Index

Abadan, 106, 107, 126, 138, 139, 141 Aran i, Dr, 126, 138 abbreviations, xv-xvi arbitration, tribal society, 89 Abdul Azim Mosque, 122, 129, 132 Ardekan,92 Abrahamian Ervand, 7, 121, 149 armed operations absolutism, Qajar dynasty, 122 Fedayi,159 Afshar, Haleh, 5, 58, 220 Mojahedin , 163-4 Afshar, Kamran, 4,51 armed struggle, Fedayi advocacy of, Agha Jari, 109 156-9 AGIP,105 ARMISH,181 agri-businesses, 61, 63, 64, 70, 76 arms deals, US, 182-5 Agricultural Development Bank, 64 army, 8, 9-10 agricultural sector as Shah's power base, 186-9 dam construction, 20 budget, 185-6 failure of development policies, 66-71 crowd and, 144 investment, 61-2, 64-5 ineffectiveness, 188 labour force, 53-5 pay, 186-7 less-developed countries , 51-2 policing tribal areas, 82 mathematical modelling, 55--7 post-Revolution, 189-91 neglect, 30, 60-1 post-Revolution ideology, 192-5 planning, 61-2 purges, 179, 192, 194 post-Revolution, 40, 71-{) revolts, 177 production, 65--7 surveillance, 180 share in GOP, 27 Tudeh Party support in, 178-9, 194 value added, 34 under Qajar dynasty, 17s-{) agricultural wages, 73 under Reza Shah, 176-7 agriculture Arsanjani , Hassan, 62, 63 policy, 4-5 Asgarizadeh, Muhammad, 161, 162 terms of trade, 2 Ashraf, Hamid, 153, 153, 156, 159, 159, trade balance, 61 160 Ahmadzadeh, Mas'oud, ISS, 157 Ashtiyani, Muhammad, 153 Ahwaz, 138 Association of Lawyers, 138 AIOC,83 atrocities, against tribes, 82 air force, 189 Azerbaijan, 143, ISS, 157, 161, 178 A1am, Assadolah, 189 Azerbaijanis, 226 Algeria, 114 Azeri language, ISS-{) Ali, Imam, 162, 193,220,223 Allied invasion, Second World War, 83, Babi heresy, 134 12s-{), 177-8 Badi'zedegan , Ali Asghar, 161, 162 Amnesty International, ISO Bahonar, Mohammad Javad, 39 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, 81, 83 Bakhtiar, Shahpour, 185 Anglo-Persian Agreement, 125 balance of payments deficit, 31 Arabian Marker Crude, 114 Baldwin, G. B., 19 Arabs, Iranian,S, 37, 194 Baluchestan, 30, 53

254 Index 255

Baluchis,95 Central Organisation of Rural Co- Bani Sadre Abolhassan, 38-9, 72, 194, operatives, 234 234,247,251 Chahar Mahal Va Bakhtiari, 53 banks, 27, 228 chaqou-keshan, 141, 142 agricultural, 71 Chiefs of Mission, US, 181-2 agricultural loans , 64--5 Civil Code 1928,222 Barth, Frederik, 90 civil servants, 236 Basseri,9O class background see also tribes guerrillas, 150 bast. 122, 129, 130, 132 ulama, 221 bazaar, 7-8, 17,21 clergy, 1-2,4, 16--17 alliance with ulama , 33, 221 alliance with merchants, 7-8 , 17 in Constitutional Revolution, 128-31 army and, 192, 193 part in Islamic Revolution, 34-5 hardline, 38-9 post-Revolution, 39 part in Islam ic Revolution, 34-5 protests against Russian invasion, 135 see also ulama support for Mossdaeq, 140-1 cloth-dealers, 128-9 Bazargan, Mehdi, 37-8, 40, 71, 72, 73, co-operatives, 233-4 160, 168-9, 170, 185,224,251 coal complex, , 233 Bazargani, Muhammad, 161, 162 commerce, nationalisation, 230-3 Behbahan, 81, 92 Communist Party, 137 Behbahanis, AIOC and, 83 see also Tudeh Beheshti, Mohamad, 38, 39 conflict resolution, tribal society, 89 Behrangi, Samad, 155 Congress, US, 184 Bill, James , 31 Consortium, 103, 108 Binder, L., 92 Constitution (1906), 34, 123 bombings Constitutional Revolution, 35, 122-4, Fedayi, 159 144 Mojahedin, 164 role of bazaar, 128-31 boneh, 60, 69, 71, 72, 75 constitutionalists, 123-4 Boroujerdi, Ayatollah Mohamad Hassan, construction 222 investment, 33 BoyrAhmad, 6, 81, 84, 85-6, 90-1 Second Seven Year Development Plan , bread riots, 133, 135 20 Brinton, C. J., 37, 39 consumer goods, tariffs, 27 Britain, 176, 178 copper complex, Sarchesmeh, 232 invades Persia, 124 CORC, 234 oil interests in , 83 Cossack Brigade, 124, 176, 177 British Legation Cottam, R. W., 84 demonstration, 129, 134 Craig, D., 29 protest, 129 crowd,7-8 broadcasting, controls, 250 as factor in politics, 122-8 Bushehr, 109 European and Iranian compared, 142-5 capital outflow , 34 cultural effects, of fundamentalism, II Carter, President Jimmy, 34, 185 current account, deficit, 31 cash crops, 65 Curzon, George, Marquis Curzon of CCUTU, 138 Kedleston, 125 CENTO, 184 Central Bank of Iran, 31, 227, 228, 235 dams, construction, 20, 61-2 Central Council of United Trades Dashteh Moqan, 76, 101 Unions, 138 Dehqani, Ashraf, 155, 159, 160 Central Intelligence Agency, 17, 19, 178, Dehqani, Behrouz, 155 180 DEMINEX, 105, 106, 107 256 Index democracy, Khomeini's view of, 224 factories, construction, 20 demonstrations faqih , 224, 226 against Islamic government, 234 Farahani, 'Ali Akbar Safa'i, 159 against Russian invasion, 135 farm corporations, 61, 63, 64-5, 70 Constitutional Revolution, 128-9, 130 farm prices, 70 , 127-8 Farsi language, 5, 88 republican crisis, 136, 136-7 Fazel, G. R., 5, 80, 85, 86, 89 royalist, 141-2 Fedayan, 8, 75, 150, 151, 153-60, 165, supporting Mossadeq, 14(}-2 167,169 Tudeh Party , 126, 127-8, 139 post-Revolution, 252 Department of Defense, US, 184 social background, 164 devaluation, 20 . Fedayi Mon sheb, 168, 169 development, Iran , 1-2 Fei, J. C. H., 51, 52 development plans, 59-60, 70 Fei-Ranis model of agricultural labour, petroleum investment during, 109-12 51,52 development policies Fesharaki, Fedeidun, 6, 99 agricultural, 66-71 finance, Islamic government, I(}-II dualistic, 2, 58-60 First Electoral Law 1906, 130 theoretical basis, 4 Five Year Plan Dez dam, 20, 62 Fifth, 31-3 Djam, General Fereydoun, 189 Fourth, 33 doctors , 248 1983,74,76 domestic demand, expansion , 33 fixed capital formation, gross domestic, Dunn , J., 36 21,25,33 food ecological effects of land reform, 88 imports, 65, 70 economic aid, US, 19-20 prices, 27, 63, 65, 73-4 economic growth, 25-6 self-sufficiency in, 59, 61, 68 economic planning, 235-7 subsidies, 74 see also development foqaha, 223 economic policy, Islamic government, foreign capital, agriculture investment, 64 226-37 foreign exchange, oil and gas revenues, Economic Stabilisation Programme, 21, 33 22,23 foreign investment, 19 economics, Khomeini's view of, 225 Foundation for the Powerless Ones, 37 economy, post-Revolution, 39-41, Freedom Fighters' Rural Councils, 75-6 226-37 Friedrich, C. J., 37 education, II Fundamental Laws, 123 post-Revolution, 246-9 fundamentalism, 2, 35, 75-6 secularised, 222 social and cultural effects, II, 244-53 tribes, 88-9, 93 EGOCO,105 Gachsaran, 81 Eight Point Decree, 239-40 gas exports, 24, 108 Elam, 30, 31 gas injection electorate, categories, 130 oil production, 100 electricity shortages, 32 secondary recovery, 108-9 Elwell-Sutton , L. P., 83 gas processing, 104 Endowment Office, 222 gas revenues, 33 Ennals, Mart in, 150 gavbandan, 69 Enzeli,I35 gendarmerie erosion, topsoil, 88 policing tribal areas, 82 exports, 24 rural, 176 carpets, 230 general strike 1905, 122 oil, 115 GENMISH, 181 Index 257

Gilan mountains, 158 IMINOCO, 104, 106 Gini coefficient, income distribution, 30 Imperial Guard, 168 government, Khomeini's view of, 224-5 import substitution, 23 government debt, 235 imports, 26 government expenditure, 33 food,65-70 government revenue, sources, 61 incomes, 29-30, 68 Great Britain, relations with Persia, Independent Islamic University, 247-8 124-5 industrial sector Gross Domestic Product , 21, 25 factory construction, 20 gross fixed capital formation, 21, 25, 33 labour demand, 52, 55 Gross National Product , post- industrial workforce, 4-5 Revolution, 235 industrialisation, 23-31, 137 Guardian Corps of the Islamic early attempts , 18-19 Revolution, 190 financing, 61 see a/so revolutionary guards industries guerrilla movements, 8-9, 149-50 nationalised,232-3 origins, 151-2 subsidies, 40 political groupings, 150-1 inflation, 2, 26, 33 post-Revolution, 169-70,252 rate, 73 guilds, 3, 8, 137 intelligentsia, 4, 17, 34, 150 electoral rights, 133-4 post-Revolution, 39 in Constitutional Revolution, 128-9 interest payments, ban on, 228-9 International Labour Office,30 Haft Kel, 109 International Monetary Fund, 21 Hallock, Richard, 182 investment Hamaden,76 agriculture, 64-5 Hand, H. P., 85 foreign, 19 Hanifnezhad, Muhammad, 161, 162, 163 in construction, 33 Hashemi, Mohamad, 250 manufacturing, 34 Hashemi Rafsanjani, Ayatollah Ali oil industry, 100 Akbar, 228 petroleum sector, 109-12 Hassan, Imam, 162 private sector, 20-1, 34 Haward , Captain, R. S., 182 public sector, 21 health care, regional disparities, 30 IPAC, 104, 106 Hezh Allah, 169 Iran Oil Participants Limited, 103, 107 holdings, fragmentation, 69 Iran Party, 140 HOPECO, 106, 107 Iranian Cultural Revolution, 247 Hosein, Imam, 35, 162-3 Iranian culture, Islamic government Hosseinieh-i Ershad, 163 attitude to, 249 hostages, US Embassy, 38 Iranian Imperial Gendarmerie, 181 House of Justice, 123 Iraq, 114 House of Representatives, 184 war, 4, 39, 190-1,234,239,252-3 Household Budget Surveys, 30 irrigation, 61-2, 69 household expenditure, 30 Isfahan, 30, 124, 126, 138, 139, 141 Housing Foundation, 37 Islamic Council, 76 Hudson Research Europe, 32 Islamic government humanities departments, closure, 249 finance, 10-11 Humphrey, Hubert, 21 threats to, 238-9 Hyser, General Robert, 185 Islamic guerrilla movements, 151 Islamic law, 248 Ideological and Political Section, 192 , 38-9 Ideological Islamic Guidance Council, Islamic Revolution, I, 15-16,35-41 251 ideology, 10,201-19 ideology, Islamic Revolution, 201-19 nature of, 35-7 258 Index

Islamic Revolution (cant .) land taxes, 61 tribes and, 92-3 landlords, 144 Islamic revolutionary courts, 37 absentee, 62 electoral rights, 133 Jablonsky, General Harvey, 182 failure to invest, 68 Jazaeri, Morteza, 223 under Land Reform Law, 28-9 Jazani, Bezhan , 153 languages, Iran, 5, 88, 155-6 jezyeh,221 LAPCO, 104, 106 jolt, 69 LAREX,105 Jorgenson, Dale W., 52 Law for the Attraction and Protection of Foreign Investment in Iran (1955), kadkhoda, 29, 85, 87, 93 19 kala, 104 legal system Karaj hydro-electric dam, 20, 62 Khomeini's view of, 225 Kashani, Ayatollah Seyed Abdol Qasem, revision, 248 140 tribes and, 89-90 Kasravi, Ahmad, 132, 133, 133 less-developed countries, agriculture Kazeroon, 92 sector, 51-2 Keddie, N. R., 17 Lewis, W. Arthur, 51, 52 Kennedy administration, 22 Liberation Movement ofIran, 37, 160-1 , 30, 232 Libya, 114 khans, 86, 87 liquefied petroleum gas, 104 Khavarej, 193 literacy, regional disparities, 30-1 Khorneini, Ayatollah Rouholah, 2, 3, 8, Little, I. M. D., 52 9, 10, 38,41, 168, 169, 189, 190, 191, loans , long-term, financing current 194, 223, 224-6, 245, 246, 250, 251 account deficit, 31 economic policy, 226-37 LPG, 104 khoms, 16, 221, 223, 225, 227-8, 235, 238 khoshneshin, 28-9 MAAG, 181, 183 Khouzestan, 5, 35, 62, 64, 100, 101, 108, madaress,221 176,190 Mahabad, 178 Kissinger, Henry, 183 Mahdavi Kan i, Ayatollah, 193 Komiteh, 37, 92, 169,231 Afajl~, 3, 38-9, 39, 72, 74, 83, 186, 222, Kordestan, 30, 31, 53, 144, 157, 162, 194 228, 229, 230, 232, 250 Kuhgiluh,81 manpower, shortage of skilled, 32 see also tribes manufacturing Kuhgiluyeh, 82, 92 investment, 34 Kuhgiluyeh-Boyr Ahmad region , 81, 83 post-Revolution, 40-1 , 5, 37, 95, 194, 252 value added, 21 see also tribes marjaeh taqlid, 222, 223, 225 Martyr's Organisation, 194 labour Marxism, Mojahedin and, 164-8 agricultural sector, 53-5 Marxist guerrilla movements, 150-1 demand for, 29 Mashad, 135, 153, 155 surplus, 51-2, 54 Masjid-e-Soleiman, 99 Lambton, A. K . S., 18 Mazandaran Textiles, 233 land holding, consolidation, 69 media, post-Revolution, 249-51 land reclamation, subsidies, 70 mediation, tribal society, 89 land reform, 3, 5, 27-9, 62-4, 68-9 medical schools, re-opening, 248 co-operatives and, 233-4 Mehandoust, Ali, 161, 162 ecological effects, 88 Mellor, J. W., 52 post-Revolution, 71-2 merchants, 2, 3,4 tribes and, 87-8, 93-4 alliance with clergy, 7-8, 17 Land Reform Law, 27, 28 electoral rights , 133 Index 259

in Constitutional revolution, 128-31 Nafte-Sefid, 109 post-Revolution, 229-30 Najaf,91 middle class, Tudeh party, 139 Nakajima, 52 migrant workers, 21, 32 nassaq, 62, 69, 72, 75 migration Nasseredin Shah, 176 pastoralists, 82 National Front, 126, 126--8, 140-1, 152, rural-urban 4, 5, 6, 29, 64, 69, 73, 76, 157,160 253 National Iranian Oil Company, 102 see also nomads national minorities,S, II, 37, 95, 157, military aid, US, 19-20, 180-5 194,226,252 Military Assistance Advisory Group, see also tribes 181,183 nationalisation military coup, fear of, 9-10 banks, 228 Military Mission , US, 181-2 commerce, 230-3 military occupation, tribal areas, 82 industry, 232-3 military personnel, US, 34 oil industry, 19, 84, 140-2 military schools , 176 post-Revolution, 41 militia, 193 nationalism, 135 mining , value added, 21 Persian, 124--5 Ministry of Agriculture, 53, 73 natural gas liquid, recovery, 109 Ministry of Justice, 90 Nigeria, 114 Ministry of Labour, 237 NIOC, 102, 103, 104-7, 108, 109, 112-13 Ministry of Revolutionary Guards, 191 Nixon, President Richard M., 182 minorities, national,S, II, 37, 95, 157, Nixon Doctrine, 32 194, 226, 252 nomads, 82, 86 see also tribes see also pastoralists, tribes Modern Party, 136 modernisation, creating instability, J.4 Mohammed, Prophet, 221 oil Mohammed Reza Shah, 31, 59, 84--5, dependence on, 33 178, 186--9 tribes and, 83 Mohsen, Sa'ed, 161 oil boom, 70 Mojahedin , 8, 10, 39, 160--6,252 oil companies, foreign , 103-8 ideology, 164--7 oil crisis, 19, 140-2 Islamic, ISO, lSI, 167-70 oil embargo, 114 Marxist, ISO, lSI, 166--70 oil exports, 24 social background, 164 post-Revolution, 115 Mojahedin Islam Society, 140 oil industry, 6--7, 232 mojtahed, 221 and neglect of agriculture, 60 mojtahedin, 1,221,223,226 links with other sectors, 59 monetarism, Islamic government, 235-7 nationalisation, 84, 126--7 moneylenders, 128-9 post-Revolution, 99-117 Moshkinfam, Resoul, 161, 162 oil prices, 7, 31, 70-1, 99-100, II3 Mossadeq, Mohammed, 17, 19,84,85, oil production 126--8, 139-41, ISS, 160, 178-9 gas injection, 100 Motahari, Ayatollah Morteza, 10,201, post-Revolution, 115 223,226 oil reserves, 101-2 Mousavi, Ayatollah Seyed Ali, 252 oil revenues , 33 Mousavi, Mir Hosein, 235, 252 post-Revolution, liS mullahs, 91, 140 oil strike, 6, 35, 99 Mutual Security Act 1954, 19 oilfields labour unrest, 138 Nabdel, 'Ali Reza , ISS post-Revolution, 116 Nader, L., 89 OPEC, 7, 24, 70, 100, 112-14 260 Index

Organisation for Construction Crusade, Qajar dynasty, 122, 175--6 37 Fath Ali Shah, 176 OSCO, 103-5, 107, 107 Naseredin Shah , 176 oxen, cultivation by, 69 patronage, 131 qanats, 60, 62 Qaraveh,76 Pahlavi family,S, 26-7 , 91, 101, 123 see also Mohammad Reza Shah , Reza Shah radio controls, 250 Pahlavi Foundation, 27 rallies Pars C structure gas fields, 109 Tudeh Party, 126 pasdaran, 76 see also Communist Party see also revolutionary guards , 124, 143 pastoralists, 82 ration books, 230-1 effects of land reforms, 88 rationing, rice, 74 see also nomads, tribes Reja'i , Mohammad Ali, 39 Paykar, 169-70 religion, tribal society, 90-2 peasants,S, 63, 69, 77 religious demonstrations, 35 co-operatives, 233-4 religious leaders political passivity, 143-4 in Constitutional Revolution, 128-9 taking over land, 75-6 royalist, 131, 131, 132 under Land Reform Law, 28-9 religious rituals, 35 working for agri-businesses, 64 religious taxes, 10, 16, 221, 225 Persia, occupation, First World War, 83, repression 124, 125-6 Islamic government, 41, 240, 252-3 Persian Gulf, British withdrawal, 32 Pahlavi regime, 34, 149-50, 158-9 Peseran , Mohammad Hashem, 3, IS tribes, 82 petroleum sector, investment, 109-12 republican crisis 1924, 136-7 Philiran, 105 retail prices, increase, 33 Plan and Budget Organisation, 31 Revolutionary Council, 37, 169-70, 190 Point IV Programme, 19,21 Revolutionary guards, 3, 9, 10, 37, 76, political prisoners, torture, 34 190-1,252 political repression , 3, 34, 41 see also pasdaran post-Revolution, 39 Revolutionary Organisation, 157 political structure, tribes , 85-6 Reza Shah , 9, 18, 59,81--4, 125, 136, 144, politicians, secular, 37 176-7,221-2 poor Rezai, Ahmad, 161, 162-3 bread riots, 135 Rezai, Morteza, 191 in Constitutional Revolution, 131, rial 132--4 devaluation, 20 population, 1956-78,30 overvaluation, 27 ports, bottlenecks, 32 rice Poyan, Amir Parvez, ISS, 156 government control, 231-2 prayers, public, 35 production, 65 press rationing, 74 control, 250-1 riot control, 188 post-Revolution, 249 Rohaniat, 192 Price, Major General Harold C., 182 see also clergy, ulama prices, increase, 33 Royal Inspection Organisation, 180 private sector investment, 34 royalists, 123--4 propaganda, anti-guerrilla, 159 Constitutional Revolution, 131-2 Public Prosecutors, 240 republican crisis, 136 publishers, control, 251 Rude, George, 121, 142 Purchase and Sales Agreement, 103 Rural Co-operative Bank, 64 Index 261 rural co-operatives, 62, 233-4 social background, Mojahedin and rural population, post-Revolution, 253 Fedayan, 164 rural underemployment, 69 social change, village life, 27 rural-urban migration , 6, 29, 64, 69, 76, social effects of fundamentalism, II, 253 244-53 post-Revolution, 73 social reforms, 29 Russia, 176 social structure, changing, 137 invades Persia, 124, 135 social tensions, 21 , 137-9 , 136 Sadiq, Naser, 161, 162 Society of Doctors , 138 Safa'i Farahani, 'Ali Akbar, 153 Society of Guilds, 129 , 16 SOFIRAN, 105, 106, 107 Safayi, Hojatoleslam, 192 Sourki, 'Abbas, 153 Samyi, Mehdi, 186 South Persia Rifles, 176 sanctuary, 122, 123, 129, 130, 132 , 157, 158, 178 sans-culottes Spaheh Pasdaran, 240 bread riots, 135 see also revolutionary guards in Constitutional Revolution , 131, Stabilisation Programme, 21-2 132-4 State Department, US, 184 Sarchesmeh copper complex, 232 Statistical Centre of Iran , 30 Saudi Arabia, 64, 100, 113, 114 steel complex, Khouzestan, 233 SAVAK, 149, 152, 153, 157, 158, 165, Straits of Hormuz, 106, 107 168, 179-80, 185, 186, 188, 191-2 street politics, 7-8, Chapter 6 passim SAVAMA,191-2 strikes, 35, 138-9 Second Bureau, 180 Constitutional Revolution, 122, 123, Second World War, 83 129,130 SEDCO,108 supporting Mossadeq, 140-1 SEDIRAN, 108 students , in Constitutional Revolution , Sefid Rud dam, 20 130 Seven Year Development Plan Sumka Party, 141 First, 10-19 Sunnis, 6, 37, 95, 194 Second,20 Sweden, 176 Share Participation scheme, 34 Syndicate of Engineers and Technicians, sharecroppers, 62, 68, 69 138 sharia, 222 Shariati, Dr Ali, 163,223-4 , 30, 123, 124, 133, 134, 135, 135, Shariatmadari, Ayatollah Kazem, 226, 144,155 238 Taleqani, Ayatollah Mahmoud, 160, 161, Sheikhi heterodoxy, 134 166,226 Shiia tribes, 6 Taleqani , Mujtabi, 166 Shiism, 16,36, 134, 161,220 ,223,237-8 Talish,143 Mojahedin and, 162-3 tariffs, consumer goods, 27 Shiraz, 124, 135, 139 taxation, 10-11, 16,61,221,225 petrochemical company, 233 peasant protest against, 143 Shirazi, Colonel Sayad, 193 post-Revolution, 226--8 shora, 75 teachers, tribal education system, 88-9 Shorayeh Chariki, 75-6 , 30, 122, 133, 134, 135 Shorayeh Islami, 76 Tehran Agreement, 31 Siakal incident, 149, 158-9 television controls, 250 SIRIP, 104, 106 terms of trade, agriculture, 2 Sistan, 30, 53 , 220 small businesses, post-Revolution, 236 Islamic, 10-11 smallholdings, 73 Tobacco Crisis, 35, 122 262 Index tobacco industry, 232, 233 Union of Office Employees, 138 topsoil erosion, 88 Union of Teachers, 138 torture United States, 17,85,168,178 Pahlavi regime, 149-50 aid to Iran, 19 political prisoners, 34 arms deals, 182-5 Toufanian, Hassan, 186 attitude to Fifth Five Year Plan, 32 trade, post-Revolution , 229-30 Embassy hostages, 38 trade balance, agricultural, 61 military aid, 19, 180--5 trade embargo, US, 234 military presence, 34 trade unions, 138-9 trade embargo, 234 transport bottlenecks, 32 United States Embassy, occupation, 36, tribes 37 and Islamic Revolution, 92-3 universities, closure, 247, 248 education, 88-9, 93 Upton, J. M., 82, 84 insurgent, 252 urban development, 2 integration , 94-5 urban guerrillas, 10,252 land reform and, 87-8, 93-4 urban immigration , 4, 5, 29, 64, 69, 73, pastoral, 5--6 253 pauperisation, 86 usury, abolition, 94, 228-9 political structure, 85--6 rebellion, 85 Vaya/ateh Faqih, 224-6, 227 religion, 90--2 village life, social changes, 27 under Pahlavis, 81-5 westernised legal system and, 89-90 wages Tudeh Party, 84, 126, 126--8, 138-9, 140, agricultural, 73 152, 157-8, 160, 168, 169 post-Revolution, 237 army support, 178-9, 194 rural and urban, 54-5 see a/so Communist Party water shortages, rural areas, 69 Turkomanestan, 194 welfare policy, post-Revolution, 236 Turkomans, 5, 37, 95 western culture, 3 see a/so tribes wheat Turkomansahra, 75--6 prices, 74 production, 65 ulama, 16--17,21,22,235,238 White Revolution, 86 alliance with bazaar , 33 Wittfogel, Karl, 122 effects of modernisation , 221-2 women, post-Revolution, 11,245--6 in Constitutional Revolution, 128-9 work, seasonal distribution, 53-4 in republican crisis, 136 work participation, agriculture, 53 nature of, 220--1 workers, migrant, 32 politicisation, 222-4 Workers' Councils, 40 protests against Russian invasion, 135 working class, Tudeh Party, 139 royalist, 131, 132, 134, 142 taxation and, 226--7 Yassudj,81 see a/so clergy, Rohan iat Yazd.143 Ultramar Iran Oil Company, 105 Yazdi, Sheikh Mohammad, 232 underemployment, rural, 69 Yong Sam Cho, Dr, 52, 53 unemployment disguised, 51-2 Zagros range, 81 seasonal, 53 zakat, 16,221 ,225,238 UNIDO,24 Zanjan,72