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The Encyclopedia O F LIBERTARIANISM

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The Encyclopedia O F LIBERTARIANISM The Encyclopedia o f LIBERTARIANISM Editor-in-Chief Ronald Hamowy Professor Emeritus ofHistory, University ofAlberta Assistant Editors Jason Kuznicki Research Fellow, Cato Institute Aaron Steelman Director ofResearch Publications, Federal Reserve Bank ofRichmond Consulting Editor Deirdre McCloskey Professor ofEconomics, University ofIllinois, Chicago Founding and Consulting Editor Jeffrey D. Schultz A project of the Gato Institute ($)SAGE Los Angeles • London • New Delhi • Singapore A SAGE Reference Publication Section I page 1 General Introduction Libertarianism is a major feature of intellectual and concrete, reified entities handed on from one genera­ political life as we enter the first years of the new cen­ tion to another like the baton in a relay race. The tury. It is at one and the same time a movement in pol­ reality is more complex. The major ideologies of itics, a recognized philosophy, and a set of distinctive modernity-the most prominent of which are liberal­ policy prescriptions. As such, libertarianism, and the ism, socialism, conservatism, and nationalism-can individuals who espouse it, play a prominent role in be thought of differently, and each can be 'analyzed in intellectual and political arguments in several countries. distinct ways. One approach might look at the various In disciplines such as philosophy, political science, political movements that share similar goals or have jurisprudence, and economics, there is a recognized some other form of affinity, which would involve and substantial libertarian position and body of litera­ focusing on the history of political parties, on pressure ture. All of that is in marked contrast to the situation groups, and on political biography. A second approach that prevailed 30 or 40 years ago. At that time, libertar­ might concentrate on the development of philosophi­ ian ideas and analyses had little public visibility. This cal concepts and abstract ideas. A third approach recent growth might lead one to conclude that libertar­ might center on the exploration of distinctive vocabu­ ian ideas and politics are a phenomenon of the late laries or languages in which public affairs are dis­ 20th and early 21st centuries and should be placed in cussed and debated. Yet another might examine the some kind of post or late modem category. texts central to the specific ideology and try both to In fact, that is untrue. Contemporary libertarianism unearth the original meaning or intention of the is only the latest manifestation of an intellectual, cul­ authors and to relate them to their social and political tural, and political phenomenon that is as old as contexts. Finally, one can explore the distinctive cul­ modernity, if not older. It is the movement earlier tural content and consciousness, or mentalite, associ­ described as liberalism. The great problem with con­ ated with a particular political label. temporary usage of the term liberal, at least in the The intention of all such approaches is to construct Anglo-Saxon world, is that in the United States (and a cogent analysis that explains how ideas, movements, to a lesser extent in the British Commonwealth), it has and philosophical systems that exist in the present come to refer to a body of ideas known in the rest of have come about and how they have changed over the world as social democracy or even simply as time. These analyses trace the origins of ideas, move­ socialism. It is this shift in terminology that has led to ments, and philosophical systems and relate them to the term libertarianism being used in English-speaking other historical phenomena that they have influenced countries for what elsewhere is still called liberalism. and by which they have been shaped. The aim is to The important thing to realize, however, is that con­ avoid the problem of anachronism, of reading the pre­ temporary libertarianism, in the United States and sent into the past and so misunderstanding both past elsewhere, is only the most recent chapter in a long and present. We should be careful to avoid the Whig story that, in the Anglo-Saxon world, traces itself back form of intellectual history, which interprets past to classical liberalism. ideas only in terms of their connection to the., present. In what does libertarianism consist? This question What emerges, with libertarianism as much as any is more difficult and profound than one might at first other system of thought, is a narrative in which we suppose. It is easy to think of political philosophies as discover neither a timeless, ahistorical object, nor a xxv Section I page 2 xxvi The Encyclopedia Of Libertarianism progressive discovery of truth, but the slow growth revolution," a transformation in the nature and scope of and unfolding of a particular way of thinking. We also war that took place in the first part of the 16th century, discover, in the case of libertarianismlliberalism, a which made war vastly more expensive and damaging pattern of elaboration in which these ideas flourished, than it had ever been in the Middle Ages. The result of followed by a period in which they were disregarded, both developments was the rise of absolutism, both as only to revive again more recently. it was explicated in the philosophies of authors such as The word liberalism refers to a distinctive set of Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes and in the practice of beliefs and an associated political movement that government. During this period, a weakening of repre­ appeared in the early 19th century. The first recorded sentative institutions and the growth of central power occurrence of the term was in Spain in 1823 when occurred, not least in the area of taxation. This growth the term liberales, or freedom lovers, was used to of centralized power did not happen without resistance. describe supporters of the constitutional regime estab­ Throughout Europe, scholars defended the older ideas lished after the Napoleonic wars. (The liberals' oppo­ of mixed or limited government, and rebels took up nents, supporters of the absolute rule of the Bourbons, arms to uphold established constitutional settlements were known as the serviles, or servile ones.) In against the innovations of reforming monarchs and France, the economist Jean-Baptiste Say and his fol­ their ministers. The military power of the new monar­ lowers began to use the adjective liberal to mean "in chies was such, however, that any opposition to the favor of freedom" following the Restoration of the growing power of strong central governments was Bourbons in 1815. In England, the word entered pop­ defeated throughout Europe, with two exceptions: the ular discourse at about the same time; one prominent Dutch Republic and Britain. There, constitutional gov­ early example was the name given to the journal The ernment survived and became the established form of Liberal, published by Leigh Hunt and Lord Byron. government. In Britain, the climactic event was the The term liberal was well known in the 18th century, Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689. but was generally associated with its older meaning of The clash of ideas in those years led to a change in "generous, open hearted" and so referred only to qual­ the arguments used to defend limited government ities of character. However, to adapt an expression of against absolutism. As a consequence, new ideas Byron's, although the word had not yet taken on its emerged and were vigorously articulated. These ideas later meaning, the thing it came to describe had were then advanced in new ways by some authors to already come into existence. yield surprising conclusions. 1\vo issues had emerged Beginning with the later 17th century, the West has as central by the later 17th century: (1) cons,titutional witnessed the gradual appearance of a way of thinking versus absolute government, and (2) religious tolera­ about the world and human society that has provided tion, or freedom of conscience, versus the confessional a perspective radically different from the providential state. Originally, the case for constitutionalism and approach that preceded it. This change grew partly out (relative) toleration had been made on the basis of tra­ of intense political conflict and generated a particular dition and conservative, or historical, arguments. political program. All of those developments came Those arguments proved inadequate, and there was a together in the later 18th century and the early part of gradual shift toward arguments based on autonomy the 19th century. Conservatism was to appear at the and ideas of natural right. Such new formulations were same time, as a reaction to the emerging liberal world­ expressed in England during the Civil War, between view, whereas socialism, both the word and the phe­ 1637 and 1653. A political faction known as the nomenon, appeared only later. Levellers emerged in London and became a significant The origins of classical liberalism lie in the great tur­ minority in the New Model Army. In a series of moil and upheaval of the period 1549 to 1688. In that essays, manifestos, petitions, and other documents, the terrible century and a half, Europe was tom by a series Levellers argued the case for a constitutional govern­ of wars larger and more devastating than anything ment with strictly limited powers and complete reli­ experienced since the 14th century. 1\vo forces had gious toleration. The argument used to support their worked to produce that state of affairs. The first was the program was partly historical, but rested in the main clash of Reformation and Counter Reformation, which on the connected ideas of property in one's own person had a profoundly destabilizing effect on the politics of (or self-ownership) and natural rights. Individuals, every European state. The second was the "military they argued, were sovereign, and government derived Section I page 3 General Introduction xxvII its powers by delegation from the individuals over circulating on the Continent.
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