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CHAPTER 7. SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction In Eurasia, the tahki (Equus ferus przewalskii) and descendants of the tarpan (Equus ferus ferus) (e.g. Konik polski breed) are being bred and re-introduced as ‘umbrella’ conservation species to play the role of ‘ecosystem engineers’ under the World Wide Fund Large Herbivore Initiative (LHI) (van Dierendonck and de Vries 1996; Bokdam et al. 2002; Michel 2008). The term ecosystem engineer is used to describe organisms that modify, create or define habitats by altering the habitat’s physical properties (Jones et al. 1994; Berke 2010). In the context of wetlands, peatlands and abandoned agricultural lands in Europe, the potential for horses to create or engineer richly structured landscapes is an efficient means of conserving and restoring biodiversity in entire ecosystems and providing habitat for declining bird species (Bunzel-Drűke 2001; Vulink 2001; Loucougaray et al. 2004). On continents with a long but discontinuous evolutionary history of horses, such as North America, opinions as to the conservation role of horses and other ungulates is controversial. In an initiative similar to the LHI, a group of conservation biologists proposed to populate western North America with African and Asian megafauna (termed Pleistocene re-wilding), including horses, lions, elephants, cheetahs, and camels, to restore some of the species assemblage lost (including equids) from North America during the Pleistocene extinctions (Donlan 2005; Donlan et al. 2006; Rubenstein et al. 2006; Caro 2007; Donlan 2007). However, in North America feral horses have also been identified as ecosystem engineers (e.g. Ostermann-Kelm et al. 2009), but with adverse effects on the biotic integrity of habitats and posing a threat to endangered or native plant and animal communities (Rogers 1994; Beever and Brussard 2000a, 2004; Beever and Herrick 2006; Ostermann-Kelm et al. 2009). In GFRNP, feral horses are suspected of causing significant environmental damage, and several reports have provided some preliminary evidence to that effect. Reports were limited by the scope of ecological attributes monitored and the spatial and temporal scale at which studies were conducted (Taylor 1995; Andreoni 1998; Jarman et al. 2003; Schott 2003). The environmental impact of horses in temperate and subhumid grasslands, with the exception of studies from Argentina (Zalba and Cozzani 2004; Loydi and Zalba 2009; Alejandro et al. 2010), has not been well documented. Thus, the adverse effects of feral horses as ecosystem engineers reported in the literature was evaluated in this thesis in

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 319 respect to temperate–subtropical grassy woodland–open forest communities in GFRNP, where horse removal in the past has proven highly controversial. The potential for horses to influence the spatial distribution of macropods and supplant eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) from their grazing niche is specific to Australia and had not been addressed prior to this study.

The objectives of this chapter are to: 1) summarise the important results of each study chapter 2) provide a synthesis of all chapters in relation to the major questions posed by the literature 3) evaluate the outcomes of this research in the context of general theories pertaining to the effects of ungulate grazing 4) present the implications for management of feral horses in GFRNP arising from this research 5) provide recommendations for future research.

7.2 Summary of important results 7.2.1 Chapter 3: indirect effect of feral horses on small-scale habitat use of macropods This was the first study to monitor macropod dung in conjunction with the manipulated abundance of feral horses, thereby establishing a link between changes in macropod activity (effect) and horse removal (cause). Permanent dung transects were established in a 100 ha area around exclosure sites. At four of six sites, horse dung declined with progressive horse removals. A measure of horse abundance derived from the NPWS feral horse trap and removal program database confirmed resident horses, with stable home range and core use areas, were no longer present at the four sites. In the absence of feral horses, macropod dung increased after 4 months, possibly in less time at one site. The inverse relationship between horse and macropod dung was strongest in grazing habitat types preferred by both species according to the literature. Macropod dung was not present at the one site where feral horse dung and the number of horses trapped did not progressively decline, nor at the site directly adjacent where horse dung did not decline to nominal levels until the final sampling time. The majority (over 90%) of macropod dung was eastern grey kangaroo. Eastern grey kangaroos evidently altered their small-scale habitat use on Paddys Plateau in response to either the presence of feral horses or their dung or as a

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 320 result of horse-induced changes to aspects of habitat quality, such as the removal of biomass. Feral horses may have also displaced macropods at a landscape scale from gorge country catchments. Macropods were absent from the catchment with the highest horse density, Bobs Creek, as essentially no dung was recorded on transects in a 4 × 1-km area centred on exclosures or at each of the ten exclosure sites along Bobs Creek and very little in the landscape-scale survey. Horse counts have historically been lower in Pargo Creek, where macropod dung was greater on spurs than hillslopes. The topography of spurs allows easier movement than hillslopes, and horses possibly deterred macropods from feeding in gorge catchments, restricting their use to travelling along spurs between non-horse catchments. Macropod dung was substantially greater and present on all gradsects in environmentally equivalent locations in catchments with no known population of feral horses since the 1920s.

7.2.2 Chapter 4: impact of feral horses on the groundstorey vegetation of a temperate grassy woodland–open forest plateau The exclosure design had the potential to compare plots grazed by horses (controls), plots grazed by macropods but not horses (horse exclosures), and ungrazed plots (complete exclusion). The removal of 241 horses prior to and over the course of the experiment weakened the ability of the study to detect the effect of horses on some plant variables. However, the removal of horses and results of the exclosure treatments further clarified the relationship between horses and eastern grey kangaroos. In the first year, horse dung in control plots and the number of horses trapped suggested that horses were relatively more abundant than at subsequent sampling times, whereas macropod dung was rare. Both the horse exclosure and complete exclusion treatments resulted in an increase in biomass and cover of sedges, and a reduction in the cover of bare ground. Horses were also associated with reductions in plant cover and concurrent increase in litter cover in addition to cover of bare ground. After the first year, horse dung decreased significantly and continued to decline at all but one site. Macropod dung progressively increased in controls and horse exclosures, coinciding with greater biomass under complete exclusion only. In the absence of horses, eastern grey kangaroos appeared to replace horses as the dominant consumer of herbaceous biomass. Reductions in kangaroo grass (Themeda australis) biomass and reproductive output also corresponded to greater counts of macropod dung in controls and horse exclosures, kangaroo grass being

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 321 highly preferred by eastern grey kangaroos. Evidence was sufficient to conclude that after horses were removed, eastern grey kangaroos became the dominant grazer and interacted with site specific characteristics to regulate the accumulation of groundstorey vegetation biomass and the reproductive output of the competitive tall-tussock kangaroo grass. Exotic species richness declined under complete exclusion, but changes in all other richness measures were not related to grazing treatments. Richness measures, except shrub and tree richness, were greater than baseline through the course of the experiment, suggesting richness increased after horses were removed. The floristic composition of the groundstorey vegetation matched the putative pre-European conditions. Exotic species richness was notably low (<6.5% of total species richness) at the start of the experiment and declined thereafter, and exotic cover did not exceed 3.0% per exclosure quadrat at any sampling time. Most grazing lawns were dominated by kangaroo grass. Grassy woodland with kangaroo grass dominant in the groundstorey vegetation on Paddys Plateau in GFRNP has resisted more than a 100 years of livestock and horse grazing, suggesting that the intensity of livestock grazing over this period has been comparatively light. However, the general increase in plant cover and species richness measures, the progressive establishment of tussocky poa in sites in which it was absent at the start of the experiment due to historical higher cattle and horse grazing, and the lesser baseline cover of kangaroo grass in those same sites suggested horses contributed to minor retrogressive shifts in composition that were not detected in this experiment due to the reduction in horse grazing pressure.

7.2.3 Chapter 5: impact of feral horses on the groundstorey vegetation of grassy riparian flats in gorge country The exclosure design was repeated in small, open grassy riparian flats that were uncommon in the rugged Bobs Creek catchment. Dung counts at the plot, site and district scale confirmed horses as the only significant grazer using exclosure areas, exclosure sites and the hillslopes and spurs within a 4 × 1-km area of exclosures. Grazed controls had less biomass at two sampling times, with a minimum of 45 g/m2 in spring whereas bare-ground cover did not change. Biomass in ungrazed quadrats increased to over 1200 g/m2 in 2 years and bare ground disappeared after 10 months. From the first sampling time after baseline data was collected (April 2007), excluding grazing resulted in greater biomass and less cover of bare ground than grazed quadrats. Native species richness was greater under complete exclusion than controls in April 2007, with grazing-sensitive perennial grasses and forbs

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 322 responding in the short term to a release from grazing. However, total species richness was greater in controls in summer and spring. The competitive exclusion effect seen in exclosures was not a concern from a regional biodiversity conservation viewpoint, as feral horse grazing favoured exotic annual invasion to the detriment of native persistence, whereas exclusion promoted native perennial species. Hence, the percentage of native species decreased over 2 years in controls to less than 60% but increased under complete grazing exclusion to 78% as exotic richness declined. Cover of native species did not change over time or differ between treatments, but cover of annual species declined under complete grazing exclusion to be less than controls after 1.5 years. The riparian flats under horse grazing were predominantly grazing lawns, characterised by short-statured, grazing resistant species or those known to increase under livestock grazing. Exotic sub-shrubs and forbs with a partial rosette or mat-forming growth form were common. With the exclusion of horse grazing, the cover of the majority of these sub-shrubs and forbs declined, as did several rhizomatous or stoloniferous grasses, while the cover of a perennial sedge and several perennial native twining forbs increased. Trends in horse exclosures mirrored those under complete exclusion and were significant for biomass, bare ground, percentage of native species and most of the important species that contributed to changes in floristic composition. Horse exclosures did not appear to be grazed by herbivores (e.g. macropods, lagomorphs) other than horses on occasion (edge effects). All horse exclosures were destroyed by horses during the study and were excluded from grazing for at least 1 year less than complete exclusion, and not all exclosures were repaired. Length of exclusion may have accounted for the greater biomass in complete exclusion than horse exclosures at the final sampling time and less replication for the non-significant reductions in exotic and annual species richness, and cover of annual species in both grazing exclusion treatments for analyses (analysis 2) that incorporated the three treatments.

7.2.4 Chapter 6: effects of feral horses on the spatial organisation of resources and functional integrity of sloped landscapes in gorge catchments This is one of the few studies of horse impacts at a landscape or regional scale and the first to link the impact of horses on soil and vegetation to ecosystem function and landscape functional integrity. High functional integrity is generated by intact, natural vegetation, soil structural patterns, the processes that maintain these patterns and the services generated by them such as shelter and food (Ludwig et al. 2004). Gorge catchments

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 323 with the highest density of horses in the Park and with a long history of horse but not cattle occupation, had markedly lower functional integrity than environmentally equivalent catchments with a long history of cattle but not horse occupation and that were largely grazed by macropods. The stability of the soil surface under patches, and their infiltration capacity had been reduced by feral horse activity off-track. The inherent spatial organisation of vegetation and soil on hillslopes and spurs had been disrupted by horse tracks, resulting in a reduction in the functional quality of obstructions to the flow of resources downslope, such as tussock and litter patches. As a result of trampling by horses and higher velocity runoff, slight to moderate forms of erosion such as sheet and terracette erosion were recorded on most horse tracks. More severe types of erosion, such as rills and scalds, were detected on a small proportion of tracks (15%). The destruction of patches and inferior quality of remaining patches in conjunction with increased runoff and erosion potential suggested horse landscapes were in various stages of unsustainable decline, where productivity is lost as resources leak out of the system.

7.3 Thesis objectives revisited: a synthesis of study results 7.3.1 Do feral horses affect wildlife? Several studies have documented the effects of feral horses on small mammals and other classes of animal such as birds, fish, and reptiles (see Nimmo and Miller 2007 for a review). Few studies have examined interactions between feral horses and native medium- sized grazers that occupy a similar ecological niche. In the Great Basin, USA, interference competition either played a minor role in niche partitioning or led to a high degree of temporal partitioning (Berger 1985; Ostermann-Kelm et al. 2008), horses overlapped spatially with native grazers who changed their diet seasonally to minimise dietary overlap with horses (Kissell 1996), and horses facilitated greater foraging efficiency (Coates and Schemnitz 1994). However, the present study is the first to document almost complete spatial separation between horses and a native grazer at a range of scales (100 ha, 4 × 1 km and 5000 ha). In the temperate part of their range in Australia and in GFRNP, eastern grey kangaroos are the largest bodied and most abundant native mammal and published information on their habitat preferences, feeding ecology and dietary preferences suggests they occupy a similar grazing niche to feral horses. In some situations, by maintaining uniformly short grass, they are considered ecosystem engineers, affecting grassland bird communities, preserving grassland plant diversity and protecting grasslands against invasion

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 324 of forest and woodland (Neave and Tanton 1989; Lunt 1990b; Neave 1991; Webb 2001; Roberts 2006; Roberts et al. 2006). The results of the Paddys Plateau experiment for biomass and reproductive output of kangaroo grass showed feral horses indirectly disrupted potentially natural disturbance regimes by displacing marsupial grazers (Martin 2003; Prober et al. 2005).

7.3.2 Does feral horse grazing lead to retrogressive successional shifts in vegetation communities, including the facilitation of exotic invasion? Unlike Paddys Plateau, the composition and structure of the Bobs Creek riparian grassy flats prior to grazing by ungulates is largely unknown, although weeping grass (Microlaena stipoides) was hypothesised to have been the dominant non-tussock grass species at the time of European settlement (Whalley et al. 1978). Weeping grass had the greatest percent cover at the start of the study and did not decline under grazing exclusion in Bobs Creek (Chapter 5), suggesting it had not been affected by horse grazing despite its high palatability and forage value (Lodge 1994). This result is consistent with known responses of weeping grass to livestock grazing, where several attributes enable it to tolerate or increase under heavy grazing (Lodge 1994; Chivers and Aldous 2005). Given the persistence of knob sedge (Carex inversa) and that cover increased to be greater in both grazing exclusion treatments at the last two sampling times, native sedges may have been pre-European co- dominants with weeping grass and the abundance of knob sedge reduced by horses. The four native warm-season perennial grasses, paddock lovegrass (Eragrostis leptostachya), red grass (Bothriochloa macra), common couch (Cynodon dactylon) and slender rat’s tail grass (Sporobolus creber), with a cumulative mean cover of 30% at the start of the experiment, had a grazing response similar to weeping grass (Lodge and Whalley 1989b), and also did not differ between exclosure treatments at any stage. These species were present in vegetation patches associated with gradsects in the landscape-scale survey (Chapter 6) on hillslopes and spurs that connect to the riparian grasslands. Thus, it is likely that they occurred on the riparian flats prior to ungulate grazing, but possibly not to the same extent as under recent horse grazing, as mean patch widths were less in non-horse catchments. The contrast between ungrazed and grazed exclosure areas in Bobs Creek was evidence of horses creating, or at least maintaining, a diverse community of prostrate or short-statured, grazing-resistant grasses and forbs that were mostly rosette species (e.g. ribwort Plantago lanceolata, spiked cudweed Gamochaeta spicata), stoloniferous mat-

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 325 forming species (e.g. kidney weed Dichondra repens, white clover Trifolium repens) and exotic sub-shrubs (paddy’s lucerne Sida rhombifolia, fleabane Conyza bonariensis). Feral horses were also associated with an increase in cover of annual species at the expense of perennial species, and a more diverse assemblage of annual and exotic species. The complete exclusion treatment suggested that in the absence of horses, the warm-season native perennial grasses and sedges would revert to a tall tufted and tussock growth form, and facilitate a greater abundance of native canopy competitors, such as the twiners, native geranium (Geranium solanderi) and slender tick-trefoil (Desmodium varians). In the comparison of horse catchments to non-horse catchments (Chapter 6), slender tick-trefoil and large tick-trefoil (Desmodium brachypodum) had the third and fourth largest mean patch width after the dominant kangaroo grass and co-dominant wild sorghum (Sarga leiocladum). The association between feral horses and the facilitation of the spread of exotic species was also particularly strong. Mean patch widths of exotic species was 20 times greater in horse catchments than non-horse catchments and conversely, mean patch widths of native forbs and sub-shrubs was 27 times greater in non-horse catchments. The invasive weed, farmer’s friend (Bidens pilosa), had a mean patch width second only to kangaroo grass in horse catchments. Consistent with the retrogressive successional shifts discussed for Bobs Creek exclosures, the mean patch widths of the pre-European dominant tussocks such as kangaroo grass, wild sorghum, barbed wire grass (Cymbopogon refractus) and tussocky poa (Poa sieberiana) were consistently less in horse catchments, although not significantly so. Conversely, patch widths of grazing-resistant species or those identified as increasing in Australian grasslands in the presence of livestock such as black speargrass (Heteropogon contortus), red grass and paddock love grass were greater. Slender rat’s tail grass, also a grazing-resistant grass, was significantly greater on spurs in horse catchments than both hillslopes and spurs in non-horse catchments. The use of exclosures to provide a manipulative test for the effect of horses on plant communities on Paddys Plateau was negated by the removal of horses. However, baseline monitoring suggested that a past tenure of cattle grazing and feral horse occupation had not led to major deviations in plant community composition from putative pre-European conditions, and exotic species were uncommon. Paddys Land was generally flat or undulating land at higher elevation (800–1100 m a.s.l.), with a lower density of horses based on historical counts (see Chapter 2, density estimates unavailable), and the vegetation was representative of the Plateau. Conversely, riparian grasslands are a preferred grazing habitat

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 326 for livestock and horses and were limited in their spatial extent in Bobs Creek catchment, occurred at low elevation (300–400 m a.s.l.) and were associated with higher densities of horses (0.023–0.038 horses/ha). Plant community composition was similar between Paddys Plateau and the moderate to steep slopes and north facing aspects of the gorge hillslopes and spurs, but the spread of exotic species in the gorges may have been facilitated by additional soil disturbance associated with horse tracks (Cole 1978; Campbell and Gibson 2001). Several studies have found the severity of feral horse impacts to be greater in areas with a higher density of horses, in high quality, preferred habitat types (e.g. riparian flush zones, saltmarshes) or close to resources limited in their spatial extent (e.g. water holes in semi-arid environments), on steep slopes, and at low elevations (Duncan 1992; Fahnestock 1998; Beever and Brussard 2000a; Dolan 2002; Buerger et al. 2005; Beever and Herrick 2006). In this study, additional factors such as management practices (e.g. fire frequency) and climate probably contributed to the resistance of Paddys Land to ungulate grazing. Most research on the ecological effects of feral horses has occurred at a single, small, spatial scale in preferred habitat types, and the findings of this thesis, including the displacement of macropods, support recommendations for research to be conducted in a range of habitats occupied by horses in the management area (e.g. national park) (Linklater et al. 2000; Bestelmeyer and Wiens 2001; Beever and Brussard 2004; Nimmo and Miller 2007).

7.3.3 Do feral horses have substantial geomorphologic impacts through reduced plant cover and erosion? The condition and size of the area estimated to be covered by horse tracks has led several authors to conclude that feral horses may cause substantial indirect geomorphic changes in arid and sub-alpine environments (Dyring 1990; Ostermann-Kelm et al. 2009). The landscape-scale comparison of active tracks in horse and non-horse catchments confirmed horse tracks to be a dominant feature of gorge landscapes, and that geomorphic changes also occur in temperate gorge environments. Randomly stratified across two catchments, tracks were present on all hillslopes and spurs in horse catchments and on 7.7% of gradsects in non-horse catchments associated with cattle dung. Active horse-tracks were characterised by compaction of the soil surface, incipient slaking, sheet or terracette erosion, broken crusts and loss of surface microtopography, due to a lack of perennial vegetation cover and minimal litter cover and decomposition.

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 327

7.3.4 Do feral horses have an impact on landscape ecology and measures of ecosystem function? The functional capacity of hillslopes and spurs, the dominant landscape unit in gorge catchments, was substantially lessened by the activities of feral horses. Resources that sustain or enhance ecosystem production and function via feedback loops, such as seeds, litter, organic matter and rainfall, were more likely to be lost downslope than retained and recycled in horse catchments relative to non-horse catchments. Loss of function was greatest on, but not limited to, horse tracks. The projective foliage cover and basal area of tussocks, depth and decomposition of litter and cover of cryptogams had also been reduced by feral horses. The trampling of tracks and grazing of hillslope and spur vegetation by horses over time had led to a 23.9% reduction in the stability of the soil surface substrate and a 21.8% and 14.4% reduction, respectively, in the nutrient cycling and infiltration capabilities of horse-occupied landscapes as indicated by the gradsect-scale landscape functionality indices.

7.4 Contribution to theory In global models of grazing, interactions between plants and herbivores are thought to occur along an axis of evolutionary history of grazing and environmental or productivity gradients (soil fertility and precipitation) (Mack and Thompson 1982; McNaughton 1984; Milchunas et al. 1988; van de Koppel et al. 1996; Augustine and McNaughton 1998; Huisman et al. 1999). The perception and experience of feral horses as umbrella conservation species in European ecosystems (Bunzel-Drűke 2001) is consistent with the model presented by Milchunas et al. (1988) for subhumid environments with a long evolutionary history of ungulate grazing and for models reviewed by Olff and Ritchie (1998) for habitats with fertile soils and non-limiting precipitation. Similarly, the impact of horses on soil and plant attributes in the GFRNP gorges was consistent with model predictions for the same environmental conditions but with a short history of ungulate grazing. The grazed exclosure areas in Bobs Creek riparian grasslands had greater total species richness in spring, mostly due to the greater number of exotic and annual forbs that were poor light or canopy competitors. After 2 years of horse exclusion on fertile soils, the cover, height and biomass of graminoids increased, the cover of dicot and monocot annuals was replaced by perennials, and exotic species richness was greatly reduced.

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In the Australian context, successional changes under horse grazing in the gorges conformed to the models of Moore and associates (Moore 1959, 1964; Moore and Biddiscombe 1964b; Moore 1970, 1973). Evidence was strongest for the first stage in Moore’s degradation sequence, the shift from tall to shorter or prostrate grasses with alternative reproductive and growth strategies to compensate for repeated grazing. Of the ten species with the greatest cover, the native warm-season perennial grasses, paddock lovegrass, red grass and slender rat’s tail grass, have tufted growth forms, but adopt prostrate growth forms in response to heavy grazing pressure, as does two exotic grasses, paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum) and goose grass (Eleusine tristachya). Common couch and summer grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) are mat-forming rhizomatous or stoloniferous grasses. Plant origin (native versus exotic) was correlated with grazing resistance or resilience traits, but in Bobs Creek a combination of traits such as growth form, reproductive strategy (vegetative versus non-vegetative) and life cycle (perennial versus annual) had greater predictive power as found by McIntyre et al. (1995) and Dorrough et al. (2004). Plant responses in Bobs Creek were also comparable with the general assumption, based on theoretical models of r- and K-selection (Fisher 1930; Dobzhansky 1950; MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Pianka 1970) and plant strategies for coping with stress and disturbance (e.g. the violents–patients–explerents axis of Ramensky 1938; and the competitive–stress tolerant–ruderal axis of Grime 1974; Grime 1977, 1979), that perennial species (K-selected, violents, competitive) dominate under high biomass or cover conditions and annual exotic or weedy species (r-selected, explerent, ruderal or colonisers) dominate under low biomass or cover conditions. In temperate Australian woodland, studies have reported both similar (McIntyre and Lavorel 1994a) and opposing results (Allcock and Hik 2003). Plant responses were also consistent with the life-history attributes of the NSW Northern Tablelands flora (Trémont 1994; Trémont and McIntyre 1994). The evolutionary based argument that soft- footed marsupials do less damage to the landscape than introduced hard-footed ungulates also applied (Grigg 1987a, b). Bare ground was eliminated in ungrazed exclosures in Bobs Creek and declined in horse exclosures grazed by eastern grey kangaroos on Paddys Plateau, whereas the cover of bare ground was maintained by horses in controls in the first year. In contrast to the conspicuous track networks in horse catchments, the two tracks recorded on spurs in one non-horse catchment were used for mustering cattle, as confirmed by local graziers and the presence of cattle dung. Macropods were not associated with tracks or bare ground.

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7.5 Implications for management The Heritage Working Party (HWP) reported that the GFRNP horses have significant local heritage value, sufficient to warrant their being managed on this basis (Heritage Working Party 2002a). As a result, the NPWS is under pressure to not only remove horses humanely, but to also possibly maintain a managed herd within the boundaries of the Park (Jan Carter pers. comm.; Kosky 2008). The use of livestock grazing to maintain biodiversity in two national parks in NSW and Victoria and in two reserves in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) could be referred to in support of the sustainable harvesting of feral horses (Lunt 2005). The apparent resistance of grasslands dominated by kangaroo grass on Paddys Land Plateau to a long history of cattle and horse grazing, and the comparatively flat and accessible terrain that would facilitate management of a small herd of horses might also be considered compatable with the retention of horses in GFRNP. However, this would be in breach of the statutory obligations of the NPWS (NSW NPWS 2009b) and contradict the evidence of horses contributing to greater cover of bare ground and exotic species richness, and reductions in sedge cover, total plant cover and richness measures such as forb and sedge richness. Horses also require more intensive management than cattle. Their heterogeneous use of the landscape and greater speed and agility means they are more difficult to herd or muster and fences do not pose the same barrier as they do to livestock. If horses on Paddys Plateau are not managed, they would have the potential to recolonise the gorge country. Paddys Plateau was the only horse-occupied catchment excluded from the October 2000 cull in GFRNP, and some of the 80 horses that remained mostly on the Plateau and their off-spring would have contributed to the build-up of horse numbers in the gorge catchments in the years following the cull (Chapter 2). Annual growth rates of over 20% reported in feral horse populations in the Australian Alps between 2003 and 2009 reflected density-dependent population growth (Chapter 1) after horse numbers were reduced by removals and the loss of habitat due to substantial wildfires in 2003. The ability of horses to adapt reproductive output to changes in density due to removals suggests an integrated approach to management, with control programs directed by the severity of horse-induced degradation in combination with the level of connectivity between control areas. In addition, ungulate grazing as a management tool should not be justified on conservation grounds simply on the basis of it having no discernable impact; ungulate grazing should only be introduced with the expectation that it will enhance biodiversity outcomes (Lunt 1991). Grazing is implemented for biodiversity conservation in order to: reduce

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 330 herbaceous biomass to maintain small-scale plant diversity, control exotic species, manipulate relative abundances of particular species (e.g. dominant native and exotic grasses) and to maintain vegetation structure and habitat for wildlife (Lunt 2005). It is often used when the alternatives are considered to be less effective. On Paddys Plateau, eastern grey kangaroos were shown to resume the role of feral horses in regulating ecosystem productivity and the potential competitive effects of the dominant kangaroo grass and hence, possibly plant diversity without the concurrent adverse effect of an increase in bare ground. In kangaroo grass-dominated grasslands, fire is also an important management tool for maintaining an intact, healthy sward and species diversity (Morgan and Lunt 1999; Lunt and Morgan 2002; Prober et al. 2005; Prober et al. 2007). The extensive impacts of horses on riparian flats and hillslopes and spurs in Bobs Creek and Pargo Creek indicated that conservation and restoration of the Park would be enhanced by the removal of horses from gorge country catchments. In New Zealand’s Kaimanawa Mountain Range, when horses were excluded, adventive grasses proliferated at the expense of the native low stature inter-tussock flora in the short-term (Rogers 1991). Rogers (1991) suggested that retaining low numbers of horses in grasslands on productive basin floors might be a desirable management option for controlling the competitive effect of adventives species on native tussock species. Exotic richness and cover was greater on the Bobs Creek riparian flats than Paddys Plateau, but no exotic species significantly increased in percentage cover under complete exclusion. In addition, native grasses retained dominance, the proportion of native species increased significantly, and annual cover and cover of bare ground declined in the absence of horse grazing. The ‘rubber band’ model of stress and recovery that underpins NPWS management policy applied to Bobs Creek riparian flats in the short term. The Kaimanawa example demonstrated that the model is also dependent upon the level of degradation prior to exclusion in productive sites and that grasslands can still be in transition up to 10–15 years after horse removals. The apparent reversal of the adverse effect of feral horse grazing in Bobs Creek can be applied to riparian systems in GFRNP with similar geomorphologies and baseline floristic composition. If horses were removed, monitoring of riparian flats for signs of woody weed encroachment and proliferation of exotic grasses should occur seasonally in the initial post-removal years as stochastic events can lead to shifts to a less desirable state (Scheffer et al. 2001). Frequent control burns, especially in spring, may be an option for reducing soil nutrient levels and controlling competitive exotic species if the competitive advantage of native perennial species detected

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 331 in grazing exclusion treatments in Bobs Creek were to be reversed in favour of exotics plants (Prober et al. 2004; Prober et al. 2005). Riparian flats are limited in their spatial extent in the gorge catchments, and are highly preferred grazing habitats of horses, resulting in the maintenance of a grazing lawn structure. To achieve the positive outcomes evident under complete exclusion would require the removal of all horses from Bobs Creek. Feral horses frequently spend up to 70% of their grazing time on short grass swards and grazing lawns, and maintain grazing lawns regardless of population density (Putman 1986; Menard et al. 2002; Lamoot et al. 2005). However, recent reviews have emphasised the need to clearly define resilience in relation to management objectives and to address the gradual changes that affect resilience rather than merely control disturbance (Scheffer et al. 2001; Beisner et al. 2003; Walker et al. 2006; Brand and Jax 2007). Therefore building and maintaining ecosystem resilience beyond the removal of horses by focusing on changing variables such as land use, nutrient stocks, soil properties and biomass of long-lived organisms, is likely to be the most pragmatic and effective way to manage ecosystems in the face of environmental or climatic change (Scheffer et al. 2001). The significant loss of landscape functional integrity of hillslopes and spurs under feral horse grazing documented by landscape function analysis (LFA) in the catchment comparisons could also be reversed if horses were removed from the gorge country, but over a longer timeframe (5–15 years) than for the riparian grassy flats. Vegetation patches in horse catchments were of inferior quality, but self-sustaining. The soil surface was depleted in organic matter, leading to incipient slaking of soil fragments, but exposure of the highly dispersive B-horizon was rare at the landscape scale. LFA categorised horse catchments as comparatively ‘leaky’ landscapes and more vulnerable to stochastic disturbance, but not beyond natural regeneration. Evidence of recovery on tracks was found on more than half of gradsects in horse catchments. However, the abundance of the highly invasive annual weed, farmer’s friend, on hillslopes and spurs in horse occupied gorge catchments may require control.

7.6 Recommendations for future research 7.6.1 Indirect effects on macropod species The displacement of macropods, such as the eastern grey kangaroo, by feral horses cannot be conclusively linked to habitat alteration, interspecific dung avoidance or exploitative and interference competition. To establish the extent that feral horses adversely

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 332 impact upon individual animals and macropod populations, an empirical evaluation of the extent of ecological overlap, inparticular diet, (e.g. Seegmiller and Ohmart 1981) between horses and eastern grey kangaroos, controlled behavioural studies, and manipulative field experiments that incorporate abundant and limiting resource conditions and demographic parameters of macropods might be considered. Eastern grey kangaroos may not be a species of high conservation value, but they are an important test of the potential for horses to influence the distribution of macropod species. The overlap with horses in habitat preferences, social organisation and activity cycles in addition to their localised abundance facilitated detecting the relationship between feral horses and macropods. An inverse relationship between feral horse dung and black-footed rock wallaby (Petrogale lateralis) dung was also observed in Finke Gorge, NT over 10 years (Matthews et al. 2001). GFRNP contains populations of the brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) and parma wallaby (Macropus parma), listed as endangered and vulnerable, respectively, within horse occupied catchments where horse removal is ongoing. The response of eastern grey kangaroos and the black-footed rock wallaby suggests a repeat of the dung transect experiment in habitat common to horses and rarer wallaby species should be considered.

7.6.2 The impact of soft-footed versus hard-footed grazers on Australian soil landscapes The commonly held belief that introduced ungulates cause greater mechanical disruption of the soil surface and thus, increased rates of soil erosion than native Australian herbivores, has been supported with theoretical evaluations and calculations (Noble and Tongway 1986; Bennett 1999). However, as Grigg (2002) noted, supporting empirical data is deficient and a more comprehensive study is required. Recent unpublished investigations by the University of Queensland’s Australian Brumby Research Unit into the loading pattern of the feral horse foot on hard rock and sand surfaces using cadaver brumby limbs and pressure plate technology, indicates static foot pressures of feral horses may be considerably lower than published estimates (Brian Hampson, unpublished data). An investigation of comparative foot pressures of feral horses and macropods using live animals and pressure plates, the possible interaction with locomotive gait, and the resultant physical and chemical impact on the soil surface is recommended. The inclusion of shod horses with the simulated weight of a rider and pack as a comparison would extend the application of such research to the debate surrounding recreational horse-riding in national parks, where foot pressures estimates have been contested (Beavis 2000; Landsberg et al. 2001).

Chapter 7. Synthesis and Discussion 333

7.6.3 The relationship between horse-induced changes on structural and functional attributes and consequences for vertebrate and invertebrate biodiversity LFA proved sensitive to characterising horse impacts and was integral for linking structure to function at a landscape scale. Repeat monitoring of the same transects and more precise measures of the level of horse disturbance on or adjacent to gradsects (e.g. wildlife surveillance cameras, pressure plates or sensors) would increase the utility of the LFA interpretative framework (i.e. sigmoidal curve) in future research and provide measures of the frequency of use associated with degrees of impact, in particular horse tracks. In semi- arid rangelands, the loss of landscape functional integrity is a likely cause of extinctions and reported declines in native herbaceous plants, small mammals and granivorous birds (Woinarski 1999). LFA has been used to assess the impact of livestock grazing on different classes of animal, such as birds and insects, at different spatial scales, from local hillslopes to regional catchments (Ludwig et al. 1999a; Tongway and Hindley 2002; Ludwig et al. 2004). This thesis established the direct impact of feral horses on the structure and function of plant communities and the soil surface layer, and the displacement of eastern grey kangaroos as the dominant herbivore regulating ecosystem production within GFRNP. The use of LFA to examine indirect effects on native faunal assemblages would further clarify the classification of feral horses as ecosystem engineers or degraders.

References 334

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Appendices 374

APPENDIX 1. Summary of feral horse environmental impact studies and associated horse densities world-wide. CA: Conservation areas, BLM: Bureau of Land Management, B: book, PR: peer-reviewed journal article, GL: grey literature, and PhD and MS: post-graduate theses. Horse densities relate to impact study sites unless specified otherwise. '↓' denotes reduction or decrease or lower, and '↑' denotes greater or higher or increase as dictated by context. Location Study details Impacts associated with Impact study Density Density reference (conservation status) horses or plots grazed by horses reference(s) (horses/ha) (if different from impact reference) EUROPE (France and Latvia) Duncan (1992) 0.046 (1974) Boy and Duncan (1979) Camargue wetlands, Exclosures 1977–1983. Marshes: France. Parts of Camargue Feral population of ↓ in plant cover, height, biomass after 1-year and Bassett (1978) 0.103 (1977) Duncan et al. (1984) Regional Park (CA) where Camargue horse breed. structure moved towards short open marshes. (B) 0.131 (1978) Grange et al. (2009) wetlands contain Re-introduced in 1974. At higher densities, the once abundant preferred 0.170 (1979) Important Bird Areas of Phragmite species almost eliminated, while 0.209 (1980) international the frequency and density of emergent shoots for 0.230 (1981) conservation importance. the other tall, perennial dominant, Scirpus 0.270 (1983) maritimus also declined. Biomass of non-preferred submerged annual plants increased. ↓ in overall biomass and net above-ground primary production (NAPP). Salt Flats: ↓ in plant cover and height. No change in species diversity and frequency. Grasslands: ↓ in plant cover and height. 1980–83 ↑ in plant species diversity due to annuals. ↓ in frequency of principal food plants of horses (perennial or biennial grasses and forbs) and concurrent ↑ in unimportant food plants (annual grasses and forbs and perennial halophytes). Other changes in species composition. No straightforward effect on production. Loucougaray et al. (2004) 0.100 Marais Poitevinwetlands, part ofExclosures Traditional 1995–2000. stockingSelective (latrine patch areas)grazing and led short to mosaic swards of tall(<25 cm) (grazing (PR) the eastern Camargue rates emulated with lawns). Gap creation within perennial plant matrix region of France (CA) 2 horses in a 20 ha leading to higher plant species diversity in heavily exclosure with 2 replicates grazed short swards, mostly rosette species (e.g. Plantago coronopus ) and stoloniferous or exclosures in total. legumes (e.g. Trifolium fragiferum). Lake Pape, south-west ‘Konik polski’ horse breed In higher density smaller region (50 ha) Prieditis (2002) 0.138 (1999) corner of Latvia in an reintroduced by Latvian 21.9–49.0% of surface patches were grazing lawns, (PR) 0.269 (2001) enclosed 130 ha WWF for Nature. with no untouched old grass after summer growing abandoned meadow. Seasonal sampling season. In lower density, larger region 6.5–19.7% 2000–01. of area grazing lawns.

Appendices 375

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference NORTH AMERICAN BARRIER ISLANDS Cumberland Island, Exclosures and simulated ↓ peak biomass in moderate and heavily Tuner (1987) Salt marshes: Turner (1988) and Georgia, U.S., clipping and trampling grazed areas. 0.702 (1981) references therein. Spartina alterniflora and both combined. ↓ peak biomass in all simulated trials. (PR) 0.751 (1983) Goodloe et al. (2000). salt marshes Seasonal sampling ↓ in ANPP in moderately grazed plots and under 0.878 (1985) Estimates available for (CA ) 1983–84. simulated trampling. 1.073 (1990) 1981–1990, only subset ↓ in live rhizome biomass. Island: presented, population Marshes severely overgrazed—developed grazing Turner (1988) 0.010 (1981) generally increased simulation model to estimate sustainable (PR) 0.015 (1990) each year. population size. As above Vegetation survey in Horses preferred S. alterniflora over all species. Dolan (2002) (MS) As above. summer 2000 stratified Grazing occurred in 59% of low plots and 73% of Dolan and Leege (2002) 250 horses. into high marsh (close to high plots. (CP) forest) and low marsh. Grazed S. alterniflora 1/6 th the height of ungrazed. Vegetation variables ↓ in total plant cover in low marsh only. monitored in 196 plots. Removal of S.alterniflora may negatively impact saltmarshes as it traps sediment, ↓'s storm damage and provides food and habitat for many species. Cumberland Island Daily surveys during Minor contribution in study, but first documented Sabine et al. (2006) Georgia, U.S., 2003–04 breeding season. account of American oystercatcher (PR) dune beachfront (Haematopus palliantus ) nest failure due to feral (CA) horse trampling, author suggested this is a regular source of nest failure from year to year. Assateague Island, Vegetation survey. Adverse effect of preferential grazing on dominant Furbish and Albano Island: Maryland/ Virginia, U.S., Cafeteria style feeding species, S. alterniflora, positive effect on (1994) 0.018 (1988–92) Furbish and Albano Spartina alterniflora trials. Seasonal sampling undesirable species—overall effect was a possible (PR) 0.016 (2006) (1994) salt marshes 1998–99. Simulated shift in competitive relationships and change in Salt marshes: (CA) trampling and grazing community structure based on palatability. 0.04–1.00 Brinker et al. (2006) in exclosures. (2006) Taggart (2008) Assateague Island, Exclosures 1994–95. ↓ plant cover, density, height and biomass. Seliskar (2003) 0.049 (1994–95) Maryland 35-km portion, No effect of exclusion (fencing) on species (PR) Ammophila composition. breviligulata foredunes ↑ in area of bare sand. ↓ in below ground biomass. Effect on three reproductive effort variables. As above Remote sensing and field ↓ plant cover. De Stoppelaire et al. Island: measurements (1997–2001) Absence of dune development, ↓ in dune height (2004) 0.020 (2001) of exclosures set up and topography, contributing to (PR) in 1993. erosion of sand dunes.

Appendices 376

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference NORTH AMERICAN BARRIER ISLANDS Cont. Shackleford Island, North 3 horse islands, ↓ in number of individual birds, but ↑ in bird species Levin et al. (2002) Island: Carolina, U.S. 3 no-horse islands. richness, shift in composition from communities (PR) 0.110 (1974) Rubenstein (1981) Spartina alterniflora Variety of methods within dominated by nesting gulls and terns to those 0.081 (1978) Wood et al. (1987) salt marshes (CA) islands in 1997. dominated by foraging shorebirds. 0.091 (1979) Indirect effects on ↓ fish abundance and species richness. 0.108 (1980) estuarine communities. ↑ in density of xanthid crabs (Sesarma reticulatum), 0.244 (1994) which may lead to increased predation on key fish 0.117 (1997) species. Consumption of S. alterniflora by horses reduced value of marshes as nursery ground for fishes and decapods. North Carolina National 1997 onward. Differential response of habitat types due to grazing Buerger et al. (2005) Island: Taggart (2008) Estuarine Research Vegetation monitoring. pressure: lightly grazed interior uplands resistant in Taggart (2008) 0.040 (2006) Reserve: Rachel Carson to impact, frequently trampled ecotones (PR) Marshes: site (CA). required protection/fencing. 0.291 (1986) Lowland marshes 0.150 (1988) 0.179 (2006) NORTH AMERICAN SEMI-ARID AND ARID ENVIRONMENTS Great Basin District–xeric Exclosures in mesic area a) ↓ in vegetation height. Beever and Brussard 0.005 (1995) a) High elevation Seven 1998, sagebrush scrub ↓ plant species richness. (2000) Troughs Range, west near springs and sedge (PR) central Nevada meadows. b) Low elevation Clan Exclosures set up 1990 b) almost complete elimination of plant cover in 0.008 (1998) Alpine. and 1994 in sagebrush– some exclosure plots. Plants that were present were (BLM) salt scrub near springs. senescent, stunted in height, no inflorescences. Examined ecological 3.3 times less species richness. consequences. 6.7 times reduction in shrub species. 6 times reduction in small mammal burrows. Nine mountain ranges, Landscape scale Different small mammals assemblages associated Beever and Brussard Site unknown western Great Basin vegetation survey with soil-surface hardness, e.g. ↑ in species (2004) Est. < 0.00002 District. 1997–98. insensitive to disturbance. (PR) across Sagebrush-steppe Community responses of Small mammals diversity indices did not differ. ranges. (Artemisia tridentata ) s mall mammals ↓ absolute squamate species diversity, trend and reptiles. towards lower abundance of many reptile species. As above–same sites As above. ↑ penetration resistance of soil surfaces (extent Beever and Herrick As above Effects on soils and ants. differed for high and low elevation sites, and for (2006) years for most variables). (PR) ↓ in number of ant mounds. Est.: Estimated.

Appendices 377

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference NORTH AMERICAN SEMI-ARID AND ARID ENVIRONMENTS Cont. As previous–same sites. As for previous entry. ↓ in shrub cover, total plant cover, plant species Beever et al. (2008) As for Nine mountain ranges, Multi-scale responses of richness. (PR) previous western Great Basin vegetation. ↓ total plant cover and frequency of native grasses. entry District. ↑ in grazing-resistant forbs and exotic plants. Sagebrush-steppe Abiotic variables best predicted some variables, (Artemisia tridentata ) no evidence for intermediate disturbance hypothesis. Northwest end of Coyote April-May 2003, Soil compaction and increased erosion potential Ostermann-Kelm et al. On trails: Canyon, Anza-Borrego vegetation landscape were limited to established horse tracks. Tracks also (2009) 0.012 (2003) Desert State Park, scale survey of resulted in ↓ vegetation cover. At intermediate (PR) California, U.S. horse track network. intensity of disturbance, ↑ plant species diversity. (CA), arid Potential positive outcomes: ↑ in native plant diversity near tracks and faeces. Pryor Mountain Wild Multiple simulated In wet year, grasses fully compensated for removal Fahnestock and Detling 0.020 (1970) Rubenstein (1981) Horse Range (PMWHR), treatments in random plots of shoot biomass, but not in dry year – regrowth (1999a) 0.013 (1986) Fahnestock and Detling Montana, U.S. (BLM). within long-fenced following grazing closely linked to water (PR) 0.013 (1993) (1999b) Low elevation arid (>20-year) areas. availability. 0.011 (1994) BLM (1996) grassland and a more Growing season in 1993 ↑ N concentrations, higher quality forage. 0.014 (1995) mesic montane grassland. (wet year) and 1994 Concluded dominant graminoids are able to 0.016 (1996) Long-term grazing study (dry year). withstand heavy levels of defoliation via compensatory growth, however, some differences between community types. Comparable with above. Smaller scale exclosure Interannual differences in abiotic factors (rainfall) Fahnestock & Detling As above study, sampling years as overshadowed differences in plant cover patterns (1999b) (PR) above. between grazed and ungrazed sites; especially for Fahnestock (1998) Examined plant cover and the dominant perennial grasses such as (Ph.D.) species composition. Pseudoroegneria spicata . However, some differences between community types, suggesting long-term grazing has also resulted in some shifts in species composition, mostly via ↓ in grass cover and ↑ in species diversity at some sites. Comparable with above As above Shorter vegetative shoot heights in all 3 species Fahnestock and Detling As above Examined morphological Shorter leaf lengths in 2 species (2000) and physiological Less vertical growth in 1 species (PR) responses of 3 ↓ in number and size of reproductive shoots in dominant or common 2 species. Plant adaptation to long-term grazing perennial grasses. primarily morphological and not physiological.

Appendices 378

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference NORTH AMERICAN SEMI-ARID AND ARID ENVIRONMENTS Cont. PMWHR, one-quarter Focal animal observations Female sheep never observed foraging with horses. Coates and Schemnitz As for of which is in the of male Desert bighorn Male sheep and horses observed foraging (1994) previous Bighorn Canyon National sheep (Ovis canadensis ) together 22 times, habitat preferences opposite (PR) entries for Recreation Area (BICA) to assess foraging to when sheep foraging with conspecifics. PMWHR (CA) associations with Foraging with horses ↑'d foraging distance from feral horses, 1986–87. escape terrain and ↑'d foraging efficiency due to lack of aggressive or social interactions. Concluded that male Desert bighorn sheep and feral horses can have beneficial relationships in support of Berger's (1986) hypothesis that feral horses may serve as competitor or facilitator. As above Examined diets and habitat Observations differed from Coates and Schemnitz Kissell (1996) As for use to determine (1994) above (R.J. Kissell Jnr pers. comm.) (Ph.D.) previous potential for competition All three species overlapped spatially, but entries for between feral horses, sheep appeared to change their diet (partition PMWHR O.canadensis and resources) depending on the season to minimise Mule deer (Odocoileus overlap with horses. hemionus), 1992–1995. No evidence of facilitated foraging with horses, possibly because sheep and mule populations declined notably during the study. Northwest end of Coyote Interactions between High spatial overlap in habitats, particularly near Ostermann-Kelm et al. 34 horses Canyon, Anza-Borrego feral horses and water. No direct aggression observed, but high (2008) Desert State Park, O. canadensis at water. degree of temporal partitioning. (PR) California, U.S. Daily observations and Field experiment demonstrated sheep avoided (CA), arid manipulative field water sources due to the presence of horses, experiment using concluded evidence of indirect interference tethered horses in 2002. competition.

Appendices 379

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference SOUTH AMERICA (Argentina) Ernesto Tornquist Exclusion area, fenced for Diversity of habitats less in areas of high intensity Zalba and Cozzani (2004) 0.06–0.30 (2001) Specific to sites. Provincial Park, south of 6 years, moderated grazing (HIG). (PR) 0.220 (1995) Park-wide, total pop. Buenos Aires province, grazing and uncontrolled ↓ in richness of bird species and diversity year- 0.109 (1995) Park-wide, adults only. Argentina (CA), high intensity grazing round in (HIG), ↓ in density of birds during spring 0.210 (2002) Scorolli and Cazorla temperate grassland (HIG). in HIG. Different assembly of bird species in HIG. (2010) steppe Indirect effects on birds. ↑ mean egg predation rates (70%) in HIG than areas Estimates available for of exclusion and moderate grazing (12.5%). 1995–2002, only subset Some evidence of intemediate disturbance presented, population hypothesis for richness and diversity of increased each year. bird species. Adult density only. Ernesto Tornquist Random dung transects As dung piles age and decay, ↓ in bare ground Loydi and Zalba (2009) See above Provincial Park, south of in 2004. and ↑ in plant cover, species richness, diversity (PR) Buenos Aires province, and evenness. Some evidence for successional Argentina (CA), replacement of the vegetation in dung piles temperate grassland over time. Dung piles may facilitate invasive exotic steppe species, but also may provided a grazing refuge for grazing sensitive species. Ventenia Provincial Park Plots in grazing exclusion ↑ in non-native plant species and cover, moreso in Alejandro et al. (2010) <0.0003 (CA) and small section of area ungrazed tall-tussock grassland and largely in gaps of the (PR) privately owned Palo for 15 years in short- grass canopy. Alto Ranch in needle grass grassland Concluded uncontrolled grazing by feral horses mid-eastern Argentina, and tall-tussock facilitates non-native plant invasion. temperate and subhumid grassland. AUSTRALASIA (New Zealand) South-western Kaimanawa Permanent grassland plots Exclosures and 60% of plots in SM zone. Rogers (1991) 0.059 (0.044–0.070) Linklater et al. (2001) Mountain Range and exclosures set up in Plots: ↑ in adventive grass species on heavily Rogers (1994) for SM zone. Line-transect in military training zones. 1982. Monitored in 1982 grazed (HG) sites. No change in cover, but ↓ height (PR) 0.063 (0.013–0.100) estimates Montane-subalpine and 1989. Southern and recruitment of tussock species. for H zone. (95% Confidence tussock grassland Moawhango (SM), Exclosures: ↓ seedling recruitment but ↑ several 0.027 (0.013–0.111) Intervals). Hautapu (H) and small herbs. ↓ frequency of dominant inter-tussock for W zone. Waitangi Zone (W). grass but ↑ in frequency of 12 low stature species 0.091 (SM) Helicopter counts/area. and total species richness. ↓ frequency, biomass 0.053 (H) and stature of highly palatable species and ↑ in 0.023 (W) prostrate lawn species and unpalatable species. ↓ recruitment of tussock grasses. Flush zones highly modified by horses and dominated by adventive grasses and rushes-threat to habitat for rare plants.

Appendices 380

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference AUSTRALASIA (Australia) Guy Fawkes River Vegetation survey 1998 No difference in eroded area. Andreoni (1998) Pre-cull National Park, within 1 km of Guy ↑ density of horse dung, average 51 deposits per (GL) Australia, (CA), Fawkes River split into 100 m and up to an average of 537 m of horse track temperate grassy high and low-density per 1 ha. ↑ proportion of denuded bare ground. woodlands. zones. Impact results No correlation between macropod, cattle or horse refer to high-density dung counts. Leaf table height correlated with versus low-density. vegetation type and not density. As above Resampled same sites as No statistical differences in variables measured Jarman et al. (2003) Post-cull Andreoni (1998) in from 1998, but some tentative signs of recovery. (GL) 2002–2003 after the cull. ↑ in macropod and cattle dung deposits. Regardless of density, compaction greater on tracks than off tracks. As above, 4 km upstream Germination trials with Dominance of dicots and monocots varied between Taylor (1995) of the Aberfoyle–Guy fresh horse dung in 1995. germination trials. 6 of the 7 dicot species that (GL) Fawkes River Junction Sieving and seed persisted were exotic species. Estimated number of viability trials. seeds passed per day per horse ranged from 100's to 1000's but viability very low. Concluded horses were able to disperse viable seeds of native and exotic plants. As above, Paddys Land Vegetation survey and Trees damaged from bark chewing, especially in Schott (2002) Plateau and Bobs Creek exclosures (Bobs Creek) drainage lines and in summer and selected for Schott (2003) in 2002. specific species. Exclosures destroyed. (GL) Southern Kosciusko Vegetation survey of Extent of tracks ranged 0.034–0.058 km of track/ha. Dyring (1990) National Park (NP) (NSW) tracks in 1990. Track Mean track widths ranged from 40.7cm to 67.5 cm. (MS) Alps NP: and Cobberas–Tingaringy versus off-track. ↑ bulk density and compaction and ↓ soil moisture 0.019 (2001) Walter and Hone (2003) NP Victoria (Vic) (CA), Vegetation: trampled content. 0.009 (2003) Walter (2003a) sub-alpine and montane versus untrampled areas. ↓ dicot species and woody species. 0.027 (2009) Walter (2009) region ↓ plant species richness and diversity of life-forms. Cobberas–Tingaringy NP Exclosures set up in 1999 ↓ in vegetation height. Prober and Thiele (2007) Study area: Victoria (Vic) (CA), and monitored in 2005. No effect of exclusion on shrub numbers, or shrub (GL) 0.064 (1999–01) Dawson (2005) sub-alpine and montane and litter cover. No effect on plot-scale species in Cowombat region richness for any plant group but ↑ in point-scale exclosures. total and herb species richness. No effect on bare Study zone: ground or stream width. Minor effects on 0.015 (2009) Walter (2009) composition, but weaker than natural site variation. Bushfires Walter (2003b) Few exotics in 1999 and did not change in richness prior to 2003 or abundance. ↓ no. horses

Appendices 381

Location Study details Impacts associated with horses Impact study reference Density Density reference AUSTRALASIA (Australia) Cont. Hale Plain, in the Alice Vegetation survey in Water-holes polluted by horse carcasses, presence Berman and Jarman 0.007–0.012 Berman (1991) Springs region of the 1985–86, 1988. of horses and horse signs (e.g. dung, tracks) (1988) (1990's) southern Northern Numerous attributes negatively correlated with distance from water, (GL) Territory, examined. as was herb cover. Fewer kangaroo signs in areas Berman (1991) (Ph.D) arid desert zone heavily used by horses. Concluded had a marked impact on herbaceous vegetation via selective grazing and trampling, created trails, concentration of dung piles, and potentially caused accelerated erosion and affected the distribution of wildlife (e.g. macropods).

Appendices 382

APPENDIX 2. Differential decay rates of macropod and horse dung. Johnson and Jarman (1987) provided details on the relative decay rates of eastern grey kangaroo and red-necked wallaby deposits, which were similar. Dung deposits disappeared rapidly during warm, moist conditions (April and Mary) but were unlikely to vanish during the cold, dry conditions (June – August); and pellets in the open were more likely to disappear than those in long grass (Table 2.1). Fresh pellets were also rain affected with approximately 13% disappearing within 24 hours after exposure to rain (Johnson and Jarman 1987). In a separate study, <5% of all eastern grey kangaroo deposits were recognised and counted after 6 months in three different kangaroo grass-dominated grasslands areas that did not differ in decay rates (Perry and Braysher 1986). Decay rates for horse dung in comparative habitat in Australian were not available. An estimate from the most comparable environment in New Zealand’s Kaimanawa Mountain Range was an average decay time of 424 ± 34 days for dung to no longer be visible when standing within 1.5 m of the dung deposit; although most dung deposits disappeared before just over a year had elapsed (Linklater et al. 2001). Horse deposits in open exotic grassland also decayed at a faster rate than those in tall tussock grasslands but the average time to decay at approximately 600 ± 50 days and 310 ± 25 days was much greater than that for macropod deposits. Presumably feral horse dung may also be susceptible to accelerated decay when exposed to heavy rain. The volume and number of pellets in a horse deposit (e.g. average of 2 litres for adult horse, Janzen 1982b) suggests that they were still recognised and counted as ‘decayed mush pile’ for the 4-month accumulation period yet may have been under- estimated when dung transects were established. In comparison, the volume and number of pellets in eastern grey kangaroo and red-necked wallaby deposits were much smaller (Perry and Braysher 1986) and in summer up to 62% could disappear within less than 2 months in the open (Table 2.1). It was possible that macropod dung deposits were under-estimated in grassy swale habitat during the March and July 2006 accumulation periods, in particular, and in general due to the summer and winter rainfall patterns on the Northern Tablelands.

Appendices 383

Table 2.1 Rates of decay to when macropod dung disappeared of both eastern grey kangaroo and red-necked wallaby pellets under long grass and in the open at Wallaby Creek in north-eastern New South Wales, adapted from Johnson and Jarman (1987). Long grass was not further described but Open referred to unshaded, short pasture. '—' indicates was not monitored. Percentage of April–June: 48 days June–July: 30 days July–August: 25 days pellets remaining Long grass Open Long grass Open Long grass Open On Day 2 — 70.2% 100.0% 98.1% 100.0% 100.0% At the end of the trial 71.8% 37.9% 97.0% 97.6% 100.0% 100.0% No. of pellets in trial 71 104 67 125 48 50

Appendices 384

APPENDIX 3. Detailed summary of NSW NPWS Dorrigo Plateau Area office feral horse capture and removal program on Paddys Plateau. 3.1 Trap Sites 1–3 The following comparisons were within Trap Sites 1–3 unless stated otherwise. The CPUE, average mob size, and number of stallion harem groups tended to decline over the duration of the capture program. All mobs captured during the Pre-July 2005 period were harem groups. The average age (2.6 ± 1.4 years) for other males in the mob was the lowest recorded, suggesting they were predominantly yearlings from the previous mating season or slightly older pre-dispersal aged off-spring. The CPUE of 6.00 horses/month was the greatest estimated for Trap Sites 1–3. Average mob size was the second largest at 7.1 ± 3.0 horses and was greater than that calculated for Trap Sites 4–6 across all Capture Periods. The percentage of total horses that were mares and foals (45.0%) was the greatest and the percentage of bachelor colts one of the lowest calculated (8.3%). The average age of bachelor colts was consistent with published post-dispersal and pre-harem forming age intervals (Wolfe 1980; McCort 1984; Linklater et al. 2004; Scorolli and Cazorla 2010). Harem groups often have smaller home ranges and greater home range loyalty than bachelor groups and mixed sex peer groups, using the same areas repeatedly for up to 5 years (Pellegrini 1971; Zervanos and Keiper 1979; Miller 1983; Waring 1983b; Berger 1986; King 2002). Trends for the estimated 4-month dung accumulation period prior to July 2005 (T1) were very similar to the Pre-July 2005 period. All mobs were harem groups, the average age of other males in the mob was almost the same and the decrease in the CPUE to 5.25 horses/month was relatively minor. Average mob size was slightly less but still greater than for any Trap Sites 4–6 Capture Period. Almost the same percentage of total horse captures were mares and foals (44.0%) and just the one bachelor colt (4.8%) of a similar average age (4.0 ± 0.0 years) was captured. The conservative 8-month estimated dung accumulation period included an additional 1 trap month. In that month, one bachelor colt of the same age and a small mixed sex peer group with two males aged 6-years and 8-years and a 4-year-old female were captured. The mixed sex peer group accounted for the greater average age of males within mobs compared to the Pre-July 2005 period when results for all 8 months were incorporated, and for the greater average mob size. Average age of females was less for both T1 accumulation period estimates, possibly because more of the mob females were jouvenille off-spring rather than multiple unrelated breeding mares.

Appendices 385

Trends for the November 2005 (T2) dung accumulation period and subsequent Capture Periods were very different to those previously reported for July 2005 (T1) and earlier. The notable exception was July 2006 (T4) with details provided in the following paragraph. At the second dung accumulation period (T2), the CPUE had decreased to approximately a third of the value calculated for the 4 month July 2005 (T1) period. Of the two mobs captured, one was a harem group and the other the only bachelor group captured at Trap Sites 1–3. The harem group of five horses consisted of the stallion and two mare and foal pairings. In the bachelor group of two horses, one horse was a yearling and the other 5-years of age. Thus, average mob size at 3.5 ± 2.1 horses was the smallest recorded in conjunction with the Post-July 2006 average mob size of 3.5 ± 0.7 horses. The number of males and average age within mobs corresponded to the bachelor group. The percentage of total horses that were mares and foals (33.0%) was 11% less than T1 while the percentage that were bachelor colts (33.3%) was 25% greater than T1. When bachelor colts and the bachelor group were combined they accounted for 50% of T2’s total horse captures. At a minimum, this was 33.3% greater than at any Capture Period across both Trap Sites 1–3 and Trap Sites 4–6. At the third accumulation period (T3) despite 3 trap months the CPUE was 0.00 horses/month. While a single coacher mare foal was captured and noted in the Total horses and Other types of captures columns, coacher mare foals were not included in the CPUE or any other category in Table 3.1. The trends in mob composition for the Post-July 2006 capture period were highly comparable to November 2005 (T2). The number of mobs, average mob size, number of stallions and harem groups, and the number of males within mobs were the same and percentage of mares and foals and average age of males within mobs very similar. Mob composition differed in that the harem group of three horses consisted of the stallion and a 6-year-old mare and 3-year-old male juvenile (probably off-spring); and the other mob was a mixed sex peer group of four horses with a mare and foal, a 8-year-old adult female and a 3-year-old male juvenile. No bachelor colts or groups were captured. The CPUE remained relatively low at 0.78 horses/month, which was approximately one-sixth (15.6%) of the value calculated for the 4 month July 2005 (T1) period. During the July 2006 (T4) dung accumulation period, almost all (16) of the total 18 horses captured were in April 2006. This was the first month the capture program resumed in 2006 after the 3 month Christmas and New Year holiday break with lure feeding commencing in early February 2006. Average mob size was greater than Pre-July 2005 as

Appendices 386 just the two harem groups of ten and six horses were captured from two trap sites and 50% of those horses were mares and foals. Capture comments for most horses at T1 and T2 mentioned prior sightings or that the horses were known to the Paddys Plateau, but these two mobs appeared to be recent arrivals. After no horses were captured in the following trap month, the trap site was closed and not re-opened again for the duration of this study as subsequent helicopter surveys and NSW NPWS field crew observations did not report a build- up of mobs in the Mt Gardiner and Wonga Flat region. The other trap site was Middle Dam, and after zero horses were captured in the following trap month, then three horses and zero horses respectively in the two trap months after that, the trap yards were permanently closed. While the trap paddock remained open for a further 2 months, zero horses were captured in the trap paddock. The temporary increase in the CPUE to 2.57 horses/month was due to the Mt Gardiner and Middle Dam captures in April 2006 and only zero or one horse was captured in the remaining 5 of the 7 total trap months. The CPUE was approximately half the CPUE of the first dung accumulation period (T1).

3.2 Trap Sites 4–6 At Trap Sites 4–6, average mob size and number of stallion harem groups also tended to decline over the duration of the capture program but the CPUE fluctuated according to the intensity (E) of the prior capture period. Factors contributing in addition to the likely greater immigration from the Sara River flats may have been the later start of the capture program at Boban Hut and later again at Spion Kiope, the smaller number of trap sites and hence more frequent instances where no traps were operational in the group, and the extension of the program at Boban Hut into 2006 and 2007 when all but one trap site had been permanently closed at Trap Sites 1–3 by September 2006. The Pre-July 2005 capture period encompassed only 1-trap month, September 2004, at Boban Hut. A total of ten horses were captured corresponding to the CPUE of 10 horses/month and just the one harem group (mob) of five horses. The CPUE was 1.7–2.0 times greater than the CPUE for the first two Capture Periods at Trap Sites 1–3. The remaining five horses captured were a pregnant 6-year-old female and a 5-year-old male identified as part of a harem group of a total of six horses; and a 7-year-old male, 5-year-old female and foal that were also part of another harem group of seven horses. The five horses were released and re-captured at Boban Hut in November 2004 with the remaining mob members and therefore were included as per usual in the November 2005 (T2) dung

Appendices 387 accumulation period results. They were only counted in the Total horses and derivative CPUE columns for Pre-July 2005. Trends for the estimated 4-month dung accumulation period prior to July 2005 (T1) were comparable to the Pre-July 2005 period. The CPUE of 11.50 horses/month had increased slightly but average mob size was almost the same and within the standard deviation range for Trap Sites 1–3 for the same period. While not all mobs were harem groups, they were proportionally dominant (75% of total number of mobs) for both the 4 month and 8 month estimated accumulation periods. As for Trap Sites 1–3, the 8 month period had just the one additional trap month. The distinctly large CPUE of 22.71 horses/month was due to the 39 horses captured at Boban Hut in November 2004 after intensive lure feeding in the October prior. Relative to Trap Sites 1–3, the percentage of bachelor colts (5.9%) was slightly less and they tended to be a year or two older on average as were the males within mobs; and the percentage of mares and foals less by 10%. The three additional mobs to the nine harem groups were all mixed sex peer groups that ranged from a 2-year-old male and 1-year-old female pairing to a mob of seven horses with four males (5–8 year-olds), a 5-year-old female and a mare and foal pairing. The pattern for Trap Sites 1–3 was repeated at Trap Sites 4–6 in that the CPUE was comparatively low at the November 2005 (T2) dung accumulation period compared to the previous two Capture Periods. While a CPUE of 3.60 horses/month was the lowest estimated across Trap Sites 4–6, it was still 2.2 times greater than the relative CPUE for Trap Sites 1–3. Three times as many mobs were captured but only a third of those were harem groups and average mob size and average age of stallions were less relative to Trap Sites 1–3. The remaining mobs were two mare and foal pairings, a mixed sex peer grouping of four horses, predominantly female, and a bachelor group of two 2-year olds. As in Trap Sites 1–3, the percentage of total horses that were bachelor groups and colts at 27.8% was markedly greater than for other Capture Periods within the Trap Sites 4–6 grouping but approximately half that relative to Trap Sites 1–3. Trap Sites 4–6 were closed for the March 2006 (T3) and July 2006 (T4) dung accumulation periods. This may explain the Post-July 2006 CPUE of 9.00 horses/month which increased by a factor of 2.5 to approximate the Pre-July 2005 CPUE. Average mob size and average stallion age was as comparably low as November 2005 (T2) and the proportion of harem groups the same. The remaining mobs were two male and female pairings ≤5 years of age, a bachelor grouping of a 7 and 3-year-old, and three mare and foal pairings, one of

Appendices 388 which was part of a larger mob of six horses not captured. Other types of captures included a 6-year-old stallion that was well known to NSW NPWS staff for chasing mobs in the Boban Hut vicinity for many years and had escaped previous contractors by jumping or charging the gates on two occasions. The bachelor group and stallion accounted for 11.1% of total horses captured, which was greater than at the first two Capture Periods. Therefore, the greater proportion of bachelor colts or groups and mixed sex peer grouping, horses of pre or post-dispersal age (i.e. younger horses), and smaller mob size in the later Capture Periods confirmed that after T2, the majority of horses on the Plateau in and around Sites 1–3 were probably migrants and not long-term resident harem mobs loyal to small, home ranges. In Sites 4–6, this was only beginning to occur towards the final Capture Period and these sites have higher rates of immigration from the Sara River flats of harem groups as well as bachelor and mixed sex peer groupings.

Appendices 389

Table 3.1 Summary of NSW NPWS capture and removal program results highlighting characteristics of mob composition and individual captures specific to each regional-site dung accumulation period (T1 – T4) and trapping periods before and after those four accumulation periods. No. of trap sites were those that were operational for at least 1-month. Heading terms were defined in the methods and for abbreviations (Est. CPUE) estimated catch-per-unit-effort, (Ave.) average, (No.) number, (N/A) non-applicable, (CMFo) coacher mare foal, (PAF) lone pregnant adult female, (AMR) adult male recaptured, (AFPM) adult female part of a mob captured earlier, (AF) lone adult female, (ASEsc) adult stallion captured and escaped twice prior to finally being transported off-park. *July 2005 (T1) included re-captured horses from Pre-July 2005, see results section for clarification. '-' indicates trapping program temporarily closed.

Appendices 390

APPENDIX 4. List of plant species recorded in plots for Chapter 4: Paddys Plateau. Percentage foliage cover (%) of groundstorey plant species in Paddys Land section, Guy Fawkes River National Park. MAY 2004 Site123456 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat123456123456123456123456123456123456 Species Acacia dealbata 0.5 1 Acacia filicifolia 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 Acacia implexa 1 1 Ajuga australis 1131 1 Allocasuarina species 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 0.5 Angophora floribunda 22 Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) 1 Asperula conferta 11 10.5111 1 Asteraceae species 1 1 Asteraceae species 2 1 1 Asteraceae species 3 1 Asteraceae species 4 11 Asteraceae species 5 1 Austrodanthonia eriantha 11 Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bidens pilosa 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 Bothriochloa macra 31 Brachycome species 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bursaria spinosa 1 Calotis species 1 Carex inversa 1 Carophyllaceae species 11 Centaurium erythraea 1 Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 11 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 1 1 1 Conyza bonariensis 10.5 Craspedia variabilis 1 0.5 1 1 Cymbonotus law sonianus 11 Cymbopogon refractus 3 7 2 4 6 5 10 4 1 1 1 2 2 10 2 1 5 7 5 7 10 7 1 2 1 3 2 4 Desmodium brachypodium 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 Desmodium varians 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia 0.5 Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 Dichelachne micrantha 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Dichondra repens 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1

Appendices 391

Digitaria ternata 23 1 Echinopogon caespitosa 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 Eragrostis leptostachya 1 1 1 1 1 2 40 2 2 2 1 5 2 1 1 1 1 Eremophila debilis 1 32 2111 Eucalyptus amplifolia 1 1 1 1 1 Eucalyptus caliginosa 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 0.5 Eucalyptus moluccana 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Eucalyptus tereticornis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 Euchiton sphaericum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Exocarpus species 1 113 Fimbristylis dichotoma 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Glossogyne tannersii 1 Glycine clandestina species complex 11 2 Glycine tabacina 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Goodenia bellifidifolia 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 Haloragis heterophylla 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hardenbergia violacea 11 111111 1 Helichrysum scorpioides 11 1 Hibbertia obtusifolia 1 1 1 1 Hypericum gramineum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 Imperata cylindrica 111 Jacksonia scoparia 1110.51 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lobelia gibbosa 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Lomandra longifolia 10.51 Lomandra multiflora 111 1 1 1 Lomandra species 1 1 Mentha satureioides 1 1 1 1 1 Microlaena stipoides 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 40 15 2 2 2 2 2 2 50 45 1 2 Notelaea microcarpa 1 Opercularia diaphylla 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Oxalis exilis 0.5 1 0.5 0.5

Appendices 392

Panicum effusum 12 Phyllanthus virgatus 1 1 Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 1 1 1 1 1 Plantago debilis 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Plantago gaudichaudii 0.5 Plantago major 0.5 Poa sieberiana 35 20 6 12 11 20 20 10 7 3 3 1 2 7 1 3 Polygala japonica 0.5 1 Poranthera microphylla 10.5 Pratia pedunculata 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ranunculus lappaceus 111111 Schoenus apogon 111 Senecio lautus 1 Senecio sp. E 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0.5 Sigesbeckia orientalis 1 Solanum species 10.5 Solenogyne bellioides 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sorghum leiocladum 2 12 4 2 2 3 4 3 7 6 70 10 10 10 15 1 10 7 7 7 10 10 1 10 7 20 4 3 Sporobolus creber 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 Stackhousia monogyna 0.5 0.5 Taraxacum officinale 1 Themeda australis 45 30 65 70 75 70 45 30 60 50 50 15 50 50 40 70 70 45 65 4 70 30 7 40 50 35 30 40 35 30 60 15 55 70 60 Veronica species 1 11 Veronica species 2 1 1 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 Wahlenbergia gracilis 1 Wahlenbergia species 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 Xanthorrhoea species 20.5 1 1 0.5 Unknow n species 1

Appendices 393

JUNE 2005 Site 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat12345 6 1234561234561234 5612345 6123456 Species Acacia dealbata 2.0 Acacia filicifolia 1.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Acacia implexa 1.0 1.0 Ajuga australis 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Allocasuarina species 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 Angophora floribunda 2.0 2.0 Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) 1.0 Asperula conferta 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 Asteraceae species 1 1.0 Asteraceae species 2 1.0 Asteraceae species 3 Asteraceae species 4 1.0 1.0 Asteraceae species 5 1.0 Austrodanthonia eriantha Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Austrostipa pubescens 1.0 Austrostipa scabra 1.0 1.0 1.0 Austrostipa species 1.0 Bidens pilosa 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 Bothriochloa macra 4.0 1.0 2.0 Brachyscome microcarpa 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Brachycome scapigera 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Brachycome aculeata 1.0 1.0 Brachycome species Brachycome tenuiscapa var. tenuiscapa 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Bracteantha viscosa 1.0 Bursaria spinosa Calotis dentex 1.0 Carex inversa 1.0 2.0 Carophyllaceae species 1.0 Centaurium erythraea 1.0 Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Conyza bonariensis Craspedia variabilis 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 Cymbonotus law sonianus 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Cymbopogon refractus 2.0 9.0 2.0 8.0 5.0 15.0 2.0 6.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 10.0 2.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 Cyperus gracilis 1.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Desmodium brachypodium 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

Appendices 394

Desmodium varians 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia 3.0 Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Dichelachne micrantha 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Dichondra repens 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 6.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Digitaria ternata 2.0 Digitaria diffusa 1.0 Echinopogon caespitosa 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 Einadia trigonos 0.5 Eragrostis leptostachya 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 38.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Eremophila debilis 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Eucalyptus amplifolia 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Eucalyptus caliginosa 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 Eucalyptus moluccana 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 Eucalyptus tereticornis 1.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 Euchiton sphaericum 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 Exocarpus species 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Fimbristylis dichotoma 2.0 1.0 0.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 Glossogyne tannensis 1.0 Glycine clandestina species complex 1.0 1.0 3.0 Glycine tabacina 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Goodenia bellifidifolia 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 Haloragis heterophylla 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Hardenbergia violacea 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 Helichrysum scorpioides 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 Helichrysum rutidolepis 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Hibbertia linearis 1.0 1.0 Hibbertia obtusifolia 1.0 Hypericum gramineum 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Imperata cylindrica 1.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Jacksonia scoparia 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Langifera 0.5 0.5 0.5 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Lobelia gibbosa 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.01.0 2.0 2.02.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Lomandra longifolia 1.0 2.0 1.0 Lomandra multiflora 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Lomandra species 1.0 2.0 Mentha satureioides 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Microlaena stipoides 5.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 35.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 45.0 5.0 30.0 1.0 1.0 Notelaea microcarpa 1.0 1.0 Opercularia diaphylla 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Oplismenus aemulus 3.0 2.0

Appendices 395

Oxalis exilis 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 Panicum effusum 2.0 Phyllanthus virgatus 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 Plantago debilis 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Plantago gaudichaudii 2.0 1.0 1.0 Plantago major 1.0 Plectranthus parviflorus 0.5 0.5 Poa sieberiana 28.0 20.0 2.0 15.0 20.0 11.0 20.0 18.0 8.0 10.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 Polygala japonica 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Poranthera microphylla 1.0 1.0 0.5 Pratia pedunculata 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Ranunculus lappaceus 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 Rhodanthe anthemoides 1.0 Rostellularia adscendens 1.0 1.0 1.0 Schoenus apogon 1.0 Scleria mackaviensis 1.0 Senecio lautus 1.0 1.0 Senecio prenanthoides 1.0 1.0 Senecio sp. E 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Sigesbeckia orientalis Solanum species 2.0 2.0 Solegyne bellioides 1.0 1.01.0 0.51.01.00.5 1.01.00.50.51.00.50.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.50.5 Sorghum leiocladum 2.0 6.0 7.0 4.0 2.0 10.0 5.0 6.0 3.0 10.0 50.0 5.0 5.0 7.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 5.0 8.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 15.0 7.0 7.0 20.0 4.0 10.0 Sporobolus creber 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Stackhousia monogyna Taraxacum officinale 1.0 0.5 Themeda australis Vernonia cinerea 0.5 1.0 1.0 Veronica plebeia 0.5 1.0 1.0 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 Wahlenbergia gracilis 0.5 Wahlenbergia species 1.0 1.0 Xanthorrhoea species 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Zornia dyctiocarpa 1.0

Appendices 396

DECEMBER 2005 Site 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat12 345 61234561234561234 561 2345612 3456 Species Acacia dealbata 2.0 Acacia filicifolia 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Acacia implexa 1.0 Ajuga australis 1.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 Allocasuarina species 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 Angophora floribunda Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) 2.0 Asperula conferta 0.5 1.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Asteraceae species 1 Asteraceae species 2 0.5 Asteraceae species 3 Asteraceae species 4 1.0 Asteraceae species 5 Austrodanthonia eriantha 1.0 1.0 Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata 1.0 2.0 Austrostipa pubescens Austrostipa scabra 1.5 Austrostipa species Bidens pilosa 2.0 Bothriochloa macra 4.0 2.0 2.0 Brachyscome microcarpa 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 Brachycome scapigera 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Brachycome aculeata Brachycome species Brachycome tenuiscapa var. tenuiscapa 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Bracteantha viscosa Bursaria spinosa 4.0 Calotis dentex 0.5 Carex inversa 1.0 1.0 Carophyllaceae species Centaurium erythraea Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 0.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Commelina cyanea 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 Conyza bonariensis 1.0 Craspedia variabilis 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.5 Cymbonotus law sonianus 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 Cymbopogon refractus 2.0 7.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 7.0 2.0 4.0 10.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 8.0 3.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 Cyperus gracilis 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

Appendices 397

Desmodium brachypodium 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Desmodium varians 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia 1.0 Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 Dichelachne micrantha 1.0 8.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 3.0 Dichondra repens 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 Digitaria ternata Digitaria diffusa 1.5 Echinopogon caespitosa 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 Einadia trigonos 0.5 Elymus scaber 3.0 1.0 Eragrostis leptostachya 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 38.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 Eremophila debilis 2.0 2.0 Eucalyptus amplifolia 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Eucalyptus caliginosa 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 Eucalyptus moluccana 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Eucalyptus tereticornis 1.0 4.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 Euchiton sphaericum 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Exocarpus species 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 Fimbristylis dichotoma 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Glossogyne tannensis Glycine clandestina species complex 3.0 Glycine tabacina 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 Goodenia bellifidifolia 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Haloragis heterophylla 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 Hardenbergia violacea 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Helichrysum scorpioides 1.0 1.0 2.0 Helichrysum rutidolepis 1.0 1.0 Hibbertia linearis 2.0 2.0 Hibbertia obtusifolia 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 Hypericum gramineum 0.5 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 Imperata cylindrica 6.0 1.0 1.0 Jacksonia scoparia 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Langifera 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Lobelia gibbosa 2.0 Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Lomandra longifolia 2.0 2.0

Appendices 398

Lomandra multiflora 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Lomandra species 1.0 1.0 Lotus australis 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 Mentha satureioides Microlaena stipoides 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 6.0 10.0 35.0 6.0 6.0 2.0 40.0 4.0 25.0 Notelaea microcarpa Opercularia diaphylla 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Oplismenus aemulus 2.0 2.0 Oxalis exilis 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 Panicum effusum Phyllanthus virgatus 1.0 Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Plantago debilis 0.5 1.0 1.0 Plantago gaudichaudii 3.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Plantago major Plectranthus parviflorus 0.5 0.5 1.0 Poa sieberiana 25.0 23.0 4.0 16.0 20.0 15.0 20.0 13.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 3.0 6.0 3.0 Polygala japonica 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Poranthera microphylla 2.0 1.0 1.0 Pratia pedunculata 0.5 1.0 0.5 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 Ranunculus lappaceus 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 Rhodanthe anthemoides Rostellularia adscendens 1.0 1.0 Schoenus apogon Scleria mackaviensis 0.5 1.0 Senecio lautus 0.5 Senecio prenanthoides Senecio sp. E 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Sigesbeckia orientalis Solanum species 1.0 1.0 Solegyne bellioides 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 Sorghum leiocladum 13.0 8.0 7.0 13.0 5.0 10.0 6.0 5.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 50.0 5.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 15.0 15.0 7.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 10.0 8.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 7.0 10.0 13.0 6.0 10.0 Sporobolus creber 1.0 4.0 2.0 2.0

Appendices 399

Stackhousia monogyna 1.0 Stackhousia viminea 2.0 Sw ainsona galegifolia 1.0 Taraxacum officinale 2.0 Themeda australis 37.0 35.0 50.0 56.0 55.0 55.0 50.0 40.0 50.0 45.0 50.0 20.0 40.0 45.0 45.0 55.0 55.0 57.0 50.0 5.0 58.0 38.0 6.0 50.0 40.0 35.0 35.0 35.0 36.0 30.0 5.0 52.0 20.0 50.0 63.0 55.0 Trachymene incisa 1.0 1.5 2.0 Vernonia cinerea 1.0 2.0 1.0 Veronica plebeia 1.0 0.5 1.0 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 Wahlenbergia gracilis 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Wahlenbergia species 0.5 0.5 1.0 Xanthorrhoea species 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Zornia dyctiocarpa 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0

Appendices 400

FEBRUARY 2006 Site 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat123456123456 1 2345 6 1 234 5612345 6 12345 6 Species Acacia dealbata 3.0 Acacia filicifolia 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Acacia implexa 3.0 Ajuga australis 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 Allocasuarina species 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 Angophora floribunda Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) Asperula conferta 0.5 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Asteraceae species 1 Asteraceae species 2 1.0 Asteraceae species 3 Asteraceae species 4 Asteraceae species 5 Austrodanthonia eriantha 1.0 Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata Austrostipa pubescens 2.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Austrostipa scabra 1.5 Austrostipa species Bidens pilosa Bothriochloa macra 2.0 2.0 2.0 Brachyscome microcarpa 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Brachycome scapigera 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Brachycome aculeata 1.0 Brachycome species Brachycome tenuiscapa var. tenuiscapa 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 Bracteantha viscosa 3.0 3.0 1.0 Bursaria spinosa 4.0 Calotis dentex Carex inversa 1.0 1.0 Carophyllaceae species Centaurium erythraea Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 1.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 4.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Commelina cyanea 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Conyza bonariensis Craspedia variabilis 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 Cymbonotus law sonianus 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 Cymbopogon refractus 6.0 5.0 8.0 4.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 8.0 8.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 Cyperus gracilis 2.0 2.0

Appendices 401

Desmodium brachypodium 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 Desmodium varians 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 7.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia 1.0 Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 4.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Dichelachne micrantha 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Dichondra repens 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0.5 5.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 10.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 8.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 Digitaria ternata Digitaria diffusa 1.5 Echinopogon caespitosa 3.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 Einadia trigonos 0.5 0.5 Elymus scaber 2.0 Eragrostis leptostachya 1.0 2.0 1.0 40.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 10.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 Eremophila debilis Eucalyptus amplifolia 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 Eucalyptus caliginosa 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Eucalyptus moluccana 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 Eucalyptus tereticornis 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 Euchiton sphaericum 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 Exocarpus species 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 Fimbristylis dichotoma 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 0.5 1.5 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Glossogyne tannensis Glycine clandestina species complex Glycine tabacina 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 Goodenia bellifidifolia 0.5 2.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 Haloragis heterophylla 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 Hardenbergia violacea 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 Helichrysum scorpioides 2.0 Helichrysum rutidolepis 1.0 1.0 Hibbertia linearis 2.0 Hibbertia obtusifolia 3.0 2.0 Hypericum gramineum 2.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.5 0.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Imperata cylindrica 2.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 Jacksonia scoparia 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Langifera 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 2.0 1.0

Appendices 402

Lobelia gibbosa 0.5 Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Lomandra longifolia 1.0 1.0 Lomandra multiflora 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Lomandra species 2.0 Lotus australis 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 Mentha satureioides 1.0 Microlaena stipoides 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 6.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.5 6.0 8.0 33.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 35.0 6.0 28.0 2.0 3.0 Notelaea microcarpa Opercularia diaphylla 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Oplismenus aemulus 2.0 Oxalis exilis 0.5 1.0 0.5 2.01.51.01.02.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 2.00.51.01.0 0.5 3.01.01.02.02.0 2.0 Panicum effusum 2.0 Phyllanthus virgatus 1.0 2.0 Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Plantago debilis 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 Plantago gaudichaudii 3.0 1.5 1.0 Plantago major Plectranthus parviflorus 0.5 1.0 2.0 Poa sieberiana 20.0 20.0 2.0 10.0 15.0 10.0 22.0 12.0 10.0 12.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 Polygala japonica 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 Poranthera microphylla 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Pratia pedunculata 2.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Ranunculus lappaceus 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 Rhodanthe authemoides 1.0 Rostellularia adscendens 1.0 Schoenus apogon 0.5 Scleria mackaviensis 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Senecio lautus 0.5 Senecio prenanthoides Senecio sp. E 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.0 Sigesbeckia orientalis Solanum species 1.0 2.0 Solegyne bellioides 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sorghum leiocladum 8.0 10.0 6.0 8.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 55.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 5.0 6.0 Sporobolus creber 1.0 Stackhousia monogyna 1.0 Stackhousia viminea 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Appendices 403

Sw ainsona galegifolia 1.0 2.0 2.0 Taraxacum officinale 1.0 Themeda australis 38.0 38.0 55.0 55.0 60.0 60.0 38.0 35.0 45.0 45.0 55.0 18.0 40.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 60.0 55.0 55.0 4.0 53.0 35.0 5.0 45.0 45.0 35.0 35.0 37.0 30.0 32.0 4.0 50.0 25.0 50.0 65.0 60.0 Trachymene incisa 3.0 2.0 2.0 Vernonia cinerea 1.0 2.0 1.0 Veronica plebeia 1.0 1.0 1.0 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Wahlenbergia gracilis 1.0 1.0 Wahlenbergia species 1.0 Xanthorrhoea species 2.0 2.0 3.0 Zornia dyctiocarpa 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0

Appendices 404

JUNE 2006 Site 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat12 3 4 5 6 1 2 345 6 1 23456 1 23 4 56 123 4 5 6 12 345 6 Species Acacia dealbata 2.0 Acacia filicifolia 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 Acacia implexa 1.0 Ajuga australis 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Allocasuarina species 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 Angophora floribunda 2.0 2.0 Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) Asperula conferta 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 2.0 Asteraceae species 1 1.0 Asteraceae species 2 0.5 Asteraceae species 3 Asteraceae species 4 Asteraceae species 5 Austrodanthonia eriantha 2.0 Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata 1.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Austrostipa pubescens 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Austrostipa scabra 2.0 Austrostipa species 1.0 Bidens pilosa 0.5 0.5 2.0 Bothriochloa macra 1.0 3.0 1.0 Brachyscome microcarpa 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 Brachycome scapigera 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 Brachycome aculeata 1.0 Brachycome species Brachycome tenuiscapa var. tenuiscapa 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 Bracteantha viscosa 3.0 3.0 Bursaria spinosa 2.0 Calotis dentex Carex inversa 1.0 1.0 1.0 Carophyllaceae species Centaurium erythraea 1.0 Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 2.0 1.0 1.0 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Commelina cyanea 1.0 Conyza bonariensis 1.0 Craspedia variabilis 1.5 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Cymbonotus law sonianus 2.0 1.0 0.5 Cymbopogon refractus 5.0 5.0 4.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 10.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 10.0 2.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 Cyperus gracilis 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 Desmodium brachypodium 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 1.0

Appendices 405

Desmodium varians 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Dichelachne micrantha 1.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 Dichondra repens 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 6.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Digitaria ternata 3.0 2.0 Digitaria diffusa 1.5 Echinopogon caespitosa 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 Einadia trigonos 0.5 1.0 Elymus scaber 1.0 1.0 Eragrostis leptostachya 2.0 45.0 3.0 10.0 10.0 2.0 15.0 6.0 5.0 2.0 Eremophila debilis 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Eucalyptus amplifolia 2.0 3.0 3.0 Eucalyptus caliginosa 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 Eucalyptus moluccana 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Eucalyptus tereticornis 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 Euchiton sphaericum 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 0.5 Exocarpus species 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Fimbristylis dichotoma 1.0 1.0 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Glossogyne tannensis Glycine clandestina species complex 1.0 3.0 Glycine tabacina 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Goodenia bellifidifolia 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Haloragis heterophylla 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Hardenbergia violacea 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 5.0 Helichrysum scorpioides 1.0 1.0 1.0 Helichrysum rutidolepis 1.0 1.0 Hibbertia linearis Hibbertia obtusifolia 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Hypericum gramineum 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Imperata cylindrica 6.0 3.0 2.0 Jacksonia scoparia 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 Langifera 0.5 0.5 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Lobelia gibbosa 0.5 0.5 Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Lomandra longifolia 2.0 1.0 Lomandra multiflora 2.0 1.0 2.0 Lomandra species 1.0 Lotus australis 2.0 2.0 Mentha satureioides 4.0 3.0 Microlaena stipoides 4.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 35.0 6.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 35.0 8.0 1.0 5.0 3.0 Notelaea microcarpa 1.0 Opercularia diaphylla 3.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 Oplismenus aemulus 3.0 Oxalis exilis 1.0 0.5 1.0

Appendices 406

Panicum effusum Phyllanthus virgatus Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 Plantago debilis 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 Plantago gaudichaudii 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 Plantago major 1.0 Plectranthus parviflorus 0.5 0.5 1.0 Poa sieberiana 28.0 25.0 2.0 8.0 15.0 12.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 8.0 5.0 3.0 6.0 15.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 Polygala japonica 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 Poranthera microphylla 0.5 1.0 0.5 Pratia pedunculata 1.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 Ranunculus lappaceus 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 Rhodanthe authemoides Rostellularia adscendens 0.5 0.5 Schoenus apogon 1.0 Scleria mackaviensis 1.0 1.0 0.5 Senecio lautus 0.5 1.0 Senecio prenanthoides 1.0 Senecio sp. E 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 3.0 Sigesbeckia orientalis Solanum species 1.0 Solegyne bellioides 0.5 1.00.51.0 0.5 0.5 0.50.51.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.01.0 1.0 Sorghum leiocladum 4.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 7.0 60.0 3.0 7.0 2.0 10.0 10.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 12.0 15.0 2.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 Sporobolus creber 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 Stackhousia monogyna 1.0 Stackhousia viminea 1.0 1.0 1.0 Sw ainsona galegifolia 3.0 Taraxacum officinale 1.0 0.5 Themeda australis 40.0 35.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 65.0 40.0 30.0 50.0 55.0 55.0 10.0 45.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 65.0 55.0 62.0 7.0 50.0 45.0 12.0 45.0 40.0 40.0 30.0 30.0 35.0 25.0 10.0 55.0 30.0 55.0 60.0 60.0 Trachymene incisa Vernonia cinerea 0.5 1.0 1.0 Veronica plebeia 2.0 1.0 1.0 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 Wahlenbergia gracilis 0.5 1.0 0.5 Wahlenbergia species 1.0 Xanthorrhoea species 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Zornia dyctiocarpa 1.0

Appendices 407

DECEMBER 2006 Site 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 Treatment C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A C H A Quadrat12345612 3456123456 1234 5 6123456123456 Species Acacia dealbata 0.5 2.0 Acacia filicifolia 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.0 2.0 Acacia implexa 1.0 3.0 Ajuga australis 0.5 6.0 4.0 1.5 0.5 Allocasuarina species 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5 0.5 3.0 Angophora floribunda Aristida personata (ramosa var. speciosa) 2.0 Asperula conferta 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 Asteraceae species 1 Asteraceae species 2 0.5 Asteraceae species 3 Asteraceae species 4 1.0 Asteraceae species 5 Austrodanthonia eriantha 2.0 Austrodanthonia racemosa var. obtusata 2.0 2.0 2.0 Austrostipa pubescens 2.0 2.0 Austrostipa scabra 2.0 Austrostipa species Bidens pilosa 2.0 Bothriochloa macra 2.0 4.0 Brachyscome microcarpa 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Brachycome scapigera 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Brachycome aculeata Brachycome species Brachycome tenuiscapa var. tenuiscapa 2.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 2.0 Bracteantha viscosa Bursaria spinosa 4.0 Calotis dentex 1.0 Carex inversa 2.0 2.5 1.0 1.0 Carophyllaceae species Centaurium erythraea Cheilanthes sieberi subsp. sieberi 0.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 2.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Commelina cyanea 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 Conyza bonariensis 1.0 1.0 Craspedia variabilis 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 Cymbonotus law sonianus 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 Cymbopogon refractus 2.0 7.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 2.0 5.0 4.0 10.0 3.0 2.0 4.5 10.0 4.0 6.0 9.5 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 Cyperus gracillis 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Desmodium brachypodium 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0

Appendices 408

Desmodium varians 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.5 3.5 6.0 2.0 5.0 2.5 10.0 2.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 Dianella longifolia var. longifolia 1.0 Dianella revoluta var. revoluta 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 Dichelachne micrantha 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 Dichondra repens 1.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 4.0 7.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 5.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 Dichopogon fimbriatus 1.0 Digitaria ternata 3.0 Digitaria diffusa 1.5 Echinopogon caespitosa 2.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 Einadia trigonos 0.5 1.0 Elymus scaber 3.0 Eragrostis leptostachya 1.0 2.0 5.0 38.0 3.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 Eremophila debilis 2.0 Eucalyptus amplifolia 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 Eucalyptus caliginosa 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 Eucalyptus moluccana 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Eucalyptus tereticornis 1.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 Euchiton sphaericum 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Exocarpus species 2.0 Fimbristylis dichotoma 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 2.0 Geranium solanderi var. solanderi 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 Glossogyne tannensis Glycine clandestina species complex 3.0 Glycine tabacina 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Goodenia bellifidifolia 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 2.5 4.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 Haloragis heterophylla 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 Hardenbergia violacea 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.5 2.5 5.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 2.5 Helichrysum scorpioides 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 Helichrysum rutidolepis 1.0 1.0 Hibbertia linearis 2.0 2.0 Hibbertia obtusifolia 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 Hypericum gramineum 0.5 2.0 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 2.0 Imperata cylindrica 1.0 7.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 Jacksonia scoparia 4.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 3.5 Langifera 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Lespedeza juncea subsp. sericea 1.0 2.0 2.0 Lobelia gibbosa

Appendices 409

Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 Lomandra longifolia 2.0 Lomandra multiflora 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Lomandra species 1.0 1.0 Lotus australis 2.0 1.5 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 Mentha satureioides 2.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 Microlaena stipoides 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 6.0 10.0 35.0 6.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 3.5 36.0 2.0 20.0 2.0 1.0 Notelaea microcarpa Opercularia diaphylla 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Oplismenus aemulus 1.5 Oxalis exilis 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.50.50.52.0 1.02.0 1.01.02.02.02.03.51.01.02.00.51.04.0 Panicum effusum 2.0 Phyllanthus virgatus 1.0 Pimelea linifolia subsp. linifolia 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 Plantago debilis 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 Plantago gaudichaudii 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Plantago major Plectranthus parviflorus 0.5 0.5 1.0 Poa sieberiana 25.0 23.0 4.0 16.0 20.0 15.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 8.0 5.0 4.0 7.5 15.0 20.0 12.5 10.0 10.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 Polygala japonica 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 Poranthera microphylla 0.5 1.0 0.5 4.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 Pratia pedunculata Ranunculus lappaceus 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 3.5 Rhodanthe authemoides 1.0 Rostellularia adscendens 1.0 0.5 Schoenus apogon Scleria mackaviensis 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 Senecio lautus 0.5 Senecio prenanthoides Senecio sp. E 1.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 0.5 4.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 Sigesbeckia orientalis Solanum species 1.0 2.0 Solegyne bellioides 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sorghum leiocladum 13.0 8.0 7.0 13.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 8.0 5.0 8.0 8.0 50.0 4.0 3.5 5.0 5.0 8.0 5.0 7.0 2.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 20.0 8.0 14.0 2.0 15.0 15.0 20.0 12.0 10.0 Sporobolus creber 3.0 2.0 Stackhousia monogyna Stackhousia viminea 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Sw ainsona galegifolia 1.0 Taraxacum officinale 2.0 Themeda australis 37.0 35.0 50.0 56.0 55.0 55.0 40.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 50.0 15.0 55.0 48.0 50.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 50.0 5.0 58.0 38.0 6.0 50.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 35.0 28.0 5.0 45.0 20.0 45.0 60.0 50.0 Trachymene incisa 1.0 1.0 Vernonia cinerea 1.0 1.0 1.0 Veronica plebeia 1.0 1.0 1.0 Viola betonicifolia ssp. betonicifolia 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 4.0 0.5 1.5 Wahlenbergia gracilis 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 Wahlenbergia species 0.5 Xanthorrhoea species 2.0 2.0 1.5 Zornia dyctiocarpa 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 3.5 4.0 2.5