliff-face has been cut away since the middle of the nineteenth century, for, as Macalister and Charles- worth have shown, the concrete foundation of a building now overhangs cliffe th . othee th f recene ro sitee Th alss ag tsi o undoubted supposee th d an , d implements were demonstrated to have been formed by marine erosion within the last hundred years. Recent studie n south-easi s t Irelane cavth en i dwhic h yieldee dth remain e Kilgreanth f s o havn yma e shown tha humae th t n remaine sar in all probability of comparatively recent date, although the cave did contain a Pleistocene fauna. presene th n I t pape shale w r l consider whay geologise sa th to t s ha t about Scotland and neighbouring countries during the Pleistocene or Paleolithic epoch. The Palaeolithic history of northern Britain is closely linked with the events of southern Britain at a time when this country was connected with the Continent across the present Straits of Dover southerd an n portio Norte th f nho Sea.

. PRE-PAL^EOLITHIII C SCOTLAND. The histore timth ef o yimmediatel y precedin e Palaeolithith g n i c Scotland is rather difficult to interpret. The evidence which has survive e passag e dth grea th f teo ice-sheets consiste mosth r t fo spar f o t the drowned valleys or fiords of western Scotland, the buried channels of pre-existing river n certaii s n e Midlanpartth f o s d e Valleyth d an , coast-line of the sea in pre-glacial times. We cannot speak with any degre precisiof eo agee th thesf so f no e features conclude W . e that they came intalsd ooan beine tha fiorde Ag buried th t g e an sbeforIc de th e river channel earliee sar r tha pre-glaciae nth l beaches. An examinatio e conditioth e countrf th o n f o nt thia y s times i 1 Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxxix. (1929-31). LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND7 17 .

extremely closa important s eha bearin t possibilite i th s a ,n go pref yo - glacial life survivin Agee Ic .e gth buriee Th d valleys mentioned above diffe locha r se frotha n si e mth t the e filleyar d with sand d gravelsan s . These sand d gravelan s e ar s archseologicall e firsth tf o yimportance e shal t w pursu no t l e bu ,th e subject furthe t thia r s t stag wili e discusse s b la e d late anothen i r r connection . e concernear Her e w e d wit e facth h t that they indicate that at some time shortly before the Ice Age sea-level stood about 300 feet lower than it does now. Then followe a periodd , also pre-glacia agen i l a stoo, se whe de nth spm fee0 17 et higher tha t ni doe s e existencnowTh .s i f thia o e se s provee presencth y d b f well-marke o e d raised-beach platform somn i s e r westeroou f n islands—suc s Mulla h , Colonsay d Oransay—anan , n i d parts of the mainland. Pre-glacial platforms occur at other heights: 135 feet (Colonsay); 100-160 feet (Mull) fee0 14 t ; (Ardnamurchan)0 10 ; feet (Islay) fee5 7 ;t (Stonehaven) fee0 6 ;t (Outer Hebrides) 5 fee2 ;t (lona). e existencTh f theseo e beaches roun r westerdou n island alond an s g different parts of our mainland indicates that immediately before the arrival of the great ice-sheets of the Pleistocene, Scotland was very much as it is to-day. It obviously did not form part of a high continent, mans a Agee y Ic accound hav.e an th er y saitr fo t o dt raised-beace Th h platforms whic have hw e just been considering must not be confused with the post-glacial beaches which also fringe our coast. That they came into existence before the Ice Age is shown face byth t that their surface striatee ar s moulded passage dan th y db e face th t y thab d icee to th thean f , sometimee yar s covere bouldey db r clay. III. THE PLEISTOCENE. Strange as it may seem, considering the recent age of the deposits dealingw witno h e whic,ar generao there n w hs i e l agreemeno t s a t wher e linth ee shoul e drawb d n betwee e Pleistocennth e preth - d an e ceding Pliocene. It may seem even stranger that it is found to be equally difficul boundare poino t th t o t t y betwee Pleistocene nth d ean post-glacia recenr o l t times. Indeed y linan e, betwee e Pleistocenth n d recenan e t time must necessaril arbitrarye yb r actuathero n fo , s ei l e continuitbreath n ki y e geologicaoth f l histor f Scotlandyo e evidencTh . e whic s availablhi e appear poin o st mora o r lest teo s regular passage fro e Pleistocenmth e to the present. Glacial conditions lingered on in Scotland subsequent 2 1 VOL. LXXI. 178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

to their final disappearance in England. It is obvious, therefore, that to apply the term "post-glacial" to deposits overlying the glacial beds in England is misleading unless the deposits can be shown to be contemporaneous with post-glacial deposits in Scotland. Many of the deposit f "post-glacialo s Englann i e ag "e olde dar r thaScottisy nan h post-glacial deposits, and will actually be contemporaneous with some of our glacial beds. tere Th m post-glacial s usei thin i d se tim th wor er kfo subsequen t to the District Glaciation of Scotland, to be described later. Among e depositth s •which, accordin o thit g s definition e post-glaciaar , e ar l (1) moraines belongin lato gt e stageglaciatioe th n hige si th hf n o ground ; (2) raised beaches freshwate) (3 ; r alluvium peat) (4 .d an ;

ARRIVESE AG E IC . E TH . IV A Pliocene e faunstudth th f f o ayo e indicates tha e climatth t s ewa becoming increasingly colder. Wit beginnine hth Pleistocene th f go e both fauna and flora became definitely Glaciae Arcticth d lan , Period of intense cold arrived. During this Ice Age most of the British Isles was under ice. It is fortunate, however, tha t e southerreacth no t hd di n p margie greaca th e f ic tno as far south as the English Channel. As a result we now find in the sout f Englanho e remain e ice-fredth e faun th th f f o ao se regionn I . e record e nortth th e f glaciatiohar o s e for th f glaciam o n ni l deposits and glacial moulding and markings. It is for us to try and correlate the deposits of these two entirely different regions. This is the great problem of the Pleistocene. e standarTh f comparisoo d r Pleistocenfo n e deposit e recorth s i sd e Thameoth f s Valley, whic entirels hwa y ice-free. Ther e completeth e recorPleistocene th f do preserves ei gravele rivee th th n di f r so terraces and in the steps between the terraces. Many fossils and implements foun n cave i dd fissure an s n othei s r e countrpartth f o s y have been correlated with their equivalent Thamee th n si s Valley. Without going into details of the Thames succession, which is at present undergoing active revisio r Lacaillerecaly M ma y lnb e thaw , t ther e herar e e three main terraces f thes O e oldes.th e t (Boyn Hill Terrace) contains derived Chellean (Abbevillian), earlier Clactonian, earlier Acheulian d Clactonianan , , Acheulian d Earlan , y Levalloisian artifacts in the older and newer parts. The fossil mammals of the terrace include the warm climate animals: Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros megarhinus, Bos, hippopotamus, lion, deer, horse, dog, etc. The Middle LATE-GLACIAL AND EARLY POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND. 179

or Taplow Terrace contains Levalloisian implements. Such newcomers . primigeniusaE s (mammoth) . tichorinusR , (woolly rhinoceros)d an , n appearanca n i t e must pu Terracthia e w th x so kLo stagee e Th . (youngest) contain abundann a s t Arctic faun florad n additioan I a . n e newcomerth o t s mentione e Middlth n i de Terrac e reindeeth e d an r occurw no .k el Froy safel e abovmma th y e w econclud r starting-poinou s a e r fo t further correlations that the glaciation of northern parts of Britain was heralded in the south by the arrival of the cold-living species of mammal in Late Middle Terrace and Low Terrace times. Further, in the gravels of the Low Terrace at Bonder's End there occurs an Arctic peat bed, containing Arctic mosses, Arctic birch Arctid an , c willows, which is dated ver e yPalaeolithic th lat n i e . Recently, however, Kind an g Oakley have suggested tha e Ponder'th t stagd En ss somewha ei t older and that it was connected with a Mousterian glaciation.

V. THE MAXIMUM GLACIATION. The advent of the Pleistocene glaciation from the gradually cooling conditions of the preceding Pliocene was naturally first felt in the Highland f Scotlando s . Glaciers develope e mountainth n di s nortf ho Midlane th l dside al Valle n s o crepd unti t yan ou tl they coalesced inn ,a immense ice-sheet coverin e wholgth f Scotlano e d extendinan d t gou into the sea. probabls wa t t I lonyno g afte firse th rt accumulatio e f snono th wn i Highlands sen s glacierit t s belo e snow-linwth e that other powerful centres of dispersal were initiated, in the Southern Uplands for example, Englise anth Welsn d i han h mountains. r purposou t eno s heri consideo t t eI e movementh r f thio t s vast ice-sheet in detail. Suffice it to say that the ice from all the centres flowed as far south as a line joining the Thames and the Severn. This limi shows i t fign , wherni 1 . t i separatee e closelth s y dotted southern par f Englano t d fro e openlmth y dotted portion. Afte lona r g halt a t this positio meltee ic e dnth northward with amelioratio climatef no . The Older Drift.—There is now general agreement among geologists that the drifts which cover the southern part of the English glaciated region, in the Midlands, and in East Anglia, are older than the drifts of northern England mosf o , Irelandf o tScotlandf o d an , . The covere arew e surfacth ano t thiy da b e s Oldes i r Driftt i s a , called, is that between the lines of the two ice-margins in fig. 1. For our present purpose it will suffice to say that there are several glaciations 180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937. represented by the deposit which is given the general name of Older Drift. We shall refer soon to these different glaciations. Wit e northwarth h d retreae ice-marginth f o t s froe southermth n limit of the Older Drift, Palaeolithic man and his mammalian com- panions also moved north. How far they went in this direction and

Fig. 1. Sketch-map showing the limits of the Older Drift (heavy ornament) and Newer Drift (lighter ornament) Glaciations heavile Th . y dotted are n Englani a d e Oldesoutth f rho Drifs wa t unglaciated and the sparsely dotted areas are covered by Older Drift. (After Charlesworth.) how far the ice retreated is a question of the greatest importance to Scottish geologists and archaeologists. The Newer Drift.—The next recore glaciath n di l histor f Britaiyo n is of a readvance of the great ice-sheet southward until its margin coincided with the limit shown by the thinner line in fig. 1. The material deposite thiy db s readvance form e Newerth s t occupiei Driftd an e th s region to the north of the Older Drift. The "Standard" Succession in South-East England.—With this brief outline of the glacial history up to this point before us we may now glance at the course of events which occurred in south-east England. This is necessary for the proper understanding of what we may expect arrivo late t tru a e Scotlann t i rear a e correlatiow f di r glacia ou f no l LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND1 18 .

stages and the different human cultures. It is from the study of south- east England that we shall learn the age of the Scottish glacial invasions. followine Th g tabular summary indicate e aged sequencth s an s f o e glacial and interglacial deposits of the Suffolk and Norfolk region of south-east England:—1 12. Newer Drift .... Upper Paleolithic. 11. Hillwashes. . Morsto10 n Raised Beach. 9. Brick-earths. 8. Upper Chalky Drift . . Levalloisian. 7. Brick-earth. 6. Gravels with mammoth. 5. Brick-earth and river gravels. 4. Chalky-Jurassi Earl? . y Middlc . Drifet Acheuliad nan Clactonian 11. 3. Glacial sands and gravels. 2. Norwich Brick-earth Chellean? (Nort a hSe . Drift). 1. Cromer Forest-bed . . Early Chellean (Abbevillian). There is good reason to believe that in the above table there are four glacial episodes. Startin gp thes witto e younges eth he th t a t are: . Newe12 r Drift (Hunstanton Brown Drift). 8. Upper Chalky Drift. 4. Chalky-Jurassic Drift. 2. Norwich Brick-earth. Since Scotland was entirely covered by the ice-sheet responsible for the formation of the Newer Drift (Magdalenian) it will be sufficient o considet fos u r s determori n i r e eag - detais it e questio th w l ho f no mined. This has a very important bearing on the problem of the age of certain archaeological finds. The Early Magdalenian Age of the Newer Drift is proved by several line f argumentso whan I . t follow shale w sfollowine b l g closele th n yi trail blaze Professoy db r Charleswort Belfast.f ho 2 Gwye Ca ne caveth (1n I )s Aurignacian implements occur beneath e Neweth r Drift. These caves e Valoccu th f Clwy o en i r n Norti d h . BoswellH . ProfG . ,P . Proc. Prehistoric Society, July-December Seriesw Ne , , vol . par.ii 2 t

1936)1 , p. 149. See also the same author in Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xlii. part 2 (1931), p. 87, and Pres. Add., Sectio Britis, nC h Assoc., York meeting. For example, in Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixxxv. (1929) p. 335. 2 2 PROCEEDING18 E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , 1937Y8 . Wales fee0 t40 , above sea-level then i md an ,bone Pleistocenf so e animals were found "with a flint of Middle Aurignacian Age. The cave-deposits overlaie Newee ar th y nb r Drift, which must, therefore youngee b , r than Middle Aurignacian. feew fe t e (2FfynnoawaA )th n yi n Beuno caves (380 feet a fin) e proto-Solutrean a Middlpoin d an te Aurignacian graver were found with Pleistocene bones. These in turn were overlain by Newer Drift. (3) The Creswell caves occur in the Lower Permian Limestone in north-east Derbyshir e areth a n e i covereOldee th y r b dDrif d an t some distance south of the Newer Drift. Two of the caves yielded Upper Palaeolithic implements, and Pleistocene animals were found in another (Mother Grundy's Parlour). Mousterian implements of quartzite d Uppean r Palaeolithic flints wit a hnumbe f Solutreao r n and proto- Solutrean inplements were also found n MotheI . r Grundy's Parlour ther Aziliae ear Azilio-Tardenoisiar no n Magdaleniatoolsa d an , n javelin head occurs in the Pin Hole Cave side by side with Late Palaeolithic flints. Here, therefore, in caves outside the Newer Drift we find a sequence found nowhere withi Newee nth r Drift region sequenc,a e from Aurignacian Azilio-Tardenoisiano t . sequence (4 Th e Thame) th n ei s Valle whico yt have hw e previously referred culminate e colth d n i sfaun d flora'oan a f Early Magdalenian Age at Ponder's End. The cold period seems undoubtedly to be the equivalent of the Newer Drift glaciation. (5) Implements regarde s Mousteriaa d e . finderJ Reith r y dM b n, Moir, have been recovered from the ChaUcy Boulder Clay of East Anglia. This discovery necessarily implies a Late Palaeolithic Age for the Newer Drift, since the latter is younger than the Chalky Boulder Clay. (6) Further, the same investigator has more recently discovered implements claime s Uppea d r Palaeolithi e Neweth n i cre th Drif f o t Hunstanton cliffs. (7) The same condition of affairs holds on the Continent, for no Magdalenian relics have been found north of the moraines (Warthe and Brandenburg) which bound the Newer Drift in Germany. We have now given evidence to show that several ice-sheets spread from Scotland into England. The glacial history of north-east Scotland indicates that this paroverrus wa t threy nb e ice-sheets considerind an , g the great changes both in the direction of the ice-flow and in the positions e ice-shedoth f s during these different phase t seemi s s very likely that extensive deglaciation took place betwee e differenth n t advancef o s the ice. Unfortunately up to the present we have not been able to LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND3 18 .

correlate these interglacial periods with e souththos th t intern bu i e, - glacial beds have bee nplante foundth d s an ,containe then di m indicate a period of mild climate.

AURIGNACIAE TH . VI N OSCILLATION. bees ha n t I shown above tha ice-sheee th t t responsibl formae th r e-fo tion of the Newer Drift was of Early Magdalenian Age. There can be little doubt that whe e ice-margith n Englann ni d reache e linf th do e e morainth e e completelshowic e n figi nth .1 y covere e wholth d f o e Scotland and extended a considerable distance into the present coastal seas. Pleistocene animal f earlieo s r date tha e Neweth n r Drift occur within this line in the caves opened earlier or embedded in the drift itself. Ther s evidencei e , therefore, thae Magdaleniath t n ice-sheet was preceden interglaciaa y b d l period. Accordin o t Professog r Charleswort he Aurignacia th thi s i s n oscillatio f Continentano l writers. In the region now covered by the Newer Drift, Beid Moir has discovered a land-surface yielding artifacts of Middle Aurignacian facies, comprising burins, scrapers, points, and cores. It was during this period that the Morston raised beac formeds hwa . The question for us to consider next is how far north the ice-margin retreated during this oscillation n NortI . h Wales Aurignacian ma n occupiee Gwy Ffynnod Ca an ne th d n Beuno caves d quartzitan , - eim plement f Chelleao s n typ claimee ear havo dt e been found beneate hth Newer Drif Durhamn i t . e Victorith n I a Cave fee0 14 t, above sea-leve r frofa m t no Settlel , Yorkshire, in the area of the Newer Drift, there are three principal horizons: 3. Upper cave-earth wit hmixea d fauna. 2. Thick stiff grey clay, sometimes laminated. 1. Lower cave-earth containing a rather warm fauna including . antiquus,E . leptorhinus,R Hippopotamus, primigenius.s Bo d an Horizo containn3 layerso stw : 36. Bomano-British. 3a. Neolithic. Of these, 3a containe implementf o dharpooa t ki d nan f Azilia so n type, but Breuil also recognised cylindrical rods of reindeer antler which he assigned to the Magdalenian (between Middle and Upper Magdalenian). They were probably derived from the lower cave-earth, and according 184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

to Miss Garrod "they probably represent the most northerly range Magdaleniae oth f n hunters." The remains of the Scottish representatives of Paleolithic animals are very scanty but of great importance. They consist, as is well known, of the mammoth (E. primigenius), the woolly rhinoceros (R. tichorinus), and the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Some would add the primitive deed re thio t e evidencr e e sth th e horseoxth t list th r d ,bu ,efo an , occurrence of these is far from convincing. The first Palaeolithic fossil bed is that at Kilmaurs, near Kilmarnock, containing the remains of mammoth and reindeer. Professor Gregory and Dr Currie were of opinion that the Kilmaurs bed was of Mousterian date and contemporary with the Chalky Boulder Clay of England. A Scottish interglacial bed cannot very well be contemporary with an English glacial period. The same authors continue their correlations thus: "To the Mousterian Age may also be ascribed the sands forming the 170-foot terrace along the Kelvin Valley at Hungryside sand pit near Caddee wes th f Kirkintilloch o to t r , which yieldedf o ,d frobe ma f sando e bon. 5woolla 0ft th , f eo y rhinoceros." This questioe th f no age of these sands is of vital importance and will be discussed later. The great mistake made by Professor Gregory and Dr Currie is that they considered the age of the sands to be given by the fossil rhinoceros, "whereas the latter must have been picked up from an older horizon. As has been stated by Professor Ritchie, the woolly rhinoceros probably belonged to the mammoth-reindeer fauna. Ritchie considers that this indicates a period corresponding to the Low Terrace of the Thames Valley d thereforan , e post-Mousterian. "The know- in n gredient firse th tf o sScottis h glacial fauna, then, compel us, sayse "h , "to place it in the Wurm ice period of the Continental workers, and e subsequenth t appearanc majoa f o e r glaciation further suggests that it belonged to the opening of that period, and was succeeded by a glacial advance which marks the height of the Wurm development. In archa3ological chronolog e firsth y t Scottish glacia e sailb faundy ma a to belong to Upper Palaeolithic times, at the close of the Mousterian culture period, and to precede the glacial advance, the retreat of "which is associate Centran di l Europe with Aurignacian culture." From wha s beeha tn sai t wil di realisee b l d that durin intern ga - glacial period the ice-front retreated from the southern limit of the Older Drift at least up to the Midland Valley of Scotland. Had Palaeolithi n followema c e mammalth d s northward during this oscillation his remains "would now be found in positions similar to those in whic e remainhth f theso s e animals were found e mos, th i.e. r t fo par t LATE-GLACIAL AND EARLY POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND. 185

under boulder clay or in caves which had been opened during this period. So far neither his bones nor his implements have been found in Scotland, and it is possible that he did not follow the retreating ice-margin. According to Professor Boswell the following is a summary of the conditions at the border regions of glaciated and unglaciated Britain. Earl passen yma d throug apprenticeshis hhi implemenn a s pa t maker e periodth n f i increasino s g cold precedin e firsth g t glacial episode. Durin e firsgth t interglacial Chellean (Abbevillian advancen ma ) d into such parts of the British area as were available to him, and although few unabraded Chellean (Abbevillian) artifact e foundar s , derived an d abraded implements occur in later deposits. Over the greater part of England the second glacial episode was that of the maximum glacia- tiond Chelleaan , n (Abbevillian d perhapan ) s Early Acheulian man, both users mainl f core-toolsyo , retreated befor . it eWit h amelioration of climat e seconth e d interglacial period followed e remainTh . f o s e mosar earltn satisfactorma y y during this period. Acheulian ma n (both Middl d Upperan e ) hunte e straight-tusketh d d elephante th , hippopotamus, and the leptorhine rhinoceros. With the arrival of colder conditions again, man producing flake implements principally appeared. The northern part of England was now under ice. After e formatioth e Crometh f o n r e morainChalkth d yan e Boulder Clay the ice retreated on a large scale, as we have already pointed out, and Aurignacia abls penetrato wa et ice-fre w n no nma e e eth countr r fa s ya north as Derbyshire and North Wales, where he was accompanied by Arctic and Tundra animals. Although there were later readvances of the ice, eastern and southern England were open for continuous colonisation frofourt e time th m th f eo h glaciation onward.

VII. LATER STAGES IN THE ICE AGE. The ice, after its advance to the line of the Newer Drift (Early Magdalenian) shown in fig. 1, retreated northward again as it had done previously. It can be imagined that a considerable interval of time must have elapsed after the Early Magdalenian ice-sheet had begun melo t beford an t e Scotlan fres edwa fro s mantlmit whitef eo f thaI . t beed e finaha nth l withdrawa froe r countryic m ou e th f ,o l post-glacial human and faunal remains in Scotland would of necessity be post-Early Magdalenian and most likely post-Pala3olithic. However, Scotland has still the records of a long glacial history after retreae above th th f eo t ice-sheet, even afte retreae ice-sheee th rth f o t t Englisnorte th f ho h border. Firstly Magdaleniae th , n ice-sheet retreated 6 PROCEEDING18 E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , 1937Y8 .

e Midlanr nortth fa s s ha a s dfollowe Vallewa d y anotheb dan y - re r advance into England. On this occasion it may only have reached Lake th s ea Districtr asfa t durinbu , wholtime e Firte gth th eth f eo h o fe wester Clydth d ean n seaboar f Scotlando d were covere moviny db g confluen tr the fa glaciers yw actuallHo . y stretched inte coastath o l waters we do not know, but the Firth of Clyde glacier was sufficiently powerful at this stage to reach across the waters of the North Channel and of the Atlantic between Scotland and Ireland, and push them

The dai+ed. lino, shows host fions of 1hs ice f

Fig. 2. Sketch-map showing the extensions of the Scottish ice across the North Channel during the readvance about 12,400 years ago. Later readvances during the retreat are also shown. (After Charlesworth.)

westwar d southwaran d e dcam ic unti e th ashorl n Donegai e d an l Antrim. The retreat phenomena from this stage onward have been studied in detail by.many geologists, notably by Professor Charlesworth, whose work we have already mentioned. Here we need only say that the readvance of the ice, which we have just been considering, brought the margin forward to Lough Foyle and Belfast and to the Isle of Man and Cumberland. Again the ice retreated, and at a later date it once more overran the North Channe lAntri e righth o t m coast thit A s. stage ther evidencs ei e tha whole Midlane th tth f eo d Valle occupies ywa conflueny db t Highland glaciers e SoutherTh . n Uplands forme a locad l ice-sheet d theian , r glaciers flowed north and south along the main valleys (fig. 3). LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND7 18 .

From its limit against the Southern Uplands, and in the Firth of Clyde between Kintyre and Ireland, this relatively late ice-sheet melted e Midlanth f o t d ou Valle coastad yan l seas. Finall e Highlanyth e dic split up into two great glaciers occupying the valleys of the Clyde and Forth. Without goin durins gpoiny t thaintdetaiwa y ma ou t togan i e t w l e retreath f theso t e glaciers tha e glaciath t l lake deposit Clyde th f eo s and Midland Valley were formed. The lake sands and gravels in the

Pig. 3. The Great Kame belt across the southern side of the Midland Valley.

Kelvin Valley which have become famous becaus f theio e r containing e remain th e woollth f o sy rhinoceros were deposited whe e Kelvith n n drainag preventes ewa d from flowing westward depositse Th . , therefore, producte th lase e th tar f e glaciaphaso s th f eo l histor Midlane th f yo d Valley. VIII. LATE-GLACIAL HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. The above discussion of what may appear as purely geological phenomena has been necessary in order to form a connected picture of the events leading up to the freeing of our country from the great ice-sheetscomw e writer'whao no t th e e n i tW s. opinio e mosth s tni vital chapte e Late-Glaciath n i r l histor perioe f Scotlandyo th s i d t I . when Scotland "was once more openeo continuout p u d s colonisation. Durin e earliegth r e periopartth f o ds glaciers were still abundann i t 188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

many district thed an sy actually pushed theirighy wa rt e dowth o nt sea-level of the time. The geological recorde eventth e preservef o ar s e raisedth n i d- beach terrace d notchean s s which abound arounn i r coast ou d d an , the moraines and boulder clays which were deposited from the local glaciers e historr countrTh ou .f yo y during this tim s undoubtedli e y one of great importance.-. It leads on without a break to the time when

e mainlanth f o p f Scotlando PigMa . 4 . d eas f Skyeo t , showin e outegth r e morainelimith f o t f o s Districe th t Glaciatio relatioe th d nnan between these moraine e 100-footh d san t raised beaches. (After Wright.) Scotland became inhabite a scattere y b d d population d froan m, that time onward the record of the human occupation, though interrupted by gaps, is more or less well known and does not offer nearly the same chance for the grave error possible among older cultures. shale w l lFirs al discus f o t highee sth r raised beaches which occut a r height f fee0 abou o 5 s0 feet t feet5 d 10 7 abovt, an , e sea-levele Th . submergence responsibl r thess confinefo e wa ea zon o t ed roune th d Highlands e 100-fooTh . t beach, whic a conspicuou s i h s featurn o e many parts of our coast, is unknown in England and Ireland. In some cases the 100-foot beach is found on the outer parts of the western fiords of Scotland, but is absent from the inner reaches (fig. 4). LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND9 18 .

f theso e ea discussio ag beachen I e s necessarth i f t no i s refeo yt r to the Late-Glacial history of some parts of western Scotland. Un- doubtedly the most interesting district to which to direct attention is the island of Mull, where the researches of Professor E. B. Bailey and Dr W. B. Wright have brought to light many points of primary importance. SOUND OF MULL In Mull during Late-Glacial times almost every important glen bordered by ground about 1250 s occupiefee wa a glaciert y b d . e easterTh n par f Mulo t s chari l - acterise e absencth y b df Lateo e - Glacial beaches in the hollow con- necting Lochs Don, Spelve, Uisg, d Buiean . The e completelar y y absent from Glen Forsa and the valley of Loch Ba, although both of these hollow beloe sli feet 0 w10 . d e cas an th f Loc o ea n I B h Glen Forsa the glacial outwash Snout ofg/crc/er fans discharged from the glaciers were formed e afterwithdrawath l '•".*•'•' &*;•:' Nlora i' n

prevented the sea from covering this ground, and for about a mile the notc75-fooe th f h o outee t th beac n morainee ri bees facth t hha f ncu eo . The beach is completely absent within the line of the moraine. That the ice did not keep out these high-level seas all the time, however, is indicated by the fact that shelly muds were first laid down in Loch Spelve and the glacier readvanced across them, and, picking them up, incorporated them among its own deposits. obviouss i t I , therefore, fro above mth e remarks tha Late-Glaciae th t l chronology is particularly clear. The 100-foot and 75-foot raised beaches are synchronous with the Moraine or District Glaciation of the Highlands. Exactly the same story is told by the glacial history of many of our mainland glens. For example, the 100-foot sea had access to Loch Lomond and the Gareloch during an interstadial period, and during the readvance of the Loch Lomond glacier to the position of the Glen Frui e Garelocnth morainf o hd an e glacieBh th uo t rmorain e th e deposits whiclaid dha locht dowhe i th sn i "were dredge mingled an p du d •with readvancine thosth f eo g glacier stude outwase th Th f y.o h gravels between Dumbarto d Ballocan n h suggestd actuallha a sse y thae th t left Loch Lomond befor readvance eth icee th .f eo In the east of Scotland, at an earlier period than we have just been considering, sea-level had fallen to about 75 feet at Dunbar and to about 5 0t Abb S fee t a st Hea Late-Glacian di l times. The -arctic sea of these high-level beaches in Scotland may be correlated wit cole hBaltie th d th Yoldif o c a regionaSe .

IX. CORRELATIONS. Having now reviewed the events of the Pleistocene, and having considered certain broader aspecte locath f a l o s glaciation n i e ar e w , position to go a little farther afield and attempt correlations with the events in Europe. This is all the more necessary because it is that aspect of the subject whic s appealehha d mos non-geologistso t t s beeha n t i don d ean , with results which would appear to be at variance with the facts. It is undoubtedl e cas th ye archa3ologis e th thar fo t particulan i t r this ha s always had a peculiar fascination. The question of the method which has been used for determining the length of time in years during and since the Ice Age has recently been discusse writee th y Sciencen dri b Progress, referree b need t an dno d to further here. A tabular summary, however, of the results arrived at is given (Table I). LATE-GLACIA D EARLAN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND1 19 .

TABLE I.—THE LATE-GLACIA EAHLD AN L T POST-GLACIAL E STAGETH N I S BALTIC REGION. THE NUMBERS GIVE THE YEAR BEFORE A.D. 1900. (Base Daly.n do )

Post- Linbrina Glacial Sea 7500 -

h 8700 Ancylus La ke - 9700 - Finidlacicil Void i a S ea - 10,200 Scanlan Baltic e k a IcL e- - 13,700 Danish Covered Qy ice German Peak o-f last 25,OOO Glaciation.

The multiplicity of the glaciations in Britain has been emphasised in the previous pages. As far as Scotland has been treated, five stages e glaciath n i l history have been mentioned. These were n ordei , f o r age, beginning with the oldest: the Older Drift glaciation, itself composite e Neweth ; r Drift glaciation e North-Easth ; t Antrim-Isle of Man-Cumberland readvance; the Lammermuir-Stranraer-Antrim coast readvance Districe th d Morainr an o t; e glaciation. e Baltith n cI regio f Europno e ther s evidencei whan ei s usualli t y considere e fourtth s dha glaciatio t leasa f no t three phases—the Dani- glacial e Gotiglacialth , d Finiglaciaan , l phases. Recentl s beeha n t i y suggested that ther e threar e e substages older thae Finiglaciath n l (Bothnian). These have been calle e Germandth , Danish Scaniad an , n 192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

substages, beginning wit e oldest e th hmultiplicit Th . e earlieth f o yr stageContinentae th f so l glaciatio alss ni o firmly established. It was in the year 1854 that A. Morlot recognised the first interglacial bed, and the same author put forward the view that there had

Pig. Sketch-map6 . showin e retreagth t e lasstageth t f ice-sheeo s Scandinavin i t lande th d s aan aroun e Baltic numbere dth Th . s whe e giv e yeae iceAg neth th e r- Ic befor e e closth th ef o e edge stood at the position of the number. (After Sauramo.)

been three glacial periods separate interglacialso tw y a lonb d r g Fo . time his view had only a few supporters. Later, James Geikie came to be recognised as pre-eminently the defender of interglacial periods. believee H existence th fewen do i n f ero tha glaciax nsi l periods separated froanothee mon truy b r e interglacial periods foune H . d more support views fohi r s abroad tha t homena . It has long been known, chiefly through the work of Penck and Bruckner, themselves disciples of Geikie, that there have been four great phases of extension of the Alpine glaciers. These have been given LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND3 19 . the following names, beginning with the oldest: (1) GKinz Glacial Period; (2) Mindel Glacial; (3) Hiss Glacial; and (4) Wiirm Glacial. These were separated from one another by interglacial periods of different durations differend an t climates. Following the Wiirm phase there were deposited a number of moraines of stadial r substageo , , rank, marking oscillation e retreae th th n f si o t glaciers. These moraines have been termed Neo-Wiirmian. The more important stage thin si s consideretreaty whicf o ma l e belonhal o w ,t r g

Fig. 7. Baltic Ice Lake about 8800 B.C. (After Sauramo.) Arrows are overflow channels at different stages. to Post-Glacial time, have been called: (1) Achen recession; (2) Buhl Stadium Gschnit) (3 ; z substage Dau) (4 nd substagean ; . amoune Th t writte e subjec e correlatioth th n f no o t f Britisno d han Continental glaciations is large, and it is bewildering in the differences which exist between the different authors. No useful purpose would be serve reviewiny db e differength t theories. Instead e writeth , r will adopt the one which he thinks is the nearest to the truth. Without going into detail, a glance at the maps and the following table will make clea e broath r d stage whicn i s e Britisth h Cond han - tinental glaciations were synchronous:— District Glaciation ..... Post-glacial. Lammermuir-Stranraer phase . . . Finiglacial. North-East Antrim-Cumberland phase . Gotiglacial. Newer Drift ..... Daniglacial. Older Drift (composite) .... Older glaciations. 3 1 VOL. LXXI. 194 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , 1937Y8 .

Bearing these correlations in mind we shall now refer in somewhat greater detail to certain phases of Baltic history. Before the existence of the Yoldia Sea (above correlated with Late- Glacial sea in Scotland) the Baltic area was occupied by an ice-dammed

Pig . Sketch-ma8 . p showin extene e Yoldigth th abouf a o t aSe t 7900 B.C. (After Sauramo.) lake called the Baltic Ice Lake. During the retreat of the ice from a moraineDenmarR e Salpausselkad th an so k t , southern Sweded nan Danise th h Sounds stood higher than the to-dayo yd o n therd s an , ewa connection between the Baltic and the North Sea. During the early phase thif so s ice-lak watere eth s discharged throug Danise hth h Sounds, but later they escaped through the Planta Valley south of Mount Billigen. The final discharge of the Baltic Ice Lake took place about 100 years after the second Salpausselka stage in Finland, the level of the water in the Baltic became the same as that of the ocean outside, and the Yoldia Sea stage began. The Yoldia Sea stage, which lasted less than LATE-GLACIAL AND EARLY POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND. 195

e lan 50uplify th centra0b n di f d yearso t d broughs en an l n wa ,a o t t southern Sweden, and a new phase, the Ancylus Lake, of long duration was ushered in. The Ancylus Lake came to an end about 5000 B.C., and, therefore, overlapped Post-Glacial time by about 1000 years. The new sea which then occupied the Baltic is called the Littorina Sea, and the climate of this period was more genial than that of to-day.

Kg. 9. The Littorina Sea at its maximum, about 4000 B.C. The broken T-line across the Gulf of Bothnia represents the approximate position of the ice-front during the preceding period of the Ancylus Lake about 7400 B.C. (After Sauramo.) O. Montelius, the famous Swedish archaeologist, placed the maximum e Littorinoth f a transgressio t aboua n t 4500 B.C. Finnish geologists more ar e t aboui incline t pu t 400o dt 0 B.C. The Littorina Sea gradually changed to the present Baltic, the pro- portion of its salinity diminishing as the contraction of the Sounds increased with upheava lande th f .o l

. POST-GLACIAX L SCOTLAND. Although the main object of the present paper is to give an idea of the glacial history of our country it would obviously be incomplete if it did not show how this .history was connected with that which followed. 196 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , 1937Y8 .

t wilI recallee b l d tha conditione th t countrr ou f so y immediately before the Ice Age were also briefly summarisedi We havarrivew vera eno t dya important e evolutiostagth n ei f no Scotland—the perio f timo d e when firsnma t r arriveshoresou n do ; and from this time onward the story is one of continuous human occupation. We have already Agee see Ic whan i n,e thath t f o t towardd en e sth we have spoke s Late-Glaciaa f no l times e sea-leveth , Scotlann i l s dwa higher s nowtha i have t ni W .e also pointe t thaou d t a ther s wa e considerable emergence of the land (a fall of sea-level) before the ice finally disappeared. In the present section it is proposed to discuss another beach, much more important tha e otherth n s froe archaeologicamth l point of view, which is generally called the 25-foot beach, although this is rather a misnomer. It is proposed to designate this beach the Mesolithic Beach. The Mesolithic Beach, it must be emphasised, is not a product of e submergencth lane th df eo responsibl e formatioth r e higheefo th f no r beaches. The two periods of submergence have been separated from one anothe importann a y b r t emergence during which there flourished the submerged forests and peat beds seen in many places around our coast. It is generally thought, too, that this period of uplift of the land, when the sea stood some 100 feet lower than it is to-day, must have been of considerable duration. The Mesolithic Beach, therefore mors i , e recent tha e submergenth d forests e latteTh .r occur beneat e deposite th hbeach th e f Th o s. submerged forests in their turn are more recent than the higher beaches. From the archa3ological point of view the Mesolithic raised beach e mosith s t importan t r withibeaco , it thin hi n so countrys i t i r fo ; its materials, that the earliest human implements in Scotland have so far been obtained; It is the general opinion of geologists that the Mesolithic Beach represent lonsa g perio timef do , probably much longer than that occupied by the sea at its present level. It is well known that glacial stride are beautifully preserved on the coastal rocks in many parts of Scotland. There they have been exposed to wave-action since the elevation of the raised huma y beachb d nan , standards thilona s si g t timearounYe . d these sam edurina coastse e g th sMesolithi c time s believei s havo dt e roca t yard0 k cu platfor10 widthn si o t p m.u Wrigh s saiha dt that LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND7 19 ,

this sea, whic e call h e Earl th s y Neolithi ce cliff-maker th sea s ,wa par excellence. In the cliffs behind the beach occur the caves in which in many cases the earliest inhabitants of our country sheltered. The present t writeconvinceno s i r d tha e raised-beacth t h platform was cut by the sea which deposited the fossiliferous gravels. In another

D: st r i c t Bor ea 1 _

+ •75 / \ 1 + so / VA.

425/ V> ————& ---———————————————— v

¥^ 7 0. D \?5 tyf ^^^

V -25 \0

-50 \ 0^' V \ ^/ -•75 N

-IOO Pig. 10. Curve and time-relationships of the Scottish raised beaches (based on M. Macgregor and A. G. MacGregor).

sectio f thi s o nattempte sha papee h ) givo rdt e II (Table th ed an I s lengt timf ho yearn ei f thiAgei e s Ic sd sinc datin,e an eth approxis gi - mately correc t wouli t d see t bee mtherno e n s thaAg eha e t Ic sinc e eth enough time for the cutting away of so much solid rock as is indicated raisee inth d platform aroun r coastsdou . Thiquestiona s si , however, which ~we cannot discuss fully here thay . e writesa th Suffic t o t r t i e believes tha e rocth t k platfor r 25-fooou f mo t raised beache f Preo s i s- Interglaciae b y Glacialma t i lr o ,Age thad ,an t fro archaeologican ma l poin vief mers o i t wt i e coincidence tha Atlantice th t sea-level coincided wit earliee hth r sea-level. 198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

Although the Atlantic raised beach is very often spoken of as the 25-foot raised beach, its height above sea-level is by no means constant. s greatesIt t elevatio abous ni feet0 r slightl4 t o , y more thid an s, occurs ove a considerablr e area between Loch e FirtLinnhth f Clydhd o ean e (Campbeltown, Ardrossan). The height gradually decreases outwards from this central region unti e beacth l h reaches present sea-leven i l norte th Caithnessf no Lewio t Orkneye d th san n I .s ther as ei n absence of Post-Glacial raised beaches thef i d y an ,wer e ever forme islande th n di s they are now submerged beneath the sea. The varying height of the beach has in the past led to a certain amount of confusion, and the Atlantic beach has often been spoken of as the 50-foot beach. This mistak Professod ele r James thay Geikisa t o t e the Azilian deposits of western Scotland must be post-Neolithic in age, since Neolithic remains have been found in a beach which he called the 50-foot beach lattere Th . , however e Atlanticth e s th i , t no beac d han 50-foot beach mentioned earlier in this paper.

THE AGE OF THE 25-FooT BEACH.

With regard to the age of the 25-foot beach many different opinions have eves beeha n t i beeheld d nan , though tdifferens thaha t i t t ages in different e countrypartth f o s . Somd ol e s woula s thay i sa dt i t as the Magdalenian, because the Abbe Breuil, who studied the flint implements beace founth t Campbeltownn hda i , said that they resemble the Magdalenian culture. It is hoped that in a future paper Mr A. D. Lacaille will discuss the actual culture-age of the Campbeltown flints collecte presene th y thin db i neet e sy writer w connectiodsa l Al . t na present is (a) that it has already been demonstrated that during Magdalenian time greae sth t ice-sheets sprealimie r soutth fa s ts ha da e Neweoth f r Drift d (6)an , that Breuil never intende s statemendhi t of Magdalenian aspec interpretee b o t indication a s da Magdaleniaf no n Age. geologicalls i e Sucag n ha y impossible. n westerI n Scotland, where implements have beene founth n i d raised-beach materials f ,thre o the e eyar cultural types ) Azilian(1 : ; (2) Azilio-Tardenoisian; and (3) Neolithic. The flints found in the same beac n Antrii h m have been identifie s belongina d o variout g s periods of the Mesolithic, as well as to the Palaeolithic. It has been said tha t a Campbeltowt e beacth n s Palaeolithici h t Obaa ;d an n elsewhere in the neighbourhood, Azilian; and farther south and in Antrim, Campignian e lat, Th eetc Professo. r Gregor s eveha y n LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND9 19 .

suggested that in southern Scotland the 25-foot beach may be of Bronze Age.1 As far as the writer sees the evidence, the cultural aspect of the beach materials will giv indicatioo en r 25-fooou f o n t e whateveag e th f ro beach. It is one of those cases where the archaeologist is dependent on the geologist and botanist in order to date his implements. .Geological Evidence.—The connection betwee e 25-footh n t raised beach and the climatic optimum was established as long ago as 1892 by the famous Irish naturalist, R. LI. Praeger, from the study of the life of the time as it is recorded in the deposits on the Antrim coast. Praege abls shoo ewa rt w that certain characteristic species which lived mora d e 25-fooeiha nth northerl a se t y range than they have to-day, and his conclusion has since been amply confirmed. We must refer briefl Praeger'o yt s result t thisa s stage. Accordin Praegeo gt e typicath r l successio post-glaciae th f no l beds in Northern Ireland is as follows:— [Raised beach. 6. \ Upper estuarine clays (formed about 30-40 feet below S.L. [ and now about 19 feet below H.W.M.). 5. Lower estuarine clays (formed in shallow water). 4. Submerged pea fee7 (2 t below present H.W.M.). 3. Sands and gravels. 2. Re-assorted boulder clay. 1. Boulder clay (glacial). This section of the post-glacial deposits in the Belfast district differs from the section of the famous raised beach at Larne in that it now occurs below o sectionsea-leveltw e anothee relatee ar son Th .o t dr in the following way:— Larne.. .Belfast. Gravelly feesoi2 (2 lt above H.W.M.). Coarse gravel. Sandy layers ..... Upper estuarine clays. Coarse gravel. Black muddy gravel. Black sand (H.W.M.). Lowe . r estuarinLowe . r eestuarin . clay e clays. Black sand.

Coarse black gravel. Proc.1 Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. Ixiv. (1929-30) p. 263. 200 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , Y19378 . In 1931 the following set of beds was exposed in making Milewater Dock, Belfast:— Feet. Inches. Surfac e. clay sand .1 s. an d 6. Estuarine clays . . . . .12 Red sand ...... 3 Peat with trees . . . . . 3. Red sand ...... 7 Grey sand ...... 2 3 sand . Re d wit . h Iris h. deer Gravel resting on red sand (unbottomed) . 2 6

The section was described by Professor J. K. Charlesworth and Dr Erdtman. The resemblance to Praeger's section is striking, for in both the estuarine clays were 12 feet thick and rested on sand, which in turn rested on peat. The pollen investigation of the peat by Erdtman indicate f Boreao s s thai t li t Age. Erdtman alsof findo p s to tha e th t the peat underlying the raised beach at Portrush on the northern coast of Antri ms suggestivi f Earleo y Atlantic times tha o e maximus , th t m submergence of this part took place after the beginning of the Atlantic. - The Antrim examples have been specially mentioned because they e historicallar e mostyth interesting e samth t e resultbu , s have been obtained from the studies of peats below the raised beaches in many other part e f otheBritaio sth n e rNorto s welth n a sid s f a lo he Sea. The pollen analysi f peato s s beneat e carshth e e Fortclayth d f han o s Tay valleys indicate an Atlantic Age for the post-glacial submergence. The peat beneath the clays at Forgandenny (south of Perth) is of Boreal Age, whereas the peat overlying the same deposits dates from the Sub- borea Sub-atlanticd an l . We may, therefore, wit hfaia r degre f confidenceo e assume thae th t submergence of the country which resulted in the most conspicuous d mosan t archseologically r raised-beacinterestinou l al f o g h deposits is of Atlantic Age. We may now use this dating as our starting-point for the discussion of the ages of the implements found in Scotland within deposite th beache th f so . Archaeological Evidence.—We have no intention of referring to all the literature on the subject of the first settlers on our raised beach. Most of this is contained in the Proceedings of this Society, but reference made recenb a y o et ma t valuable summar evidence th f yo e from northern Antrim by W. B. Whelan in International Geol. Cong., Washington, 1933, p. 1209. LATE-GLACIAL AND EARLY POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND. 201

TABLE II.—EARLY POST-GLACIAL TIME IN THE BALTIC REGION.

T hou scmds Sub-boreal of ye a •sB.C

Littorina antii At c .0 4 Sea 0 Alder &Oak mixed -forest O (o'dk,elm,lime) 5 i Ho^el (0 Boreal

6 — ^ Birch &/or Ancylus Pine L ake

7 — ^

0 Pre-boreal Birch, Pine ,&• 8 Yold ia ^ Sea Willow

Sub- arctic q — to Hi<5h arctic Scan/arr n 191I 8 Francis Buckley commence s pioneehi d r investigationf o s e microlithith c implement e Marsdeth f o s n Moors, near Huddersfield, in northern England. He determined the exact horizons of the implements, and this enabled Woodhead to study the plant remains which occurred in association with the implements. The following is the section which they were abl drao et w up:— 5. Romano-British layer—pottery. 4. Bronze arrow-heads. 202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY, FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

3.. Cotton-grass peat, containing in the lower layers horn-cases of Bos primigenius. 2. Tree layer with leaf-shaped arrow-head—Neolithic. . Gre1 y sand restin n rocd o containing an k o layertw g s (floors) with human implements: (6) Late Belgian Tardenoisian flints (patinated) with birch charcoal, (a) Early Belgian Tardenoisian flints (unpatinated) with charcoalh as birc d han .

The peats of these human floors were found to contain pollen grains of birch, oak, and alder, and to have pollen grains of pine on the surface. Sinc e aboveth e early researche greaa s t deas beeha l ne donth n eo age of the peats resting on the implementiferous (Tardenoisian) sands of northern England, and we now know that the first settlers in Northumberlan d Durhaan d m wer e Tardenoisianth e d thaan st tjiey arrived during the warm dry conditions of the Boreal Period. In the Pennine Mesolithie sth c cultur Uppef o s ei r Borea northe th ln Ageo - t bu , east coast it may be Lower or Middle Atlantic. Descriptions of their settlements and implements, as well as of the associated peats, -will severae foune b th n di l writing Raistricfcf so well-knowe th n I . n section t a Peacock's Farm, Shippea Hill, Cambridgeshire, whic s beeha h n studied pollen-analyticall y Godwinb y e transitioth , n betweee th n Boreal and Atlantic Periods occurs immediately above the Tardenoisian levele TardenoisiaTh . n industr f thiyo sf lat o sit es e i date, probably English Late Tardenoisian (Belgian Middle Tardenoisian?). Thae th t English Late Tardenoisia s contemporaneounwa s wit e Continentahth l Middle Tardenoisia suggestes ni d bot typologicay hb l studie pollend san - analysis, for the latter is also of Late Boreal Age. A people possessin a gcultur e rather simila o that rf thes o t e pre- Atlantic Tardenoisians of northern England settled on the sand-dunes resting on the Atlantic raised beach in southern Scotland some thousand of years e afterBoreath l Period. Within this Scottish beachs i s a , well known, occur the implements which are supposed to be older tha e Tardenoisianth certainld nan y the e oldeyar r tha e Scottisnth h microlithic industries e essentiath t bu , l know poinno ws thai e t w t that the raised beach which we are discussing is of Atlantic date, and therefore the first people to arrive in Scotland must be consider- ably younger than the pre-Atlantic settlers (Tardenoisians) of northern England. LATE-GLACIA EARLD AN L Y POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND3 20 .

If ,terme thereforecontinuo th t e e s us ar Azilian e o et w ,Azilio-d an Tardenoisian e implementth r e 25-foofo th f o s t raised beach t i mus, t be clearly understood that they are used with a purely cultural meaning d giv indicatioo an n ee implements th f o ne e whateveag Th .e th f o r •writer suggests that these terms should alway e prefaceb s Scottishy b d —thus Scottish Azilian instead of Azilian. The question then is, What is the age of the Scottish Azilian or Scottish Azilio-Tardenoisian ? As a corollary to this is the question of the age of the Scottish Tarde- noisian. Clearl e formeth ye mucar r h younger thae Englisth n h Tardenoisian. Thestily Mesolithie b lyma d t belonginen bu c e th o gt of the period, or they may be Neolithic. There is much to be said for calling them Early Neolithic t r sinccountrbu ,ou ee n i therth y e ar e o distinctw t cultura e raised-beacth l f typeo ) (a s f ho deposit) (6 d an s true th e Neolithic with polished implement potteryd san t seemi , s better o retait e ternth m Mesolithi e implementth r e raisecfo th f do s beach. Contemporaneous settlers aroun e Balti th de generall ar c y believeo t d be Mesolithic n thiI .s e pointeconnectiob t y thaou dma t t i nther e seems to be ground for believing that the Irish Asturian develops a Neolithic aspece youngeth n i t r implements norte th f Englanhn o I . d too the Mesolithic people abandoned most of their coastal sites at the end of the Boreal and beginning of the Atlantic. They moved inland and mixed "their culture with that of the Neolithic stock" (Raistrick, 1934, Trans. North. Nat. Union). Some writers believ e Scottisth e h Tardenoisian implements are survivals of the true Tardenoisian technique inte Bronzth o e s Ageundoubtedli t I . y true thae microlithith t c implements are often associated with implements of Neolithic aspect. e ContinenOth n t too t Zonhovena , , trapezes ,e dominan whicth e har t implements of the Late Tardenoisian, are known to have been flaked from polished (Neolithic) axes. In the previous pages we have demonstrated that man is a comparatively recent acquisitioy ma t i o Scotland t n e sam y th wa en I . be argued that the fauna and flora is also post-glacial. We do know, however, that the plants and animals migrated north-ward across the English border during at least one important interglacial. Of the animals, reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros came north during e oscillatioth n betwee e Olde nth Newed an r r Drift glaciations. There o evidencen is , however, n camthama te with them. Complete extermination befel immobile th l e form f lifo se that existed durine gth interglacia lthi y face periodsspitn sa th si t e f thaeo W .t to-day living thinge greath sn te i glacier e exisice-sheetAlpth d th n an i sf t o s f o s Greenlan Antarcticad dan . 204 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUAR , 1937Y8 .

Earle Th y Post-Glacial faun Scotlanf o a knows di n fro remaine mth s embedded in certain drifts in the Midland Valley and in caves, notably e caveith n s near Inchnadamp e north-westh n i h t Highlands, where glacial conditions lingere lona r gdfo time. The fauna of the Mesolithic Raised Beach is well known from the remains containe refuse th n di e heap western i earlf sn o yma n Scotland frod t fossilbeacpropose e man th th no o n hsi d enumerat o itselfet e W . e e differenth t form f lifo se which existe thesn di e times. This aspecf o t e subjecth s deali t t wit n Professohi r Ritchie's booe InfluenceTh k f o Ma Animaln o n s pape Lifehi n Scotland, i n i r "Scotland'd an s Testi- mony to the March of Evolution" (The Scottish Naturalist, November- December, 1930 . 161)p , . As pointeProfessoy b t dou r Ritchie e Late-Glaciath , l fauna found its progress to the north cut off by the northern ocean, so that it had to remain under conditions not suited to it, and it became mixed -with animals normally living under different conditions. e EarlSomth f yeo Post-Glacial animals survive a lon r gfo d period e reindeerTh . r fo , example, first of all accompanied by the mammoth and later by the red deed elkhavy an rma e, persisted unti e twelftth l h centurye Th . first reindeer that folio-we d retreatinheele e closth th f n so e o developee gic d int oa woodlan d racbecamd an e e extinct wit e destructiohth r ou f o n forests, which was begun in the Bronze Age. Associated with the reindeer in northern Scotland were Arctic lemming, Arctic foxes, bears, wolves, lynxes d Irisan ,h elk s wel, a s wila l d horses, wild oxend an , deerd re . Shortly afte stockine th r Scotlanf go d took place -Britain becamt ecu off from the Continent, and further introductions were confined to such mobil e accidentae th form o t s bird a sd lan s dispersa f certaio l n plants. The animals which have survived the few thousand of years since our country became populated have not remained as they were when their introduction took place. Evolution, -which we usually think of as an extremely slow process, has produced considerable changes. Professor Ritchi shows eha breedinr ncase ou thaf th eo n i tg mammals some eight distinct specie oved san r thirty geographical races have developed under e verth y eye f mano s . Evolutionary changes have been more marked Scotlann i birdse w case th therr no f th defo o ,e n i eabouar t thirty-two breeding species which are different from their closest European relatives. t KildS a distinca itsel s ha f t distinc o bir wels tw d a s a l t mammals. The present paper is an attempt to give an idea of the length of time tha s elapseha t d sinc ancestore eth r presenou f so t faun flord an aa were introduced into Scotland. LATE-GLACIAL AND EARLY POST-GLACIAL SCOTLAND. 205

SELECTED REFERENCES. Dr W. B. Wright has summarised our knowledge of Glacial and Post-Glacial Scotlan s booe Quaternaryhi Th kn i d e e Age.th Ic n I present summary attention is directed to a few important works published since t 1914intende no e e complete lisb s i e work tTh . o th t d r sfo , mentioned contain bibliographies. Dr Wright has also reviewed the question of the Scottish raised beaches in a general paper on "The Raised Beache e Britisth f o sh Isles" (First Repore Commissioth f o t n on Pliocene and Pleistocene Terraces. International Geographical Union, No. 11, 1928, p. 99). Two important Late-Glacial studies have been published by Professor . KJ . Charlesworth "Th) (1 : e Glacial Geolog Southere th f yo n Uplands, Wes f Annandalo t d Uppean e r Clydesdale" (Tram. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. Iv. part i. 1926, p. 1); (2) The Readvance, Marginal Kame- Moraines of the South of Scotland, and some Later Stages of Retreat" . 25)p , (ibid.,2 . . No Referenc . Simpson' B alsy mad. e J ob ma e o t e s paper "The Late- Glacial Readvance Morain e Highlanth f eo d Borde r e RiveWesth f o rt Tay" (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., part iii. No. 24, 1933, p. 634), and to A. Bremner's summary of the glacial phenomena of north-east Scotland "Thn i e Glaciatio Movemente Moraf Ic no d e Nortyan th f Scotn si ho - and" (Trans. Geol. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii. part i. 1931, p. 17). The present writer publishe a dbrieBritainn i e f notAg n "Datinn i "e o e Ic e gth Science Progress, No. 117, July 1935. In this the reader will find a short account of varve clays and of the method used in determining the Scandinavian i e Ag e Ic ag e yearn .ei th f so On the lines of the classic researches of Geikie, Lewis, and Samuelsson Scottisn o h peats (summarise n Sciencei d Progress, October 1907d ,an in Bull. Geol. Inst. Upsala, 10, 1910) we may mention G. Erdtman's work "Some Aspecte Post-Glaciath f o s l Histor f Britisyo h Forests" (Jour. Ecology, vol. xvii. 1929 . 112)p , . Late-Glaciae Th Post-Glaciad an l l faun f Scotlano a d with suggested correlation f glaciationo s humad an s n culture deale ar s t wit "Thn hi e Vertebrate Fossils from the Glacial and Associated Post-Glacial Beds of Scotlan e Hunteriath n i d n Museum, Universit f Glasgow,o y y b " . CurriProfessoD . E . Gregore r (MonographsW D . J rd yan Geological e oth f Department Hunteriane th f o Museum, Glasgow University, . 1928)ii d an , in "The Fauna of Scotland during the Ice Age: Presidential Address," by Professo . RitchiJ r e (Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xxi. par. iv t 1929, p. 159). 206 PROCEEDING E SOCIETYTH F O S , FEBRUARY 8, 1937.

Wit ha clos e bearine origith f Scottisn o no g h faun d floran s ai a Professor Charlesworth's "Some Geological Observations on the Origin e Irisoth f h Fatin d Floraaan " (Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxxix. B, No, 193016 . . 358)p , .

In conclusion the writer wishes to thank Mr A. D. Lacaille for reading the manuscript of this paper and for making valuable suggestions in connection with the archaeological dating of the various stages of glaciation Thamee th f o sd chronologyan suggestions Hi . s have been incorporated texte inth .