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Regulation and Negotiation of Queer Subjectivities in post-Soviet Kazakhstan Mariya Levitanus Doctor of Psychotherapy and Counselling University of Edinburgh 2020 i Thesis Declaration I confirm that this thesis, presented to the University of Edinburgh for the degree of Doctor of Psychotherapy and Counselling, has: 1. been composed entirely by myself 2. been solely the result of my own work 3. not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification This Declaration is signed the 31st day of July 2019, upon submission for examination. Signed: Mariya Levitanus ii Abstract There is a limited amount of academic research within social sciences investigating the experiences of queer people in post-Soviet Central Asian countries. My study aims to address this gap in the literature by focusing on the everyday narratives of queer people in Kazakhstan within a framework of power and agency, primarily using the theories of Michel Foucault and other scholars such as Hannah Arendt and Erving Goffman. In this study, ‘queer’ is understood as broadly encompassing the whole spectrum of non-heterosexual and non-cisgender identities. By looking at the narratives of queer people within their socio-historical context, this study aims to elucidate two key issues: in Kazakhstan, what regulates queer lives, and how do people negotiate their queer subjectivities? The qualitative study uses a Foucauldian- informed thematic analysis of interviews with eleven people who identify as queer and live in Kazakhstan. The findings reveal that practices of regulation of queer people in Kazakhstan range from legal and medical regulation, surveillance within different everyday contexts, limiting career prospects, and internalised gaze and oppression. Crucially, I argue that despite the manifold regulatory practices, the narratives of queer Kazakhstani participants of this study highlight the artful ability to navigate and negotiate the existing regulatory and power structures to live fulfilling and authentic lives. This study contributes to the scholarship on post-Soviet gender and sexualities by developing a deeper understanding of non-heterosexual and non-cisgender subjectivities in the context of Kazakhstan. iii Lay Summary While Kazakhstan decriminalised consensual same-sex conduct in 1997, the lack of legislative protection along with a climate of fear and societal homophobia characterise the lives of Kazakhstani queer people. Currently, a limited amount of research has investigated experiences of queer people in Kazakhstan, most of which focuses on public health risks. This study addresses a gap in the literature by asking what regulates the lives of queer people in Kazakhstan, and how they negotiate their identity. To answer those questions, I conducted interviews with eleven people who identified as queer and live in Kazakhstan. The analysis reveals the complex interplay of regulations that circulate through different aspects of everyday life, including the family and the workplace. Furthermore, the findings show that despite the regulations, queer Kazakhstani people are able to navigate skillfully, and creatively negotiate the structural and societal constraints to live authentic and fulfilling lives. This research contributes to the scholarship on post-Soviet gender and sexualities, and helps to develop a deeper understanding of queer lives in Kazakhstan. iv Acknowledgments I would like to thank my participants for their openness and courage in telling their stories. None of this would have been possible without them. I would also like to thank everyone involved in the initiative Feminita, the Kok.team, and Alma-TQ. Special thanks to Anatoly Chernoussov, Daniyar Sabitov and Zhanar Sekerbayeva. A very special thank-you to my primary research supervisor Seamus Prior, who offered me continuous support, critical comments and patience; without his faith, this project could not have come to fruition. I am thankful to my secondary research supervisor, Dr Alette Willis, who gave me detailed feedback and pushed me to deliver the best thesis I could. I thank my friends, who are scattered around the world. Special gratitude (in no particular order) to Laurie King, Inkara Karimbayeva, Lesley Lu, Sarah Quinley, Alexandra Kubica, Darya Taylakova Enguehard, Tatiana Alekseyeva, Kristina Weber, Irina Buraia, Stephen McCabe, Carolyn Maeve Butler, Anna Gurayevskaya and Elena Loseva. I would also like to thank my therapist, Natalie Talbot, whose unwavering support and encouragement provided me the strength to continue my research journey. Words cannot explain my gratitude and love for my family in Kazakhstan. I am especially grateful to my parents, Lyudmila and Alexandr, my brother Dmitry, and my grandmother Maria. I am greateful for the undying love and support from them, regardless of the queer roads I have taken in my life. v Table of Contents Thesis Declaration ii Abstract iii Lay Summary iv Acknowledgments v Table of Contents vi Tables, Figures and Images viii Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1. Outline of the thesis 3 1.2. Notes on language 4 1.2.1. Queer ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.2. Kazakhstani ............................................................................................................ 8 Chapter Two: Contextualising Gender and Sexuality in Kazakhstan 9 2.1. Queer in the Soviet Union 11 2.1.1. Regulation of gender and sexuality within Soviet Central Asia ........................... 11 2.1.2. Silencing, medicalisation and criminalisation ...................................................... 14 2.2. Existing research on queer lives in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan 17 2.2.1. Academic studies on queer lives in Central Asia ................................................. 18 2.2.2. NGO reports on queer lives in Kazakhstan .......................................................... 21 2.3. Kazakhstan’s political context 26 2.4. Legally (in)visible queers 30 2.4.1. Transitioning in Kazakhstan ................................................................................. 32 2.4.2. Regulation of queer community and collective action ......................................... 33 2.5. Media and Internet 35 2.5.1. Instances of visibility in the media ....................................................................... 38 2.6. Family in Kazakhstan 43 2.7. Shame-and-honour in Central Asia 47 2.8. Religion 49 Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework 52 3.1. Michel Foucault 53 3.1.1. Technologies of power ......................................................................................... 53 3.1.2. Foucault on power and visibility .......................................................................... 55 3.1.3. Agency and resistance .......................................................................................... 59 3.2. Hannah Arendt 65 3.2.1. Collective action ................................................................................................... 65 3.2.2. Arendt on power and visibility ............................................................................. 66 3.3. Erving Goffman 69 3.4. Queer Theory 72 3.5. Intersectionality 76 3.6. Research questions 78 Chapter Four: Methodology 79 vi 4.1. Narrative 79 4.1.1. Defining narrative ................................................................................................ 79 4.1.2. Foucauldian approach to narratives ..................................................................... 81 4.1.3. Narratives of everyday lives ................................................................................ 82 4.2. Narrative interviews 84 4.3. Reflexivity and researcher’s positionality 88 4.4. Research design 91 4.4.1. Inclusion criteria .................................................................................................. 91 4.4.2. Exclusion criteria ................................................................................................. 91 4.4.3. Number of participants ......................................................................................... 91 4.4.4. Interview location ................................................................................................ 92 4.4.5. Sampling .............................................................................................................. 93 4.4.6. Participants' self-identification ............................................................................. 94 4.5. Ethical considerations 97 4.5.1. Pre-interview meeting .......................................................................................... 97 4.5.2. Emotional support