Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Vehicle Tracks Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts

A Report commissioned by the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service June 2007

Department of Primary Industries and Water

ARTHUR-PIEMAN CONSERVATION AREA

Vehicle Tracks Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts

A Report commissioned by the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service June 2007

Resource Management & Conservation Division Department of Primary Industries and Water Hobart, Tasmania APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts i ______

IMPORTANT NOTE This report was commissioned by the Parks and Wildlife Service to assist a process to determine appropriate management of vehicular tracks in Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area. The recommendations in the report are based on an assessment of natural values (geoconservation, flora and fauna) only. They do not take account of cultural values, which are the subject of a separate assessment, and other factors. Decisions concerning management of the vehicle tracks are the responsibility of the Parks and Wildlife Service.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Resource Management and Conservation Division of the Department of Primary Industries and Water prepared this report with input from Michael Comfort, Rolan Eberhard, Richard Schahinger, Chris Sharples and Shaun Thurstans. Comments were received from the following RMC staff: Michael Askey- Doran, Jason Bradbury, Sally Bryant, Stephen Harris, Ian Houshold, Michael Pemberton and Greg Pinkard. Staff from the Parks and Wildlife Service at Arthur River provided assistance in the field and generously shared their collective knowledge. Air photos used in this study were orthorectified by Matt Dell and John Corbett.

The Arthur-Pieman Vehicle Tracks Assessment Project was funded by the Natural Heritage Trust through Cradle Coast NRM.

Citation: Resource Management and Conservation Division (2007). Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area. Vehicle Tracks Assessment: Geoconservation and Biological Values. Report commissioned by Parks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. Resource Management and Conservation Division, Department of Primary Industries and Water, Hobart.

ABBREVIATIONS APCA Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area CFEV Conservation of Freshwater Ecosystem Values Project, DPIW CHAH Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria DPIW Department of Primary Industries and Water (Tasmania) DTAE Department of Tourism, Arts and Environment (Tasmania) EPBC Act Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 GIS Geographic Information System NRM Natural Resource Management ORV Off-road vehicle PWS Parks and Wildlife Service (Tasmania), DTAE RFA Regional Forest Agreement RPDC Resource Planning and Development Commission (Tasmania) TASVEG Tasmanian Vegetation Monitoring and Mapping Program, DPIW TGD Tasmanian Geoconservation Database TSP Act Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995

Plant nomenclature follows Buchanan (2005) except where otherwise noted.

Grid coordinates given in the text are referenced to the Geodetic Datum of Australia 1994 horizontal datum, zone 55 (Australian Map Grid).

Cover photo: Pedder River on Kenneth Bay, Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts ii ______

CONTENTS

1. SUMMARY...... 1

2. INTRODUCTION ...... 2

3. BACKGROUND ...... 8 3.1. Off-road vehicles in the APCA...... 8 3.2. Land systems ...... 8 3.3. Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles...... 11 3.4. Administrative context...... 12 4. METHODOLOGY ...... 17 4.1. Geoconservation Assessment...... 17 4.2. Flora Assessment...... 18 4.3. Fauna Assessment ...... 18 5. RESULTS...... 20 5.1. Condition of priority tracks ...... 20 5.2. Geoconservation...... 21 5.3. Flora...... 30 5.4. Fauna ...... 42 5.5. Rehabilitation...... 51 6. RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 52 6.1. General recommendations ...... 52 6.2. Specific recommendations ...... 53 7. REFERENCES...... 60

8. APPENDIX 1. Track descriptions ...... 67

9. APPENDIX 2. Results of air photo interpretation...... 163

10. APPENDIX 3. Sites of geoconservation significance...... 169

11. APPENDIX 4. Threatened flora records and plant communities ...... 214

12. APPENDIX 5. Threatened and significant fauna records...... 219

13. APPENDIX 6. Results of preliminary rehabilitation assessment...... 222

Table 1. APCA priority tracks assessed in this study...... 3 Table 2. APCA land systems ...... 9 Table 3. Sites of geoconservation significance in the APCA ...... 23 Table 4. Threatened flora recorded within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks...... 31 Table 5. Plant communities at risk from tracks and ORV activity in the APCA...... 35 Table 6. Threatened and conservation significant fauna...... 42 Table 7. APCA shorebird surveys, Autumn 2006...... 45 Table 8. APCA shorebird surveys, Spring 2006...... 46 Table 9. Orange-bellied parrot: key feeding sites in the APCA...... 48 Table 10. Marrawah skipper: key sites in the APCA ...... 49 Table 11. Wetlands along the APCA priority tracks...... 50 Table 12. Summary recommendations for specific tracks...... 54 APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts iii ______

Figure 1. APCA priority tracks: Mawson Bay to Eva Point...... 5 Figure 2. APCA priority tracks: Eva Point to Johnsons Head ...... 6 Figure 3. APCA priority tracks: Johnsons Head to Pieman River ...... 7 Figure 4. Land systems within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks ...... 10 Figure 5. Current access policy for the APCA priority tracks...... 16 Figure 6. Quaternary coastal sediments and landforms in the APCA (2001 air photos)...... 27 Figure 7. Mobile sands in the APCA (2001 air photos)...... 28 Figure 8. Threatened flora within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks...... 32 Figure 9. Distribution of buttongrass heath, sticky daisybush and southern grasstree...... 40 Figure 10. Threatened and significant fauna recorded within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks...... 43 Figure 11. APCA priority track recommendations...... 59

Plate 1. ORV in deflated area containing palaeosols near Interview River (Track 402)...... 20 Plate 2. Big Eel Dune – a relict aeolian landform near Temma being eroded by ORVs (Track 309)...... 20 Plate 3. Track braiding on poorly drained section near Pieman Head (Track 601)...... 21 Plate 4. ‘Circle work’ in wetland adjacent to track at Greenes Creek (Track 309)...... 21 Plate 5. ‘The Bowl’ – a sandblow dedicated for ORV use at Arthur Beach (Track 211)...... 21 Plate 6. Sandblow formed on former vehicular track near Italian River (Track 501)...... 21 Plate 7. Eroded gravels invading vegetation adjacent to track on Mt Balfour (Track 330)...... 21 Plate 8. Eroded material advancing down gully on Mt Balfour (Track 330)...... 21 Plate 9. Dune buttercup (Tracks 401, 501 & 601)...... 34 Plate 10. Lime fern at creek crossing (Track 203)...... 34 Plate 11. Northwest heath affected by Phytophthora cinnamomi (Track 330)...... 34 Plate 12. Southern grasstree affected by Phytophthora cinnamomi (Track 203)...... 34 Plate 13. Marram hummocks with exposed slates and granites (Track 601)...... 34 Plate 14. Sea spurge invading coast speedwell habitat (Track 501)...... 34 Plate 15. Poa rodwayi grasslands (Track 501)...... 41 Plate 16. Dune-barred Freshwater aquatic herbland (Track 501)...... 41 Plate 17. Wet herbfield damaged by ORV activity (Track 601)...... 41 Plate 18. Succulent saline herbland (Track 225)...... 41 Plate 19. Coastal heathland on sands near Rupert Point (Track 601)...... 41 Plate 20. Coastal mosaic inland from Rupert Point (Track 601)...... 41 APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 1 ______

1. SUMMARY The natural values (geoconservation, flora and fauna) of sixty-eight priority vehicular tracks identified by the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Off-road Vehicle Consultative Group have been assessed. The tracks traverse highly erodible terrain, notably extensive wind-blown sands, siliceous gravels on steep slopes and deep organic soils prone to bogginess, and are mostly in very poor condition. Significant geoconservation, flora and fauna values are present. Impacts to natural values are extensive, and likely to increase in scale and severity unless managed effectively.

The general recommendations of this report are:

1. Manage vehicular tracks in accordance with the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003. 2. Protect soils by avoiding unnecessary disturbance of vegetated and mobile dunes, blanket bog peat soils and steep slopes on siliceous colluvium. 3. Clearly identify tracks available for public use, through the provision of signs and/or information provided to visitors. Other tracks should be closed off. 4. Exclude quad bikes and trail bikes from those parts of the APCA south of Temma. 5. Initiate a scientific investigation into the history and causes of sand mobility in the APCA, in order to determine appropriate management of the aeolian (dune) landforms. 6. Develop a beach weed management program consistent with the Tasmanian beach weed strategy, with initiatives directed at removing and containing the spread of weeds in key areas. 7. Review opportunities to develop additional walking tracks; some tracks currently used by vehicles may be suitable for redevelopment as walking tracks. 8. Develop effective systems for monitoring the condition of vehicular tracks in the APCA. 9. Develop a computerised system for issuing and recording ORV permits. 10. Prepare a rehabilitation plan to address existing serious erosion problems.

Specific recommendations on individual priority tracks include recommendations supporting the current policy regarding closure of certain tracks to vehicular access, in accordance with the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002. Closure of the Sandy Cape to Interview River Track, which is currently available for access under permit, is also recommended. Seasonal closure of other tracks is recommended, to reduce the risk of disturbance to nesting shorebirds, degradation to soils and/or further spread of Phytophthora cinnamomi where susceptible vegetation types are present.

This report was commissioned by the Parks and Wildlife Service to assist a process to determine appropriate management of vehicular tracks in the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area. The recommendations in the report are based on an assessment of natural values (geoconservation, flora and fauna) only. They do not take account of cultural values, which are the subject of a separate assessment, and other factors. Decisions concerning management of the vehicle tracks are the responsibility of the Parks and Wildlife Service. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 2 ______

2. INTRODUCTION The Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area (APCA) is an area of approximately 100,000 ha in northwest Tasmania (PWS 2002). Traditionally, the major use of the area’s coastal zone has been for seasonal stock agistment, a practice that continues today. The area is popular as a location for outdoor activities including camping, hunting, fishing and four-wheel driving. In recent years the impact on the environment of some of these activities has become more noticeable. The increasing popularity and improvements to the performance of off-road vehicles (ORVs), including four-wheel bikes (quads), has been an important factor in driving use of the area, and there is now an extensive network of vehicular tracks in all coastal and some inland parts of the APCA. In many places the impacts extend off established tracks into adjacent areas of boggy or sandy ground, which are targeted by some off road-vehicle users. The extent of the tracks and the scale of impact at some sites constitute a significant source of land degradation within the APCA.

The Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002) recognises that current ORV practices within the reserve are not environmentally sustainable and at times conflict with other recreational activities in the reserve. Accordingly, the Plan establishes an Off-Road Vehicle Consultative Group to review the current system of managing ORV use in the APCA and report to the Parks and Wildlife Service. The Plan specifies that the review will include at least the following elements: • the identification of all tracks within the APCA and determination of their function, condition and possible alternative routes; • the preparation of a management response to each track identified, addressing a checklist of social and environmental effects; • recommendation of enforcement measures that could be adopted; • identification of measures that will minimise conflicts between recreational vehicle use and other reserve users; and • identification of methods of minimising and mitigating impacts to the natural and cultural values of the APCA.

A team representing earth science, flora and fauna expertise within the Resource Management and Conservation Division of the Department of Primary Industries and Water prepared this report to assist the Off-Road Vehicle Consultative Group in fulfilling the requirements of its project brief. The report covers sixty-eight tracks identified as priorities by the Consultative Group (Table 1; Figures 1–3; Appendix 1).

It is important to note that land management in the APCA, including management of off-road vehicles, is the responsibility of the land manager — the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service. However, off-road vehicles are a Statewide issue that requires a coordinated response by land managers, police and the community. The effectiveness of approaches to managing off-road vehicles in the APCA (and elsewhere) will be constrained unless supported by initiatives to increase awareness amongst users of off-road vehicle impacts. There is also a need to address issues concerning unregistered vehicles and under-age drivers, and ensure that there are opportunities for off-road driving experiences at locations where this is an environmentally sustainable activity. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 3 ______

Table 1. APCA priority tracks assessed in this study

Track Name Length (km) Land System* APCA Mgt Zone** 101 Mawson Bay Track 2.79 Temma Recreation 107 Church Rock to Arthur River Track 3.96 Temma Recreation 202 Dam Circuit Track 5.18 Temma Visitor Services & Rec’n 203 Ridge 1 Dam Track 1.96 Temma/Thornton Recreation 205 Windmill Track 1.39 Temma/Thornton Visitor Services & Rec’n 207 Prickly Wattle Track 1.53 Temma Visitor Services 208 Davidson to Arthur Beach Track 1.32 Temma Visitor Services 209 Firebreak Horseyards Track 1.64 Temma/Thornton Visitor Services & Rec’n 211 Bowl Track 1.80 Temma Visitor Services 212 North Bullock Hill Track 1.74 Temma Recreation 213 Middle Bullock Hill Track 0.75 Temma Recreation 214 South Bullock Hill Track 1.12 Temma Recreation 215 Arthur Beach to Sundown Track 3.96 Temma Visitor Services & Rec’n 216 Old Kelp Track 0.26 Temma Recreation 217 Track Through Sundown 1.88 Temma Recreation 218 South Bottle Creek Track 0.92 Temma Recreation 220 Shepherds Track 1.89 Temma Recreation 222 Nelson Bay Sarah Anne Track 3.57 Temma Recreation 224 Sarah Anne Inland 0.95 Temma Recreation 225 Sarah Anne Coastal Track 0.96 Temma Recreation 226 Sarah Anne Central Track 0.27 Temma Recreation 227 Central Couta to Temma Track 8.08 Temma Recreation 229 Camp Elsewhere Track 0.73 Temma Recreation 231 Pollys Bay Track 0.75 Temma Recreation 232 Lady Kathleen Bay Track 0.40 Temma Recreation 303 Richardson Track 2.11 Temma Visitor Services & Natural 304 Dartys Corner Track 0.95 Temma Natural (Controlled Access) 305 Big Eel Track 1.87 Temma Natural 306 Bens Top Track 2.93 Temma/Thornton Natural 308 Dartys to Gannet Point Track 7.85 Temma Natural 309 Temma to Greenes Creek Track 14.31 Temma/Thornton Natural (Controlled Access) 310 No Mans North Track 0.39 Temma Natural 311 No Mans South Track 2.08 Temma Natural 312 Possum Creek Track 1.65 Temma Natural 313 Balfour Track 14.03 Temma/Thornton/Balfour Natural (Controlled Access) 314 Bird Fence Track 0.71 Temma Natural 315 Greys North Track 2.26 Temma Natural 317 Gannet South Track 0.61 Thornton Natural (Controlled Access) 318 Gannet Gulch to Smiths Gulch Track 1.41 Thornton Natural 320 Swampy Loop Track 0.22 Thornton Natural 322 Smiths Gulch South Track 0.21 Thornton Natural 323 Brooks Creek Backtrack 0.21 Temma Natural 324 Ordnance Point Track 0.39 Temma Natural 325 Greenes Point Track 0.28 Temma Natural 326 Carvings Track 0.19 Temma Natural 327 North Track Carvings 0.14 Temma Natural 328 Burkes Track 2.26 Thornton Natural 330 Mt Balfour Track 4.23 Balfour Natural 331 Yafflers Hole Track 0.17 Temma Recreation 332 Dawkins Track 0.18 Temma Natural 333 Bird Fence South to Coast Track 0.28 Temma Natural APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 4 ______

Track Name Length (km) Land System* APCA Mgt Zone** 401 Thornton Falls Track 3.04 Temma Natural 402 Kenneth Bay Track 10.98 Temma Natural 403 Pedder Park Track 0.84 Temma Recreation 404 Airport Track 3.14 Temma Recreation & Natural 405 Sandy Cape Inland 1 Track 2.03 Temma Recreation & Natural 406 Sandy Cape Inland 2 Track 1.07 Temma Natural 408 Cutting Track 2 2.69 Temma Recreation & Natural 409 Club 24 Track 0.39 Temma Recreation 410 Kitchen Track 0.42 Temma Recreation 411 Loop Track 0.30 Temma Recreation 412 Cape Fishing Tracks 2.80 Temma Natural 413 Cape Fishing Track 2 0.58 Temma Natural 501 Sandy Cape to Interview River 22.44 Temma Natural 503 Interview Mine Track 7.63 Temma/Thornton Natural 504 Interview to Elliots Track 6.08 Granite Creek/Thornton Natural 601 Interview River to Pieman River Track 11.42 Granite Creek/Neasey Plains Natural 602 Elliots Track 14.56 Granite Creek/Neasey Plains Natural

* Land system after Richley (1978). ** APCA Management Zone as per the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 5 ______

Figure 1. APCA priority tracks: Mawson Bay to Eva Point (Base map: 2001 air photo mosaic) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 6 ______

Figure 2. APCA priority tracks: Eva Point to Johnsons Head (Base map: 2001 air photo mosaic) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 7 ______

Figure 3. APCA priority tracks: Johnsons Head to Pieman River (Base map: 2001 air photo mosaic) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 8 ______

3. BACKGROUND

3.1. Off-road vehicles in the APCA There is limited quantitative data regarding historical trends in ORV use in the APCA. Air photo interpretation for this project suggests that the development of a network of vehicular tracks was well advanced by the early 1950s (Appendix 2), although vehicular access was considered difficult and the road to Temma was reportedly in poor condition (Nicolls 1955). The area became more accessible when the Arthur River was bridged and the road upgraded in the late 1960s. Macphail et al. (1975) considered that the number of people using the Norfolk Range area (including the coast between the Italian and Pieman Rivers) was ‘small and only in the case of persons using off road vehicles has sustained damage to the environments in the study area resulted’. The same authors cited contemporary reports of up to twenty trail bikes active in the area on long weekends, but it is not clear if this was common at the time.

Permits issued by the (then) Department of Parks, Wildlife & Heritage for access to parts of the (then) Arthur-Pieman Protected Area give some indication of ORV numbers from November 1989 to March 1991. In this period up to 30 permits per month were issued for trips south of Greenes Creek during the peak summer season (Good 1991). However, this is not an accurate indication of ORV numbers as up to 10 vehicles could travel as a group under a single permit. Vehicle counts by Good (1991) imply that permit numbers account for less than half the actual number of vehicles entering the area.

Between 2000 and mid 2006 the PWS issued 3,500 annual ORV permits and 7,079 14-day permits for the APCA. A decline in demand for annual permits is evident over this period, with over 700 permits issued in 2000 falling to about 400 from 2003 onwards. Data for 14-day permits shows an opposite trend, rising from about 100 in 2000 to peak at more than 1,800 in 2004 (with 1,600 in 2006). Again, permit numbers probably significantly underestimate actual numbers, with compliance levels estimated as low as 50% (Willmott 2006). Results from an automated counter on the Temma-Greenes Creek Track just south of Temma indicate that approximately 1,500 vehicles used this track over the period 17 March – 4 December 2006, with over 240 counted in the first 24 days (PWS unpublished data).

Notwithstanding various uncertainties regarding these data, it is clear that large numbers of ORVs are entering areas south of Temma. Some do not venture south of Greenes Creek; however, considerable numbers evidently reach Sandy Cape and beyond, including areas considered ‘closed’ by the PWS, such as the coastal route between the Interview River and Pieman Head (PWS 2002), where parties of quad bikes were observed during this study.

While many vehicular tracks in the APCA have, or previously had, specific functions related to stock management, access to shacks and other infrastructure, mining and mineral exploration or fire management, these functions are often no longer relevant, although the tracks have continued to be used by recreational drivers. Other parts of the track network have evidently developed in an ad hoc way through the efforts of some reserve users in pioneering new routes to beaches, camp sites and fishing spots.

3.2. Land systems Land systems are mapping units that define areas of similar geology, climate, landforms, soils and vegetation (Richley 1978). The combination of these characteristics can help determine the potential suitability of an area for different land uses. Land systems are especially useful in assessing the susceptibility of an area to soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation — a key issue in the APCA, where highly erodible or otherwise sensitive soils are present throughout. In fact, the erosion hazard is arguably the defining characteristic of the APCA from a land management perspective. Land systems relevant to the priority tracks in this study are summarised in Table 2 and mapped in Figure 4. Of these, erosion hazards are considered most acute within the Temma, Thornton River and Balfour land systems (Richley 1978). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 9 ______

Table 2. APCA land systems

Land System Geology Topography Soils Annual Hazards Rainfall (mm) Temma 593161 Quaternary sands Coastal sand flats, Sands, loamy sands, 1000–1250 High wind, rill (A4) with scattered dunes (active and peaty sands erosion Precambrian stable) and beaches outcrops (sandstones & quartzites) Thornton River Precambrian Gently undulating Peats & loams, sandy 1250–1500 Low sheet erosion 613111 (C1) sandstone- plain peats along drainage on flats; high rill mudstone lines & gully erosion sequences along drainage lines Neasey Plains Precambrian slates Mainly undulating Gravelly and loamy 1500–2000 Low sheet erosion 714121 (C2) and quartzite plains peats Granite Creek Lower Low hills Organic, ranging 1500–2000 Moderate sheet, 741131 (E1) Carboniferous– from very gravelly to rill and gully Upper Devonian stony erosion granite: stony colluvium Balfour 813251 Precambrian Steep mountainous Peats in swales, 2000–2500 High rill and gully (J2) sandstones, ridges sandy peats on slopes erosion quartzites, and ridges, peaty conglomerate, sands along drainage mudstone lines

The Temma land system comprises an area of vegetated and mobile sands occupying a strip up to 4 km wide along the coastline north of the Interview River. Two-thirds of the priority APCA tracks traverse this land system for all or part of their length (Figures 1–3). Wind erosion is a persistent hazard in these areas, as indicated by the presence of large transgressive sand sheets at Kenneth Bay and between Sandy Cape and the Interview River.

The Thornton River, Neasey Plains and Granite Creek land systems are similar contiguous inland units that occupy elevated flat-lying country to the west of the Norfolk Range. These land systems generally support heathy vegetation on organic soils, including extensive blanket bogs. They are underlain by Precambrian sedimentary rocks or, in the case of the Granite Creek land system, granite. Soils are infertile and can range from clay to sand to fine gravel, and are often overlain by organic material. The peat soils are prone to bogginess and invariably become deeply churned up when subject to even low levels of vehicular traffic. This is because they are mainly held together by roots which are impacted by physical disturbance leaving very little to hold them in place.

The Balfour land system is of relatively limited extent. The soils are mostly peat or sandy peat over siliceous Precambrian sediments and are sparsely vegetated. There is a high risk of rill and gully erosion. Tracks tend to become deeply rutted on steeper slopes where underlying siliceous gravels are readily mobilised by runoff entrained in wheel tracks. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 10 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 4. Land systems within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 11 ______

3.3. Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles This section provides a brief overview of the impact of ORVs on aspects of the environment. The literature on this topic is extensive (e.g., Webb & Wilshire 1983; Wood & Robertson 1976; Department of Conservation & Environment 1976; Sheridan 1979), although mostly based on overseas studies.

The nature and scale of ORV impacts will depend on the following factors: • Sensitivity of the environment — some places are more susceptible to ORV impacts than others, because the terrain is highly erodible or elements of the biodiversity and geodiversity are intolerant to anthropogenic disturbance. • Vehicle characteristics — conventional four-wheel drive vehicles exert higher ground pressures and require wider tracks than smaller ORVs such as trail and quad bikes. On the other hand, trail and quad bikes may be fitted with tyres of more damaging tread patterns and can reach sites that are inaccessible to other vehicles. Similarly, newer high-performance ORVs can increase the accessibility of more difficult locations. • Attitude of the users — attitudes to ORVs and the environment vary between users, from those who see ORVs primarily as a means of access to specific locations (e.g., shacks, camp sites and fishing spots), to those who seek out extreme ORV experiences; ‘a small number of vehicles can cause excessive amounts of damage if driven recklessly’ (Good 1991). • Response of management — ORV impacts will be reduced where vehicular tracks are actively maintained and effective monitoring and response protocols are in place to address impacts.

Tasmanian case studies document examples of serious damage to the environment (Davies 1978; Good 1991; Watt 2001; PWS 2005). Various authors have drawn attention to examples of unsustainable practices in the APCA (Macphail et al. 1975; Harris 1988; Askey-Doran et al. 1992; Sims 2006).

3.3.1. Impacts to geodiversity Soils are the aspect of geodiversity most obviously at risk from ORVs; however, landforms and poorly consolidated geological units (e.g., Quaternary sands) can also be affected. Soils show a variety of responses to ORVs depending on the soil type and other environmental characteristics (Grant et al. 1977; Davies 1978). Accelerated erosion will occur where soil particles are directly displaced or ‘quarried’ by tyre action. This problem will be most pronounced on sandy and gravelly soils, where damage to vegetation leading to exposure of bare soil is often accompanied by increased sheet, rill and gully erosion (Sheridan 1979). The severity of erosion is likely to be exacerbated by the tendency for wheel ruts to entrain runoff, particularly on steeper slopes where tracks are perpendicular to the slope. Deep gullies can develop in this situation.

Erosion of sandy sediments can be particularly acute in exposed coastal settings due to the risk of wind deflation. The presence of soil-vegetation cover on stabilised sands has a critical role in maintaining dune morphology in these environments. Where the soil-vegetation cover is damaged, for example in wheel ruts, exposed sand is likely to be deflated by the wind, potentially triggering sandblows and dune migration. The rate and scale at which this occurs can be dramatic, with sizeable landforms such as dunes destabilised and eroded beyond recognition (Department of Conservation & Environment 1976; Grant et al. 1977; House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment & Conservation 1977).

Clay-rich soils tend to be more resistant to erosion, although erosion rates may still be higher than naturally; alternatively, these soil types can become highly compacted in response to the pounding effect of ORVs, increasing their bulk density and resistance to infiltration (Sheridan 1979). Under wet conditions some soil types will puddle and mix in response to vehicular traffic and deep bogholes may form. This problem is particularly acute on poorly drained organic soils, but other soil types will respond similarly in some cases (Pemberton 1989; Brown & Laffan 1993). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 12 ______3.3.2. Impacts to flora ORVs can have an impact on vegetation through direct physical contact or indirectly though the spread of weeds or the exotic plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi (Schahinger et al. 2003). Vegetation can also be adversely affected by soil erosion and changes to soil structure such as surface hardening and reduced infiltration (Sheridan 1979). In clay soils compaction can occur to the extent that root respiration is suppressed and soil bacteria declines (Grant et al. 1977), a situation that may favour more hardy species and initiate vegetation succession or weed invasion. Reports suggest that dunes used by ORVs in parts of New South Wales show a reduction in plant diversity of up to 50% (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation 1977). The soil structure of heavily used areas can be altered to the extent that areas remain denuded of vegetation for many years (Sheridan 1979).

3.3.3. Impacts to fauna Vehicle tracks have effects on the demographics and genetics of fauna populations, through habitat fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation also exacerbates weed invasion, change in fire patterns and subsequent changes in vegetation communities (Bryant 2002). Tracks can also lead to an increase in feral and domestic animal disturbance (e.g., dogs on beaches, feral cat predation, etc) and the spread of pathogens (e.g., the Chytrid fungus). Alteration of the physical and chemical environments, including patterns of run-off, sedimentation and infiltration of heavy metals, oil and nutrients, occur through vehicle tracks, disturbing the ability of fauna species to survive (Trombulak & Frissell 2000). Noise and associated activity can disturb fauna, leading to the desertion and loss of young by species such as raptors and ground nesting birds (Bryant 2002).

Shorebirds are particularly impacted by vehicles in coastal areas, especially during their summer breeding season. Vehicles on beaches affect shorebirds by disturbing their foraging, interfering with breeding behaviour and running over nests (Stolen 2003; Buick & Paton 1989). Interfering with the natural flow of rivers also threatens the existence and natural integrity of sandbars and spits used for breeding. Members of Birds Tasmania have documented these impacts over the past twenty-five years (Bryant 2002). There is also documentation of greater reproductive success in shorebirds, such as hooded plovers, on beaches with limited vehicle access (Watkins 1993).

3.4. Administrative context This section describes some statutory and non-statutory documents relevant to management of the APCA by the PWS. 3.4.1. Legislation Management objectives for Conservation Areas, as set out in the National Parks and Reserves Management Act 2002, are as follows: (a) to conserve natural biological diversity; (b) to conserve geological diversity; (c) to preserve the quality of water and protect catchments; (d) to conserve sites or areas of cultural significance; (e) to provide for the controlled use of natural resources including as an adjunct to utilisation of marine resources; (f) to provide for exploration activities and utilisation of mineral resources; (g) to provide for the taking, on an ecologically sustainable basis, of designated game species for commercial or private purposes, or both; (h) to provide for commercial or industrial uses of coastal areas; (i) to encourage education based on the purposes of reservation and the natural or cultural values of the conservation area, or both; (j) to encourage research, particularly that which furthers the purposes of reservation; (k) to protect the conservation area against, and rehabilitate the conservation area following, adverse impacts such as those of fire, introduced species, diseases and soil erosion on the conservation area’s natural and cultural values and on assets within and adjacent to the conservation area; APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 13 ______(l) to encourage appropriate tourism, recreational use and enjoyment (including private uses) consistent with the conservation of the conservation area’s natural and cultural values; (m) to encourage cooperative management programs with Aboriginal people in areas of significance to them in a manner consistent with the purposes of reservation and the other management objectives.

Many of the flora and fauna species within the APCA also have legislative protection at the State and National level under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Species may also be protected under the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 or under International Conventions — the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora for all Australian orchids, and the Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement or China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement for migratory birds. Native vegetation communities may be afforded protection under the Regional Forest Agreement between Tasmania and the Commonwealth of Australia (RFA 1997) and the Tasmanian Nature Conservation Amendment (Threatened Native Vegetation Communities) Act 2006.

3.4.2. APCA Management Plan Specific management objectives and actions apply under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002). Key prescriptions include the establishment of an Off-Road Vehicle Consultative Group, development of a new system for regulating ORVs and the establishment of benchmarks to measure the effectiveness of the management system. The benchmarks relate to user compliance, cost recovery and ‘a substantial reduction in the rate of degradation of natural and cultural resources’. The plan provides a series of default prescriptions in the event the Minister for Parks and Wildlife considers that the benchmarks have not been met. The Plan specifically prescribes that sensitive dune areas are to be protected from ORVs by managing their use. The Plan also outlines the current ORV use opportunities in the APCA (Figure 5), specifying that an authority under regulation 12(3) of the National Parks and Reserved Land Regulations 1999 is required to access certain areas, including tracks (309, 313, 402, 408 (part) and 501), beaches (101, 208, 215 and part of 227), dune areas (211), access to private shacks (304, 310, 311 (part), 315, 317, 322, 328 and 332) and approved camping areas (331, 403–405, 409–411).

3.4.3. Reserve Management Code of Practice Management of vehicular tracks in reserved areas is subject to the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003 (PWS et al. 2003). The following guidelines are particularly relevant: • Evidence of accelerated erosion as a result of an activity or development will be assessed as a matter of priority and appropriate stabilisation and/or rehabilitation measures implemented. • Disturbance to soil and vegetation on high and very high erodibility class soils should be avoided as far as possible 1. Where disturbance is unavoidable, priority should be given to protecting drainage lines and mid and lower slopes, as the potential for erosion and sedimentation is greatest in these areas. • Permanent access tracks crossing high or very highly erodible soils should be hardened or stabilised and regularly maintained. • Tracks with steep gradients should only be used when the soil structure will permit positive and steady traction. • Rutted tracks should be restored by backfilling, but adequate drainage should be provided to prevent scour recurring. • Boggy sections should be upgraded (e.g., with cording, rock or other suitable material) so that the site can be negotiated without the need to bypass it. Standing puddles should be drained and backfilled with suitable material.

1 The Code’s high erodibility class soils are defined as loam and sand with sparse vegetation cover or peat, the parent material being quartzite, coarse sandstone or granite; very high erodibility class soils are sand and fine gravel with sparse vegetation or peat, the parent material being granite, sandstone, weakly consolidated alluvium, colluvium, sands, glacial deposits and dune deposits. The majority of tracks in the APCA traverse soils with these characteristics. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 14 ______• Where boggy sections and/or puddles have been bypassed causing multiple tracks, bypasses should be rehabilitated following repair of the main track. • Consideration should be given to seasonal restrictions on the use of tracks in high altitude areas or where the track is particularly susceptible to damage due to saturated soils. • Tracks on vegetated dunes should be hardened if feasible. Tracks in dune areas should be carefully planned and routes marked either by fencing or with markers supported with appropriate signs. The route should be checked for Aboriginal sites and relics prior to approval.

3.4.4. State Coastal Policy The State Coastal Policy is a policy under the State Policies and Projects Act 1993, which means that it seeks to ensure that a consistent and coordinated approach is maintained with respect to a matter of State significance. Government bodies are required to give effect to State Policies. The State Coastal Policy applies to all land to a distance of one km inland from the high-water mark.

The following clauses, amongst others, support the policy principles that (1) the natural and cultural values of the coast shall be protected and (2) the coast shall be used and developed in a sustainable manner:

1.1.1 The coastal zone will be managed to ensure sustainability of major ecosystems and natural processes. 1.1.2 The coastal zone will be managed to protect ecological, geomorphological and geological coastal features and aquatic environments of conservation value. 1.1.3 The coastal zone will be managed to conserve the diversity of all native flora and fauna and their habitats … Appropriate conservation measures will be adopted for the protection of migratory species and the protection and recovery of rare, vulnerable and endangered species in accordance with this Policy and other relevant Acts and policies. 1.1.7 Representative ecosystems and areas of special conservation value or special aesthetic quality will be identified and protected as appropriate. 1.4.2 Development on actively mobile landforms such as frontal dunes will not be permitted. 2.6.1 The public’s common right of access to and along the coast, from both land and water, will be maintained and enhanced where it does not conflict with the protection of natural and cultural coastal values, health and safety and security requirements. 2.6.2 Public access to and along the coast will be directed to identified access points. Uncontrolled access which has potential to cause significant damage to the fragile coastal environment and is inconsistent with this Policy will be prevented.

3.4.5. Policy for the Use of Recreational Vehicles on State-Owned Lands in Tasmania The Policy for the Use of Recreational Vehicles on State-Owned Lands in Tasmania (Recreational Vehicle Working Group 2005) is not a State Policy, but is endorsed by the Parks and Wildlife Service and compliance with it is prescribed under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002). Measures that are particularly pertinent in the APCA include: • Tracks crossing highly erodible soils, such as granites, fine sandy soils or peats should not be used unless they have been stabilised, e.g., hardened with gravel and appropriate drainage works done. • Tracks traversing steep slopes, particularly those over 30°, on erodible soils should be used only where their soil structures permit positive and steady traction. • Tracks should not be used in wet conditions if it is obvious their use will create rutting which causes water to by-pass culverts, grips, natural drains, etc. • Use of tracks with boggy sections needs special consideration. Where there are boggy sections or large standing puddles, tracks may need to be closed until they dry out sufficiently or until damage can be contained, e.g., by cording, stonework or timber by-passes. Tracks in boggy areas must not be allowed to increase in width. • Where tracks have divided into several relatively parallel tracks, rationalisation of tracks needs to be undertaken. All unnecessary tracks should be closed off and, where feasible, rehabilitated. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 15 ______• Tracks on sand dunes need special consideration. They should be checked for the presence of Aboriginal sites and relics. Use of identified sand dune areas … is acceptable but access to such areas needs careful attention. • Designated areas or tracks may be set aside by agencies for use as ‘driving challenges’ but their use must not compromise the values of adjacent areas. Such an approach can be used as a method of alleviating pressure on more sensitive areas. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 16 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 5. Current access policy for the APCA priority tracks APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 17 ______

4. METHODOLOGY Sixty-eight priority tracks identified by the Off-Road Vehicle Consultative Group were inspected along their entire length during field trips on the following dates in 2006: 21–25 February, 28 March–2 April, 4– 6 July and 6–9 November (Table 1). Access was primarily via off-road vehicle or on foot, though helicopter transport was used for the Interview Mine Track, Interview to Elliots Track and Elliots Track. Helicopter inspections involved an initial low level reconnaissance of the tracks, followed by landings at various points to inspect potentially significant features and areas of degradation. The principal objective of fieldwork was to assess the impact of each track on natural values in the vicinity. This was also an opportunity to make general observations on track condition. The assessment included a review of previous studies and searching DPIW databases for records from the APCA on the following: • geoconservation values (Tasmanian Geoconservation Database)2; • threatened flora (Threatened Species Section database); • threatened plant communities (TASVEG V1.1 & CFEV database) • Phytophthora cinnamomi (Biodiversity Conservation Branch database); • weeds (Biodiversity Conservation Branch database); • threatened fauna (Threatened Species Section database).

Desktop mapping of sandy coastal landforms and vehicular tracks was undertaken using orthorectified digital air photo mosaics taken at approximately 10-year intervals between 1953 and 2001 (Sharples 2006, 2007). The results of this work are described in Appendix 2.

An initial assessment of track rehabilitation issues was also undertaken. This included planning for a rehabilitation trial at a significant native grassland site to the south of Temma (Comfort 2006).

4.1. Geoconservation Assessment The geoconservation assessment was guided by criteria for listing sites in the Tasmanian Geoconservation Database (TGD), a register of sites of geoconservation significance maintained by DPIW. The TGD incorporates the results of geoconservation assessments prior to 1996 (Dixon & Duhig 1996) and more recent site nominations assessed by an expert panel. TGD definitions and criteria are as follows: • Geoconservation is defined as the identification and conservation of geodiversity for its intrinsic, ecological or heritage values. • Geodiversity is defined as the natural range (diversity) of geological (bedrock), geomorphological (landform) and soil features, assemblages, systems and processes. Geodiversity includes evidence for the history of the earth (evidence of past life, ecosystems and environments) and a range of processes (biological, hydrological and atmospheric) currently acting on rocks, landforms and soils. • Consideration will only be given to listing sites that have developed as a result of natural processes. Natural features exposed artificially (e.g., road cuttings, quarries etc) will be considered. • When listing sites consideration will be given to the degree and clarity with which sites exhibit or exemplify the important characteristics of their type. • Where appropriate classificatory frameworks are available, priority will be given to the inclusion of representative exemplars of the different classes of geodiversity. • In the absence of appropriate classificatory frameworks, priority will be given to the inclusion of the widest possible range of distinctive types (elements) within each geodiversity theme. • The assessment will take account of the integrity of natural features and processes that contribute to site significance. Degraded sites may be listed provided they maintain part or all of their relevant geoconservation values.

2 The desktop assessment included sites listed in the current version of the TGD (version 5.0), as well as sites accepted for listing by the TGD expert panel in 2006 (to be included in the forthcoming TGD version 6.0). The TGD is published on the World Wide Web via the Natural Values Atlas section of The List (www.thelist.tas.gov.au). The content and history of the database are described by Sharples (2000). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 18 ______

• Sites will be assessed according to their significance within a hierarchy of levels ranging from global to local. The assessment will consider the georegional context where appropriate. • In cases where other natural values contribute to the geoconservation significance of the site, sites may be included, conditional upon appropriate professional advice.

Time constraints dictated a site-based geoconservation assessment. That is, the assessment focussed on identifying specific features or clusters of features regarded as being unusual or outstanding from a geoscientific perspective. In this situation perceptions of site significance invariably reflect one or more of the following considerations: • potential for scientific research into past environments including fossils, palaeoclimate or landscape evolution; • established benchmarks or reference sites, as in the case of geological types, published stratigraphic sections or fossil type localities; • particularly large, well-developed or otherwise atypical examples classes of feature that may be common in the context area; • examples of features that are considered uncommon or rare in the context area; • examples of features in good condition compared to other known examples; and • features obviously at risk of damage by human activities.

A site-based approach is invariably subjective and unlikely to capture representative examples of the full range of geodiversity features in an area. However, a site-based approach is necessary in a reconnaissance level geoconservation assessment where time and resources required to develop and apply appropriate regionally-based classificatory frameworks are lacking (cf. Kiernan 1997a, 1997b; Jerie et al. 2003). All sites currently listed in the TGD were identified through site-based assessments of varying spatial scale and degrees of comprehensiveness and it is an accepted geoconservation tool (Sharples 1995).

The geoconservation assessment also involved a reconnaissance level investigation into the stratigraphy of dune systems that are prominent along parts of the coast. Sand samples collected for thermoluminescence dating were analysed by David Price at the University of Wollongong.

4.2. Flora Assessment Prior to fieldwork apparent plant communities traversed by the priority tracks were delineated from 1:42,000 colour aerial photographs (2001 runs). Plant communities distinguished along the APCA priority tracks are consistent with the mapping units used by the Tasmanian Vegetation Monitoring and Mapping Program (Harris & Kitchener 2005).3 The 2006 surveys involved sampling the full range of plant communities along each track and identifying specific areas at risk from ORVs and track use.

Wherever possible the location and status of known threatened flora sites were confirmed during the 2006 surveys, while new sites were recorded on an opportunistic basis. The timing of fieldwork meant that the status of many threatened plants could not be confirmed, viz., spring and summer-flowering orchids. The results presented here thus rely heavily upon field knowledge accumulated by one of the authors in the APCA between 1999 and 2005, with surveys focusing variously on threatened orchids (Johnson & Schahinger 1999), native grasslands (Schahinger 2002 & 2005), Phytophthora cinnamomi (Schahinger et al. 2003) and threatened ferns (Threatened Species Section 2006a & b).

4.3. Fauna Assessment Birds General bird surveys of a 20-minute count over 2 ha were carried out in several locations using the Birds Australia Bird Atlas methodology. Particular attention was given to surveying beaches for breeding and migratory shorebirds. Surveys undertaken on beaches were expanded in both time and area, and the numbers of each species were also recorded to obtain an indication of productivity and habitat use. Some

3 Web-version available on www.dpiw.tas.gov.au: follow the links to ‘Native Plants and Animals of Tasmania’
‘Vegetation of Tasmania’
‘From Forest to Fjaeldmark: Descriptions of Tasmania’s Vegetation’. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 19 ______beach surveys were carried out while driving at ~30 km/h, and some were done from a fixed point using a high-powered scope. Additional data were obtained from Eric Woehler, resulting from specific shorebird surveys for Cradle Coast NRM (Woehler 2007, pers. comm.). The timing of some of the surveys meant that migratory species were unlikely to be present. Habitats of significant species, such as the orange- bellied parrot, threatened raptors and the azure kingfishers were noted, along with the potential for disturbance from track use.

Birds of Prey Opportunistic searches were made from off-road tracks to detect threatened raptor nests, viz., wedge- tailed eagles, white-bellied sea eagles, grey goshawks, and masked owls. Any signs indicating roost or nest sites were noted. A megaphone and tape recorder playing calls of masked owls was used to detect the presence of this species; this technique was used opportunistically in the early evening at Sandy Cape.

Marrawah Skipper Previously recorded and new sites with suitable habitat — Carex appressa sedgeland at the margins of paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) stands — were searched for at least 20 minutes for larvae casings. A sweep net was available but not employed, as the timing of autumn 2006 surveys coincided with the end of the adult flying season.

Carnivorous Marsupials Incidental signs — scats and tracks — of eastern quolls, spotted-tailed quolls and Tasmanian devils were noted, to complement the recorded extensive habitation in the APCA of at least the latter two species.

Freshwater Aquatic Species The locations of stream and creek crossings were recorded with a GPS, along with an assessment of their condition, viz., bridges and culverts, current or potential erosion damage, sedimentation. Wetlands and soaks were identified and locations recorded. Any frog calls in close proximity to tracks were either identified in the field or recorded using a digital camera video function, and later compared with referenced calls and field guides to clarify species. Tadpoles found were sampled, kept alive and later identified by a researcher at the University of Tasmania. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 20 ______

5. RESULTS

5.1. Condition of priority tracks The priority tracks vary greatly in their physical condition, reflecting differences in environmental setting (e.g., land systems) and levels of ORV use (Plates 1-8). The poor condition of many tracks can be attributed to the following factors: • Rutting — due to displacement and compaction of soft cohesive sediments such as peaty and clayey soils (e.g., Mt Balfour Track, Dam Circuit Track, Sarah Anne Rocks Central Track); • Braiding — due to vehicles driving off-track to avoid boggy sections or other obstacles (e.g., Temma to Greenes Creek Track, Mt Balfour Track, Interview Mine Track); • Bogholes — due to loss of root structure and waterlogging of peat soils churned up by ORVs (e.g., Temma to Greenes Creek Track, Balfour Track, Mt Balfour Track, Interview River to Pieman River Track); • Gullies — due to enlargement of wheel ruts by flowing water (e.g., Balfour Track, Mt Balfour Track, Interview River to Pieman River Track); • Deflation hollows — due to wind erosion of unconsolidated sand on dunes (e.g., Bens Top Track, Big Eel Track, Sandy Cape Inland 1 Track, Interview River to Pieman River Track, Possum Banks area along the Dartys to Gannet Point Track); • Steep slopes — due to poor alignment of tracks, including gradients in excess of 20° on some sections (e.g., Mt Balfour Track, Ridge 1 Dam Track); • Sand inundation — due to displacement of highly mobile sands by wind and gravity (e.g., Sandy Cape Inland 1 Track, Interview River to Pieman River Track, Thornton Falls Track).

The condition of individual tracks is discussed at Appendix 1. In some cases track condition has been improved through surfacing and drainage works (e.g., parts of the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, Gannet Point Track). Similar improvements should be considered on other tracks available for vehicular access and are particularly desirable where the poor condition of a track encourages ORV drivers to bypass difficult sections, creating or compounding braiding problems and damaging the environment. There is abundant evidence of this on the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, where vehicles have deeply churned up peat soils adjacent to the main track and driven on steep erosion-prone dunes in order to avoid boggy sections. Similarly, sand inundation and deflation hollows on sections of the Interview River to Pieman River Track is associated with track braiding on sensitive vegetated dunes, which has triggered or exacerbated the erosion.

Plate 1. ORV in deflated area containing palaeosols near Plate 2. Big Eel Dune – a relict aeolian landform near Interview River (Track 402). Temma being eroded by ORVs (Track 309). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 21 ______

Plate 3. Track braiding on poorly drained section near Plate 4. ‘Circle work’ in wetland adjacent to track at Pieman Head (Track 601). Greenes Creek (Track 309).

Plate 5. ‘The Bowl’ – a sandblow dedicated for ORV Plate 6. Sandblow formed on former vehicular track use at Arthur Beach (Track 211). near Italian River (Track 501).

Plate 7. Eroded gravels invading vegetation adjacent to Plate 8. Eroded material advancing down gully on Mt track on Mt Balfour (Track 330). Balfour (Track 330).

5.2. Geoconservation Forty-one sites of geoconservation significance have been identified (Table 3), comprising 132 individual point or polygon features. Twenty-three of the sites are listed in the Tasmanian Geoconservation Database (TGD); other sites are yet to be formally assessed against the TGD criteria by the expert panel that advises DPIW on potential TGD sites. The TGD-listed sites include two of international significance (Site 8: Western Tasmania Blanket Bogs; Site 41: Balfour ‘String of Beads’ Fossil Site), two of national significance (Site 16: Balfour Oligocene Plant Fossil Locality; Site 31: Trowutta-Sumac Karst Systems), APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 22 ______eight of State significance and three of local significance4. The majority of other sites have been assessed in this study as locally or regionally significant; however, these should be considered preliminary results in the absence of an expert review process, as in the case of TGD-listed sites.

To assist in determining appropriate management, sites of geoconservation significance have been given a sensitivity rating, based on an indicative scale of risk associated with land use activities of differing intensity (see Appendix 3). The sensitivity rating is broadly linear on a scale of 1 (highly sensitive) to 10 (robust). Some geoconservation sites within the APCA are very robust landscape-scale features. However, approximately three-quarters of the sites satisfy criteria for a sensitivity rating of 5 or less, implying that geoconservation values could be impacted by activities causing levels of disturbance ranging from ‘higher intensity shallow linear impacts, depending on their precise position … [for example] features whose values would be degraded by vehicular tracks …’ (sensitivity = 5) to ‘inadvertent damage simply by diffuse, free ranging human pedestrian passage, even with care … [for example] fragile surfaces that may be crushed underfoot, such as calcified plant remains …’ (sensitivity = 1). These are sites where the geoconservation values may be at risk from ORVs, depending on track alignment in relation to sensitive component features.

The results of the geoconservation assessment are summarised below. Individual sites are described in Appendix 3. Geoconservation values are described in more detail than flora and fauna values, because the latter are already better documented compared to geoconservation values. For general reviews of geodiversity in the Arthur-Pieman area, see Sharples (1992a & b, 1996).

5.2.1. Bedrock Geological Sites A suite of very old marine sediments known as the Rocky Cape Group dominates the geology of the APCA and forms the basement rocks over much of northwest Tasmania. Granite crops out south of Kenneth Bay and minor deposits of basalt occur near Temma. Sites of geoconservation significance include well-preserved Precambrian sedimentary structures in rocks near Arthur River (Site 1: Australia Point Ladder Ripples; Site 2: Mawson Bay-Gardiner Point Precambrian Sedimentary Structures), the source area for spongolite (Site 3: Spongolite/Limestone Association), areas of mineralisation associated with the granite (Site 4: Interview Mine Tin-Tungsten Vein Mineralisation; Site 5: Interview River Mine Workings), and a geological type locality (Site 6: Pieman Head Coastal Landforms and Type Locality). In fact the entire coastal section between Mawson Bay and Pieman Head is potentially significant for geological studies, providing excellent exposure of bedrock sections.

Outcrops further inland tend to be obscured by Quaternary cover, although natural outcrops and quarries are not uncommon (e.g., various points along the Balfour Track). No attempt was made to systematically document these sites and, in any event, few would probably be considered significant; on the other hand, this cannot be assumed and geoscientific advice should be obtained prior to any development that could affect geological features.

The bedrock geological sites are not considered threatened by ORVs.

5.2.2. Fossil Sites Two sites in the APCA are confirmed significant fossil localities. These are Site 16: Balfour Oligocene Plant Fossil Locality, and Site 41: Balfour ‘String of Beads’ Fossil Locality. Both have been studied in detail and their significance is well established (Grey & Williams 1990; Hill 2001; Hill et al. 2001). A plant sub-fossil site at Mt Balfour is reported here for the first time and awaits full scientific investigation. It is at risk due to acute gully erosion on the Mt Balfour Track (Site 17: Mt Balfour Palaeosol and Buried Wood).

4 Concepts of significance, as applied in the TGD, are discussed by Sharples (2000). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 23 ______

Table 3. Sites of geoconservation significance in the APCA Site Site Name TGD Status Significance Sensitivity Threats Relevant Tracks No. 1 Australia Point Ladder Ripples Listed Local 3 No immediate threats 107 2 Mawson Bay-Gardiner Point Precambrian Listed Local 3 No immediate threats 101, 107, 208 Sedimentary Structures 3 Spongolite/Limestone Association Listed Tasmania 7 No immediate threats 313 4 Interview Mine Tin-Tungsten Vein Listed Region 3 No immediate threats 503 Mineralisation 5 Interview River Mine Workings Not listed Local 3 No immediate threats 504 6 Pieman Head Coastal Landforms and Type Listed Tasmania 7 No immediate threats 601 Locality 7 Grace Creek Ferruginous Duricrust Not listed Region 7 No immediate threats 313 8 Western Tasmania Blanket Bogs Listed World 2 Fire & ORVs 304, 305, 306, 309, 313, 314, 315, 328, 330, 401, 503, 504, 601, 602 9 Dawson River Basalt Soils Not listed State 6 No immediate threats 313, 315, 328 10 Gannet Point ?Periglacial Colluvium Under Region 5 Quarrying 317 consideration 11 Rupert Point Screes Not listed Region 5 No immediate threats 601 12 Sandy Cape-Rupert Point Sandrock Not listed Region 2 ORVs 408, 601 13 Prickly Wattle Palaeosols Listed Region 1 ORVs 207 14 Arthur-Pieman Coastal Palaeosols Not listed Region 1 ORVs 207, 211, 218, 309, 402, 501 15 Possum Banks Sand – Big Eel Sand Not listed Region 2 ORVs 501 Unconformity 16 Balfour Oligocene Plant Fossil Locality Listed National 3 No immediate threats – 17 Mt Balfour Palaeosol and Buried Wood Not listed Unknown 3 Gully erosion on Mt 330 Balfour Track 18 Sumac Dissected Erosion Surface Listed Local 9 No immediate threats 313, 328, 503, 504, 602 19 Lower Coastal Surface - Potential Listed Unknown 7 No immediate threats 313 Stratigraphic Sites 20 Northwest Interglacial Marine Terrain Listed Tasmania 5 No immediate threats All tracks below 20 m asl (predictive region) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 24 ______

Site Site Name TGD Status Significance Sensitivity Threats Relevant Tracks No. 21 Elliots Track Terrace Gravels Not listed Local 5 No immediate threats 602 (sensitive to ORVs) 22 Mt Balfour-Temma Rounded Gravels Not listed Unknown 5 Gully erosion on Mt 306, 330 Balfour Track 23 Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete Not listed Local 5 Quarrying and gully 202, 203 erosion on Ridge 1 Dam Track 24 Arthur-Sundown Dunes Not listed Region 5 ORVs, stock and weeds 202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, (marram) 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 220 25 Bird Fence-Gannet Point Dunes Not listed Region 5 ORVs, stock and weeds 308, 333 (marram) 26 Sandy Cape Dunes Listed Tasmania 5 ORVs, stock and weeds 309, 325, 326, 327, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, (marram) 406, 408, 409, 410, 411, 501 27 Skull Creek-Interview River Transgressive Listed Tasmania 5 ORVs, stock and weeds 501, 503 Sand Sheets (marram) 28 Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches Listed Region 5 ORVs and quarrying 107, 225, 227, 303, 308, 309, 318, 333, 601 29 Possum Banks-Big Eel Dune Complex Listed Tasmania 5 ORVs and stock 305, 306, 308, 309 30 Temma Relict Beach Ridges Not listed Region 5 No immediate threats 227 31 Trowutta-Sumac Karst Systems Listed Australia 4 No immediate threats – 32 Pieman Head Dolomite Karren Not listed Region 5 No immediate threats 601 33 Arthur River Estuary Listed Tasmania 9 Bank erosion from boat 107 wakes 34 Pedder River Estuary Listed Tasmania 5 ORVs 403, 404 35 Wild Wave River Dune-barred Lake Listed Tasmania 7 No immediate threats 402 36 Rebecca Lagoon Dune-barred Drainage Listed Region 4 ORVs, stock and weeds 231, 232 (marram) 37 Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands Not listed Local 2 ORVs and stock 107, 207, 208, 211, 308, 322, 325, 333, 412 38 Limefern Creek Tufa Not listed Local 2 No immediate threats 203 39 Lanes Tor Granite Monoliths Listed Region 8 No immediate threats 601 40 Balfour Track Pachydermal Weathering Not listed Local 5 Tracked vehicles operating 313 off Balfour Track 41 Balfour ‘String of Beads’ Fossil Locality Listed World 3 No immediate threats – APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 25 ______

5.2.3. Regolith Sites Regolith is the product of weathering of geological substrates and includes soil, saprolite (in situ weathered rock), duricrusts (hardened layers within a soil profile) and transported materials such as sand and talus. Regolith sites identified in this study include two presumed duricrusts (Site 7: Grace Creek Ferruginous Duricrust; Site 23: Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete), two ‘living’ soil sites (Site 8: Western Tasmania Blanket Bogs; Site 9: Dawson River Basalt Soils), three palaeosol sites (Site 13: Prickly Wattle Palaeosols; Site 14: Arthur-Pieman Coastal Palaeosols; Site 17: Mt Balfour Palaeosol and Fossil Wood), two colluviums of possible periglacial origin (Site 10: Gannet Point ?Periglacial Colluvium; Site 11: Rupert Point Screes), an unconformity between Quaternary sand units (Site 15: Possum Banks Sand – Big Eel Sand Unconformity) and relict rounded gravels (Site 21: Elliots Track Cainozoic Gravels; Site 22: Mt Balfour-Temma Rounded Gravels; Site 23: Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete).

The majority of regolith sites are susceptible to ORV impacts and some are being actively degraded. This is true of the Western Tasmania Blanket Bogs, where organic soils are being impacted through the development of deep ruts, braiding and bogholes on vehicular tracks. Dune palaeosols are also being impacted — the buried soil horizons and associated plant sub-fossils are invariably fragile and readily damaged, either directly by ORVs or through erosion that has been triggered or exacerbated by ORVs. Dune palaeosols are exposed in many areas of currently mobile sand, where their presence adds weight to the argument for excluding ORVs from these areas.5

5.2.4. Erosion Surfaces and Associated Deposits Erosion surfaces are a dominant but poorly understood feature of the geomorphology of the APCA. The surfaces include a 10–20 m asl surface that occupies a coastal strip 1–3 km wide, the inland margin of which often terminates at a distinct break of slope and possible former sea cliff. Above this is a series of higher surfaces plateau along the western side of the Norfolk Range. The higher surfaces are part of a feature listed in the TGD as the Sumac Dissected Erosion Surface (Site 18). Recent work south of Macquarie Harbour has cast doubt on the usefulness of the established nomenclature of erosion surfaces in western Tasmania (Houshold et al. 2006), and the TGD listing probably warrants review.

The TGD also recognises a Lower Coastal Surface – Potential Stratigraphic Sites (Site 19:), though the values are not confirmed at this stage. Three additional sites were identified in this study, comprising sedimentary deposits that may assist in the interpretation of the mode and timing of the formation of erosion surfaces (Site 21: Elliots Track Cainozoic Gravels; Site 22: Mt Balfour–Temma Rounded Gravels; Site 23: Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete). The nature and significance of these sites is poorly understood at present.

Erosion surfaces are large robust features unlikely to be impacted by human activities; however, component features, such as potentially dateable sedimentary deposits, can be sensitive to disturbance. The sedimentary deposits noted above have been impacted to some extent by ORVs.

5.2.5. Coastal and Aeolian Landforms The APCA coastline comprises rugged sections of rocky shore interspersed with long sandy beaches. Coastal features of geoconservation significance include sites of interest in relation to sea level fluctuations and/or neotectonic uplift (Site 20: Northwest Interglacial Marine Terrain Site; 28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches; Site 30: Temma Relict Beach Ridges). High-level cobble beaches within the APCA are

5 It has been suggested that beach and dune landforms that lack vegetation are suitable for ORV activities, because natural sand movement will rapidly erase all impacts (e.g., RPDC 2001, p. 96). This may be true to an extent if the following classes of feature are not affected: (1) Aboriginal middens, (2) palaeosols exposed by deflation, (3) vegetation in the early stages of becoming established, and (4) fauna susceptible to disturbance from ORVs (e.g., nesting shorebirds). In fact most areas of mobile sand in the APCA show one or more of these characteristics. Moreover, disturbance by ORVs may inhibit natural revegetation of mobile dunes, following erosion events triggered by natural or anthropogenic processes. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 26 ______being impacted by ORVs at several sites; the recommendations of this report include measures to protect significant examples.

The coastal strip is characterised by massive sand sheets and dunes. In places these extend inland for several kilometres, and include some of the most extensive transgressive dune complexes in Tasmania (Figures 6 and 7). The aeolian landforms comprise currently mobile sands (~1,900 ha) as well as extensive vegetated dunes (~11,400 ha)6. These are key areas from a land management perspective, due to the highly erodible character of the sands.

Aeolian landforms and landform assemblages of geoconservation significance include dune complexes and sandsheets (Site 15: Possum Banks–Big Eel Dune Complex; Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes; Site 25: Bird Fence–Gannet Point Dunes; Site 26: Sandy Cape Dunes; Site 27: Skull Creek–Interview River Transgressive Sand Sheets). The sites of interest include dune palaeosols and other stratigraphic features (Site 12: Sandy Cape–Rupert Point Sandrock; Site 13: Prickly Wattle Palaeosols; Site 15: Possum Banks– Big Eel Dune Unconformity). A case could be made to classify the entire aeolian landform system of the APCA as a site of geoconservation significance. This would be consistent with its status as a particularly well-developed assemblage of aeolian landforms, its value as a resource for palaeo-environmental research, and its sensitivity to anthropogenic disturbance.

While active dunes are prominent in parts of the APCA, thermoluminescence dating of sand profiles suggests at least two earlier phases of dune-building activity7. These occurred close to the peak of the Last Glaciation (~20,000 years ago) and then during climatic amelioration at around the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary (10,000 years ago). The Big Eel Dune — a well-preserved linear transgressive dune near Temma — was formed during the earlier phase, which may also have produced similar features inland near Sandy Cape. The later phase produced dunes near the coast at Prickly Wattle, Possum Banks, Bird Fence and Italian River. The presence of a partially lithified sand remnant at Sandy Cape, which yielded a thermoluminescence date of ~56,000 years BP, implies further complexity to the history of aeolian processes in this area. The presence of Pleistocene dunes in the APCA is consistent with results from northeast Tasmania, where dunes of similar age are present (Duller & Augustinus 2006). In contrast, dunes on Tasmania’s south coast are mostly Holocene features (Pemberton 1994; Cullen 1998a). The APCA results, while necessarily of a reconnaissance nature, highlight the significance of the aeolian landforms of the APCA as a source of information about changing environmental conditions in this part of Tasmania.

The erodibility of aeolian sediments and landforms makes them highly sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance. This includes formerly mobile sands that have become more stable through the establishment of vegetation over all or part of their area. Vegetated dunes may persist in the landscape for thousands of years; however, they can be rapidly destabilised if the soil-vegetation cover is damaged, exposing underlying sand to wind erosion. Evidence of this process is found throughout the APCA (Plates 1–2, 5– 6).

6 Area of aeolian landforms based on 2001 air photos (see Appendix 2). 7 Thermoluminescence dates are reported in Appendix 3; the stratigraphy will be the subject of a separate paper. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 27 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 6. Quaternary coastal sediments and landforms in the APCA (2001 air photos). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 28 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 7. Mobile sands in the APCA (2001 air photos) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 29 ______

Questions concerning the naturalness or otherwise of areas of massive dune mobility, as at Kenneth Bay and south of Sandy Cape, are yet to be satisfactorily resolved. Dune mobility at these sites may be natural, as implied in the TGD listings; on the other hand anthropogenic disturbance may be implicated (Stockton 1982; Dyring 1992; Sharples 1998). Air photo interpretation for this study indicates that areas of mobile sand south of Sandy Cape have expanded by 26% over the last 50 years, whereas those closer to Arthur River have experienced a significant reduction (Appendix 2). Marram grass planting has undoubtedly contributed to the decline in area of mobile sands in northern parts of the APCA. This issue — causes and history of dune mobility — warrants investigation through a proper scientific study, as it underpins appropriate management of large parts of the APCA.8 However, the need for such an investigation should not be used to justify deferring decisions on problematic tracks.

5.2.6. Rivers and Estuaries The APCA contains an extensive suite of fluvial and estuarine landforms. These range from highly meandering watercourses over parts of the higher erosion surface, to structurally controlled gorge-like reaches where streams have eroded into the seaward margins of the surface. The vast majority of these features are not affected by ORVs, and no attempt was made to systematically identify representative examples.

Significant features include two important examples of dune-barred drainage (Site 35: Wild Wave River Dune-barred Lake, Site 36: Rebecca Lagoon Dune-barred Drainage). Coastal springs were also noted; these sensitive features are being degraded by stock in some cases (Site 37: Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands). A tufa-depositing stream was also recorded (Site 38: Lime Fern Creek Tufa). Estuarine landforms of interest include a major example of a river valley drowned by post-glacial sea level rise (Site 33: Arthur River Estuary) and a spectacular interaction of fluvial and coastal processes at Kenneth Bay (Site 34: Pedder River Estuary). The latter site is subject to ORV impacts.

5.2.7. Other Erosional Landforms Two karst sites were noted (Site 31: Trowutta – Sumac Karst Systems; Site 32: Pieman Head Dolomite Karren), neither of which is threatened in any way by ORVs. Other features of interest include a robust granite landform (Site 39: Lanes Tor Granite Monoliths) and small-scale weathering features on sandstone (Site 40: Balfour Track Pachydermal Weathering). The latter site has been damaged during track rehabilitation works off the Balfour Track.

8 Studies elsewhere indicate that in a given region dune mobility due to natural causes can be predicted from the ratio between prevailing wind speed and effective precipitation (Lancaster 1997, 1988; Lancaster & Baas 1998). This model may provide a useful indication of whether the present massive dune mobility in the APCA is predominantly a natural phenomenon. The potential relationship between preciptation and trends in dune mobility over the last 50 years could be usefully explored using historical weather data. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 30 ______

5.3. Flora

5.3.1. Overview Detailed sampling of vegetation types in the APCA is patchy, being characterised by a few local studies. Most of the major vegetation types present in the APCA have been sampled as part of Statewide studies, including dry coastal vegetation (Kirkpatrick & Harris 1995), heathland (Kirkpatrick 1977; Kirkpatrick & Harris 1999), wetlands (Kirkpatrick & Harwood 1981), buttongrass moorland (Jarman et al. 1988), wet eucalypt forests (Kirkpatrick et al. 1989) and dry eucalypt forests (Duncan & Brown 1985). The floristic and structural communities outlined in these studies have been assigned to mapping units as part of the Tasmanian Vegetation Monitoring and Mapping Program (Harris & Kitchener 2005; Forest Practices Authority 2005), with mapping of the vegetation in the APCA available at a scale of 1:25,000 (TASVEG 2005). As noted in the flora methodology section, the vegetation mapping units recorded during the 2006 APCA track surveys are consistent with those employed by TASVEG (Harris & Kitchener 2005).

The most relevant previous botanical study of the APCA is that of Macphail et al. (1975) — building upon the work of Nicolls (1955 & 1957) and Twidale (1957) — in which the vegetation south of Sandy Cape between the Italian and Pieman Rivers was described, along with pertinent references to other near-coastal areas.9 Stockton (1982) provides a historical overview of changes to dune vegetation in the APCA since European settlement, surmising the demise of grasslands and grassy shrublands due to the widespread destabilisation of dunes initiated by cattle grazing and over-firing in the late 19th century, conversion to exotic pasture, and the planting of dunes with the invasive marram grass (Ammophila arenaria). Schahinger (2002 & 2005) subsequently described and mapped the remaining native grasslands on coastal dunes between Woolnorth and the Lagoon River.

At the species level, there has been a keen interest in orchids within the APCA over the past twenty years by professional and amateur botanists alike (Jones et al. 1999). Ten of the twenty-eight threatened flora species recorded within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks are orchids, with three of those having their core populations within the APCA (viz., Caladenia dienema, Prasophyllum favonium and Pterostylis rubenachii). Targeted survey work has also been undertaken in the APCA for ferns (Garrett 1996 & 1997), species in the pea family (Lynch 1993), and species associated with remnant grasslands (Schahinger 2002 & 2005).

The threatened flora species recorded along the APCA priority tracks are listed in Table 4, with those species considered at risk from ORV activities highlighted. The 2006 track surveys resulted in new records for five threatened flora species, most in areas south of the Interview River (Figure 8): Amphibromus neesii (track 501; first record for the APCA); Epacris curtisiae (tracks 330, 504 and 602); Ranunculus acaulis (tracks 401, 501 and 601; noted previously by Macphail et al. (1975) and Schahinger (2005), but precise locations not recorded); Spyridium vexilliferum var. vexilliferum (tracks 303, 309, 328, 501) and Stackhousia viminea (tracks 305, 601 and 602).

Key threatening processes associated with tracks and ORV activity in the APCA are outlined below, followed by a discussion of those plant species and communities considered to be at greatest risk in the APCA. A complete list of threatened flora species and plant communities recorded along the APCA priority tracks is provided in Appendix 4. Track-specific management recommendations are provided in the individual track descriptions (Appendix 1).

9 Additional notes on the vegetation within the APCA are found in Richley (1978) and Askey-Doran et al. (1992), while a brief account of heath and scrub formations in the Ordnance Point – Ingram Bay area is given by Cameron (1984). Parallels may also be drawn with vegetation studies at Mt Cameron West (Preminghana) and Woolnorth (Brown 1980; McMahon 1999). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 31 ______

Table 4. Threatened flora recorded within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks

Name Common name End TSP EPBC Records* Track Number Amphibromus neesii southern swampgrass r – 0/1 501 Asperula subsimplex water woodruff r – 1/0 101 Caladenia caudata tailed spider-orchid + r VU 1/0 218 Caladenia dienema windswept spider-orchid + v CR 15/0 218, 222, 229, 231, 303 Caladenia pusilla tiny fingers r – 7/0 218, 229 Carex gunniana mountain sedge r – 2/0 107, 214 Cullen microcephalum dusky scurfpea r – 2/0 225, 227 Cyrtostylis robusta large gnat-orchid r – 1/0 205 Diuris lanceolata large golden moths + e EN 10/0 220, 224, 229 Diuris palustris swamp doubletail e – 7/0 218, 308 Epacris curtisiae northwest heath + r – 5/9 309, 313, 330, 504, 602 Euphrasia collina subsp. northcoast eyebright e – 4/0 308 tetragona Lotus australis australian trefoil r – 16/0 208, 308, 412, 501, 601 Parietaria debilis shade pellitory r – 5/0 308 Pneumatopteris pennigera lime fern v – 3/0 203 Poa poiformis var. ramifer island purplegrass r – 1/0 312 Prasophyllum favonium western leek-orchid + e CR 5/0 227, 229 Pterostylis cucullata leafy greenhood e VU 11/0 208, 308 Pterostylis falcata sickle greenhood r – 1/0 218 Pterostylis rubenachii arthur river greenhood + e EN 18/0 202, 208, 209, 212–4, 218, 227 Ranunculus acaulis dune buttercup r – 0/13 401, 402, 501, 601 Scaevola albida pale fanflower r – 8/0 308 Spyridium parvifolium coast dustymiller r – 1/0 313 var. parvifolium Spyridium vexilliferum helicopter bush r – 12/5 220, 227, 303, var. vexilliferum 308, 309, 328, 501 Stackhousia viminea yellow candles r – 1/3 305, 309, 601, 602 Veronica novae-hollandiae coast speedwell + v – 11/0 501 Vittadinia australasica coast new-holland daisy e – 8/0 308, 309 var. oricola Xerochrysum bicolor eastcoast everlasting r – 2/0 107, 222 Orchid nomenclature follows CHAH (2005 & 2006). Common names follow Wapstra et al. (2005). End = endemic in Tasmania. TSP = Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995: r = rare, v = vulnerable, e = endangered. EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999: VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, CR = Critically Endangered. Records* = pre-2006/APCA 2006 track surveys. Track Number in bold indicates that the species is considered to be at risk from ORV activities. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 32 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 8. Threatened flora within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 33 ______

5.3.2. Threatening processes (1) Physical damage. Plant communities in the APCA at greatest risk of direct physical damage by ORVs include those associated with poorly drained or waterlogged conditions (wetlands and associated herbfields, marsupial lawns), and those associated with coastal dunes (Poa rodwayi grasslands). Succulent saline herblands in near-coastal situations are also considered to be at risk from physical disturbance. Observed examples of ORV damage to these communities are described in the individual track descriptions.

Evidence of direct physical disturbance to threatened plant species within the APCA was difficult to obtain. The clearest examples involved populations of the rare dune buttercup (Ranunculus acaulis) near Greenes Point, north of the Lagoon River and south of the Interview River — in each instance the respective tracks cut through the species’ preferred damp sand habitat (Plate 9), with the past destruction of an unknown number of plants (the rhizomatous nature of the species makes any estimates of numbers problematic). In addition, the endangered lime fern (Pneumatopteris pennigera) is at risk of inadvertent damage at a rocky creek crossing — Lime Fern Creek — along the Ridge 1 Dam Track (Plate 10).

Numerous examples were observed in the APCA where tracks had been sited inappropriately, either along dune crests or through dunes, with damage to significant grassland communities (refer to the following grassland section for key sites and tracks). ORV activity in dune areas may either initiate or exacerbate existing ‘blows’, leading to the partial or complete smothering of species and communities, e.g., the botanically-significant Possum Banks site adjacent to track 308 (Schahinger 2002 & 2005). In addition, the increase in loose sand may provide colonisation opportunities for aggressive weeds such as sea spurge (Euphorbia paralias; see below).

(2) Phytophthora cinnamomi. Tracks may act as a conduit for the introduced soil-borne plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi (commonly known as root-rot or cinnamon fungus; listed as a key threatening process in the EPBC Act). Phytophthora cinnamomi was first recorded within the APCA in the 1970s, not long after the recognition of the pathogen’s presence in Tasmania (Podger et al. 1990).

Phytophthora cinnamomi was found to be a ubiquitous if patchy presence in susceptible plant communities along most of the APCA tracks surveyed in 2006. These communities included coastal heath, wet heath, heathy Eucalyptus nitida woodland, buttongrass moorland and western wet sedgeland (Schahinger et al. 2003). Reliable indicator species exhibiting obvious symptoms of infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi included pink swampheath (Sprengelia incarnata), the rare northwest heath (Epacris curtisiae) and the southern grasstree (Xanthorrhoea australis) (Plates 11 and 12).

The practicality and cost of applying hygiene measures within known infected areas in the APCA is not feasible. However, it is recommended that seasonal restrictions be placed on a number of tracks to limit the spread of the pathogen from existing infestations, with access only being permitted during the summer (1st December to 31st March; the tracks in question are noted in the individual track descriptions).

Untracked areas in the APCA that potentially support susceptible plant communities should be treated as being uninfected until surveys show otherwise, viz., the southern Norfolk Ranges. Track development in these areas should be discouraged, in accordance with DPIW’s Interim Phytophthora cinnamomi Management Guidelines (Rudman 2005).

(3) Weeds. Tracks may also act as a conduit for weeds. Those parts of the APCA considered in this report would appear to be free of major woody weeds such as gorse (Ulex europaeus), broom (Cytisus spp.), blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and Spanish heath (Erica lusitanica). The occasional ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) occurs along the Temma to Greenes Point Track (308). Ragwort is a declared weed under the Tasmanian Weed Management Act 1999; any infestations found in the APCA should be removed immediately.

Weeds common along the strandline of beaches in the APCA include sea spurge (Euphorbia paralias) and marram grass (Ammophila arenaria), the latter the subject of past deliberate plantings to stabilise mobile dunes (Plate 13), with localised infestations of sea wheatgrass (Thinopyrum junceiforme). Vehicles moving along beaches have the capacity to spread each of these weeds, though their primary vectors are wind and APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 34 ______wave action (Rudman 2003). Existing tracks or damage to vegetated dunes by ORVs — particularly by the new-generation of high-powered quad bikes — may allow the spread of weeds into hitherto uninfested areas, as illustrated by the rapid spread of sea spurge in dune areas to the north of the Lagoon River (Plate 14). Threatened plants observed to be at risk from such processes include the rare dune buttercup (Ranunculus acaulis) and the vulnerable coast speedwell (Veronica novae-hollandiae).

Plate 9. Dune buttercup (Tracks 401, 501 & 601). Plate 10. Lime fern at creek crossing (Track 203).

Plate 11. Northwest heath affected by Phytophthora Plate 12. Southern grasstree affected by Phytophthora cinnamomi (Track 330). cinnamomi (Track 203).

Plate 13. Marram hummocks with exposed slates and Plate 14. Sea spurge invading coast speedwell habitat granites (Track 601). (Track 501). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 35 ______

5.3.3. Plant Communities at risk in the APCA Plant communities in the APCA considered to be at risk from tracks and ORV activity are presented below in order of their observed or potential vulnerability (Table 5). The list includes communities that are threatened in Tasmania, as well as other communities considered to be at risk from either direct physical disturbance or indirectly via the spread of the exotic soil-borne plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi.

Table 5. Plant communities at risk from tracks and ORV activity in the APCA

TASVEG Mapping Unit Code Status Extent in APCA Threat Lowland Themeda triandra grassland GTL C, D Local (dune crests & Physical: very high upper slopes) Weeds: moderate Freshwater aquatic herbland AHF, B Local (dune-barred Physical: very high Freshwater aquatic sedgeland and ASF, depressions & swales) rushland AHL Lacustrine herbland Coastal grass and herbfield GHC C Local (near-coastal gully Physical: very high (herbfield & marsupial lawn component) mouths; dune swales) Weeds: low–mod Succulent saline herbland ASS C Local (rocky coasts) Physical: very high Coastal heathland SCH – Moderate (sandsheets) Phytophthora: high Western buttongrass moorland MBW – Common along Balfour Phytophthora: high and Elliots Track Western lowland sedgeland MSW – Mt Balfour (slopes) and Phytophthora: high Elliots Track Eucalyptus nitida dry forest and woodland DNI – Moderate Phytophthora: high Wet heathland SHW – Moderate (sandsheets) Phytophthora: high Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest NME A, B Local (dune swales/flats) Physical: low Eucalyptus brookeriana wet forest WBR A, B Very rare (dune-barred Physical: low flat) (potential only)

Status: A = plant community listed under the Regional Forest Agreement (RFA 1997)10; B = plant community listed in schedule 3a of the Tasmanian Nature Conservation Amendment (Threatened Native Vegetation Communities) Act 2006; C = plant community with regional or local significance; D = plant community currently being considered for listing on the EPBC Act.

(1) Lowland Themeda triandra grassland (GTL) Description: Short tussock grassland dominated by velvet tussock grass (Poa rodwayi) with a rich assemblage of herbs in the intertussock spaces (Plate 15). The low shrubs Acrotriche affinis, Beyeria lechenaultii subsp. latifolia, Hibbertia sericea, Leucopogon parviflorus and Spyridium vexilliferum are sometimes sparsely emergent from the grass sward. The community is a recognised facies of ‘Lowland Themeda triandra grassland’ (Harris & Kitchener 2005).

Distribution: The community occurs on stabilised near-coastal calcareous dunes between the Arthur and Lagoon Rivers, with an estimated extant area of occupancy of 20–30 ha. Pre-1750 this community is thought to have occupied much of the coastal strip between the Interview River and Woolnorth, with a conservative estimate of c. 1000 ha (Schahinger 2002 & 2005).

10 Localised patches of the RFA-listed communities Eucalyptus viminalis–Eucalyptus globulus coastal forest and woodland (DVC) and Eucalyptus viminalis wet forest (WVI) were also recorded, but they are not considered to be at risk from ORV activities in the APCA. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 36 ______

Status: Extremely high conservation significance in the Tasmanian Vegetation Management Strategy (TVMS 1998), and currently nominated for listing on the EPBC Act as part of ‘lowland temperate grasslands of Tasmania’.

Significant species: Euphrasia collina subsp. tetragona (e), Lotus australis (r), Pterostylis cucullata (e/VU), Scaevola albida (r), Spyridium vexilliferum var. vexilliferum (r), Veronica novae-hollandiae (v) and Vittadinia australasica var. oricola (e). The grasslands are considered a valuable food resource for the endangered orange-bellied parrot and the conservation significant blue-winged parrot (Threatened Species Unit 2002).

Key sites & tracks • Possum Banks (308: area between Big Eel Creek and Eva Point); • Symes Creek to south of Dawson Bay (308 & 333); • Greenes Point (325); • Johnsons Head (501); • Italian–Lagoon River area (501).

Key Threats • Physical disturbance of dune habitat by ORVs and cattle leading to sandblows; • Over-grazing by cattle; • Invasion by exotic species: marram grass from deliberate plantings, herbs and grasses via cattle dung, sea spurge spreading into disturbed dune areas from existing coastal infestations; • Invasion by coastal scrub due to an infrequent fire regime; • Over-firing leading to a reduction in species diversity.

(2) Freshwater aquatic herbland (AHF), Freshwater aquatic sedgeland and rushland (ASF), Lacustrine herbland (AHL) Wetlands in the APCA typically occur in association with swamp forests at the inland margin of coastal dunes where the surface drainage from the hinterland has been impeded (Plate 16). Many of the wetlands dry out for extended periods, the aquatic plant species being reduced to vegetative tubers that survive in the wetland soil (Harris & Kitchener 2005). Freshwater aquatic herbland (AHF) may include conspicuous emergents such as water ribbons (Triglochin procera) and running marsh flower (Villarsia reniformis), with species such as water milfoils (Myriophyllum spp.) and pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.). Freshwater aquatic sedgeland and rushland (ASF) — as recorded along or near tracks 107, 308 and 501 — tends to be dominated by sharp clubsedge (Schoenoplectus pungens).

Lacustrine herbland (AHL) includes marsupial lawns and herbfields that grow at the margins of wetlands or where the water table is at or very close to the surface for most of the year (Harris & Kitchener 2005). They are characterised by a single, low-growing vegetation layer (grazing pressure by native animals often keeps the community less than 5 cm in height). Species diversity in the herblands generally decreases as salinity increases.

Freshwater aquatic herbland/sedgeland/rushland and lacustrine herblands are extremely sensitive to stock trampling and/or ORV use. A list of key wetland sites encountered along the APCA tracks is included in the fauna results section, with specific recommendations in the individual track descriptions (Appendix 1).

(3) Coastal grass and herbfield (GHC) The herbfield component of this mapping unit — which includes wet herbfields and marsupial lawns — may be found in dune swales where the water table remains permanently close to the surface, or very close to the shore along drainage lines and soakage areas where soil has accumulated. Two facies have been identified from western Tasmania: Cotula reptans – Sellieria radicans – Schoenus nitens lawn and Plantago triantha – Schoenus nitens lawn (Kirkpatrick 1991). The herbfields may include Ammobium calyceroides (spiny everlasting), an endemic herb confined to Tasmania’s west coast and the larger islands of Bass Strait, while ‘tufa-marshes’ akin to those observed on King Island (Jennings 1956; Barnes et al. 2002) may occur where APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 37 ______seepage of water has occurred through calcium rich sands. Wet herbfields are extremely sensitive to damage by cattle and ORVs (Plate 17), as well as to changes in hydrology.

(4) Succulent saline herbland (ASS) Succulent saline herblands dominated by Sarcocornia species (beaded glassworts). This community occurs along rocky stretches of the coast within the APCA, with good examples recorded on the Church River to Arthur River Track (107), the northern section of the Sarah Anne Coastal Track (225; Plate 18), and south of Rupert Point on the Interview River to Pieman River Track (601). The herblands typically occur within gullies formed by steeply angled Precambrian outcrops and are contiguous with wet herbfields and coastal grasses (both included within the mapping unit GHC). Glassworts are a recognised food resource for the orange-bellied parrot (Brown & Wilson 1984; Bryant & Jackson 1999). The succulent herblands are extremely sensitive to physical damage by ORVs and cattle.

(5) Coastal heathland (SCH) & Wet heathland (SHW) Coastal heathland and wet heathland communities are locally common in the APCA within 2–3 km of the coast on acidic old sand dunes and windblown sand sheets (Plate 19), extending onto the lower slopes of what Nicolls (1955) has termed the ‘coastal peneplain’ (e.g., along Big Eel Track (305) to the southeast of Temma). The soil profile is characterised by a shallow O-horizon of grey to dark-grey sand with coarse organic matter, overlying an A-horizon of strongly leached light-grey to white compact sands.

Species composition and diversity in the heathlands display considerable local variation, reflecting differences in soil characteristics, drainage and fire history. The most commonly recorded coastal heathland and wet heathland communities observed along the APCA tracks — as per the dominance communities of Kirkpatrick and Harris (1999) — were soft-fruited tea-tree (Leptospermum glaucescens) dry heath and scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa) wet heath, respectively. Additional communities included mallee peppermint (Eucalyptus nitida) dry heath, honeysuckle (Banksia marginata) dry heath, coast tea-tree (Leptospermum laevigatum) dry heath and swamp paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) dry heath.

The more commonly occurring species in the soft-fruited tea-tree dry heath and scented paperbark wet heath are listed below, along with a reference track location (species underlined = dominant; in brackets = occasional):

(i) Coastal heathland (SCH): Big Eel Track (305), Bird Fence Track (314) Shrubs: Leptospermum glaucescens, Aotus ericoides, Epacris impressa, Leptospermum scoparium, Amperea xiphoclada, Allocasuarina sp., Banksia marginata, Acacia suaveolens, Leucopogon collinus, Dillwynia glaberrima, Gompholobium huegelii, Sphaerolobium minus, Phyllota diffusa, Persoonia juniperina, Sprengelia incarnata Sedges: Hypolaena fastigiata, Lepidosperma concavum, Schoenus lepidosperma Herbs/ferns: Cassytha glabella, Selaginella uliginosa, Stylidium graminifolium, Xanthosia pusilla, Xanthosia tridentata

(ii) Wet heathland (SHW): Dam Circuit Track (202), Bird Fence Track (314) Shrubs: Melaleuca squarrosa, Melaleuca squamea, Leptospermum scoparium, Epacris lanuginosa, Sprengelia incarnata, Bauera rubioides (Eucalyptus nitida, Dillwynia glaberrima) Sedges: Eurychorda complanata, Lepidosperma filiforme, Leptocarpus tenax, Baumea acuta, Schoenus lepidosperma Herbs/ferns: Selaginella uliginosa, Gleichenia dicarpa

(6) Western buttongrass moorland (MBW) & Western lowland sedgeland (MSW) Extensive areas of treeless vegetation characterised by the presence of buttongrass (Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus) occur on siliceous substrates in the far east and southeast of the APCA. Jarman et al. (1988) had noted that most of the buttongrass moorland towards the coast in the northern part of the region between the Arthur and Pieman Rivers was represented by blanket moor, with eastern moor occurring further inland, often surrounded by forested areas. However, they also noted that ‘Very little sampling was APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 38 ______undertaken in the extensive areas of buttongrass vegetation between Balfour and the Pieman River … and the character of most of this region is unknown’. The current surveys have confirmed the presence of blanket moor along tracks 313, 328, 330, 504 and 602, with indicator species such as Leptospermum nitidum, Eucalyptus nitida, Chordifex hookeri, Baeckea leptocaulis, Epacris corymbiflora (602 only), Boronia elisabethiae, Actinotus bellidioides, Helichrysum pumilum var. pumilum, as well as species characteristic of the northwest, viz., Epacris curtisiae and Philotheca virgata. These two communities have been identified as preferred habitat for the ground parrot (Pezoporus wallicus) in Tasmania (Bryant 1991), and are likely to represent part of this species’ stronghold.

The buttongrass vegetation along the tracks surveyed may be attributed to the TASVEG mapping units Western buttongrass moorland (MBW) and Western lowland sedgeland (MSW), and includes the following facies of blanket moorland (Jarman et al. 1988): ‘Northwestern Dense’, ‘Standard Peat’, ‘Standard Pebbles’, ‘Wet Standard’ and ‘Southwestern Sedgey’. Western buttongrass moorland occurs in flattish to gently undulating areas on very poorly drained acidic podzol peats. Western lowland sedgeland tends to be associated with exposed siliceous gravels, as to the east of Elliots Track (analogous to gravel terraces south of Birchs Inlet noted by Harris & Kitchener 2005), with a sparse vegetation cover dominated by the sedge Chordifex hookeri. Considerable variation in the structure and floristic composition of the two units has occurred as a result of the interaction of topography and vegetation with fires of variable frequency and intensity. Buttongrass cover typically varies between 5 and 25%, though areas with a cover > 75% may occur along creek lines and alluvial plains, as recorded along Elliots Track to the immediate south of the Interview River (their small size precludes mapping as Pure buttongrass moorland MBP).

Species composition in the two buttongrass mapping units is summarised below, along with a description of a facies of Western lowland sedgeland recorded on the slopes of Mt Balfour.

(i) Western buttongrass moorland (MBW): Balfour Track (313), Interview to Elliots Track (504) Shrubs: Melaleuca squamea, Bauera rubioides, Baeckea leptocaulis, Leptospermum nitidum, Sprengelia incarnata, Philotheca virgata, Epacris curtisiae, Banksia marginata, Allocasuarina zephyrea (Eucalyptus nitida) Sedges: Chordifex hookeri, Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, Empodisma minus, Lepyrodia sp., Lepidosperma filiforme, Schoenus lepidosperma Herbs/grasses: Boronia parviflora, Cassytha glabella, Stylidium graminifolium, Ehrharta tasmanica, Xyris operculata

(ii) Western lowland sedgeland (MSW): east of Elliots Track (602) Shrubs (low): Epacris corymbiflora, Sprengelia incarnata, Baeckea leptocaulis, Bauera rubioides, Leptospermum nitidum Graminoids: Chordifex hookeri, Lepidosperma filiforme, Schoenus lepidosperma, Empodisma minus (Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus) Herbs: Selaginella uliginosa, Utricularia sp., Helichrysum pumilum var. pumilum, Euphrasia gibbsiae subsp. kingii

The slopes of Mount Balfour supports low sedgy heaths and dry heaths that do not fit readily within the existing TASVEG mapping units (Harris & Kitchener 2005). Within the Mt Balfour communities buttongrass was absent to very occasional, Eucalyptus nitida was a very occasional presence, while soils were shallow on moderate to steep slopes. The vegetation was recovering from fire in November 2003, with the woody shrub component generally less than 30 cm high. After consultation with TVMMP personnel (Corbett 2006, pers. comm.), it was decided that the vegetation should be included, albeit temporarily, within the Western lowland sedgeland unit.

(iii) Western lowland sedgeland (MSW): Mt Balfour Track (303) Shrubs: Leptospermum nitidum, Philotheca virgata, Dillwynia glaberrima, Allocasuarina zephyrea, Banksia marginata, Sprengelia incarnata, Baeckea leptocaulis, Bauera rubioides, Epacris curtisiae, Boronia elisabethiae Sedges: Chordifex hookeri, Lepidosperma filiforme, Empodisma minus, Patersonia sp. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 39 ______

Herbs/ferns: Cassytha glabella, Stylidium graminifolium, Lindsaea linearis

(7) Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest (NME) This community occurs as pure or almost pure stands of paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia), forming a dense canopy over a simple, sedgy understorey. Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest occurs in poorly drained or intermittently waterlogged areas, typically in dune swales or at the margins of dune-barred wetlands. Carex appressa sedgeland may fringe the forest, providing habitat for the endangered Marrawah skipper. The greatest threats to the community in the APCA arise from a combination of over-firing, cattle grazing and weed invasion, as evidenced by the condition of stands in poorly drained areas at Johnsons Head and northern Possum Banks. Localised damage to the community may result from ORV activity, as observed along the Sarah Anne Central Track (226).

(8) Eucalyptus brookeriana wet forest (WBR) A small patch of this community was recorded to the north of the Firebreak Horseyards Track (209), representing an unusual occurrence in the APCA. Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) is subdominant, with scattered scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa), common dogwood (Pomaderris apetala subsp. apetala), prickly moses (Acacia verticillata subsp. verticillata) and cheesewood (Pittosporum bicolor), with the occasional mountain pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata). The community occupies a dune-barred swamp with a ground layer rich in ferns, including — until recently — a small population of the endangered lime fern (Pneumatopteris pennigera), while crayfish burrows abound (Parastacoides sp.). The demise of the lime fern at this site appears to have been due to (unknown) natural causes (Threatened Species Section 2006a & b). The swampy character of the community exposes it to potential damage from inappropriate ORV activity.

(9) Plant communities & species with local or regional significance • Scrub and low eucalypt woodlands associated with alkaline sands (SCA/DVC). The scrub communities occur on sands with a pH of 8.5–9 and are characterised by the presence of the woody shrubs pale turpentine-bush (Beyeria lechenaultii var. latifolia) or coast teatree (Leptospermum laevigatum), with coast wattle (Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae), coast beardheath (Leucopogon parviflorus) and silver banksia (Banksia marginata) either sub or co-dominant. At their inland margins the scrubs may merge into woodlands dominated by white gum (Eucalyptus viminalis subsp. viminalis). Coastal scrub on alkaline sands has yet to be mapped on mainland Tasmania, its recognised stronghold to date being Flinders Island, Hunter Island and Three Hummock Island (Harris & Kitchener 2005; Harris & Lazarus 2002; Harris & Balmer 1997).11 Within the APCA the scrub and woodland communities attain their best expression on the calcareous dunes between Possum Banks and Ingram Bay, extending about one km inland from the coast. Degraded forms of the community dominated by coast teatree are relatively common on the dunes between Arthur River and Rebecca Lagoon, as well as at Sandy Cape. The more inland expressions of these communities are not considered to be at risk from ORV activity. However, the integrity of the scrub community’s near-coastal expression on dunes to the north and south of the Dawson River has been compromised by the Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308) cutting through dune crests, with a high risk of further degradation due to the dunes’ susceptibility to wind erosion. • Buttongrass heath (Epacris corymbiflora). Recorded from sedgy buttongrass moorland to the east of Elliots Track (602) in an area characterised by a high cover of siliceous gravels. The species is typically found in moorlands in Tasmania’s west and southwest (Jarman et al. 1988; Kirkpatrick 1977b), its Elliots Track occurrence representing the most northwesterly yet recorded and the only known co- occurrence with Epacris curtisiae (the more typical ‘northwestern’ moorland Epacris). The species is at risk from infection by Phytophthora cinnamomi. • Sticky daisybush (Olearia glutinosa). This woody shrub is a component of the aforementioned ‘scrub on alkaline sands’ community (SCA) along the Prickly Wattle Track (207), occurring just inland of a large blowout. The population is one of the few established stands on the Tasmanian mainland, its main

11 ‘Scrub on alkaline sands’ is a facies of ‘Calcarenite dune woodland of South Eastern Australia’, an ecological community under consideration for listing on the EPBC Act (see www/deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 40 ______

occurrences being the islands of western Bass Strait and coastal sites in Victoria (Harris & Lazarus 2002; Walsh & Entwisle 1999). The species is not considered to be at risk from ORV activity. • Southern grasstree (Xanthorrhoea australis). The southern grasstree is an occasional presence in heathy and shrubby woodlands dominated by western peppermint (Eucalyptus nitida) along the Ridge 1 Dam Track (203) to the immediate south of Arthur River. The stand of grasstrees in the APCA represents a highly disjunct population, being some 60 km west of the nearest occurrences at Rocky Cape and Shakespeare Hills. Grasstrees are highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi, with ORVs a major vector in the pathogen’s movement through the landscape (Schahinger et al. 2003; Threatened Species Section 2006c).

Buttongrass heath Sticky daisybush Southern grasstree

Figure 9. Distribution of buttongrass heath, sticky daisybush and southern grasstree APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 41 ______

Plate 15. Poa rodwayi grasslands (Track 501). Plate 16. Dune-barred Freshwater aquatic herbland (Track 501).

Plate 17. Wet herbfield damaged by ORV activity (Track Plate 18. Succulent saline herbland (Track 225). 601). (grading into wet herbfields, coastal grassland and wind- pruned coastal scrub)

Plate 19. Coastal heathland on sands near Rupert Point Plate 20. Coastal mosaic inland from Rupert Point (Track 601). (Track 601). (Succulent herbfields, ORV-damaged wet herbfields (foreground), wind-pruned heaths, coastal and wet heathlands.) APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 42 ______

5.4. Fauna Threatened and conservation significance fauna recorded along the APCA priority tracks are listed in Table 6 and shown in Figure 10. The following sections include a discussion of management issues for shorebirds, orange-bellied parrot, Marrawah skipper, carnivorous marsupials, raptors, wetland fauna, burrowing crayfish, and stream and creek crossings.

A complete list of threatened fauna records along the APCA priority tracks is provided in Appendix 5, while track-specific management recommendations are provided in the individual track descriptions (Appendix 1).

Table 6. Threatened and conservation significant fauna

Name Common name TSP Act EPBC Act International Agreement# Accipiter novaehollandiae grey goshawk e – Alcedo azurea diemensis azure kingfisher e – Aquila audax fleayi wedge-tailed eagle e EN Arenaria interpres interpres ruddy turnstone – – + Calidris ruficollis red-necked stint – – + Dasyurus maculatus maculatus spotted-tailed quoll r VU Haematopus longirostris longirostris* pied oystercatcher – – Haematopus fuliginosus fuliginosus* sooty oystercatcher – – Haliaeetus leucogaster white-bellied sea-eagle v – Limnodynastes peronii striped marsh frog r – Litoria raniformis green and golden frog v V Neophema chrysogaster orange-bellied parrot e CR Neophema chrysostoma* blue-winged parrot – – Oreisplanus munionga larana Marrawah skipper e – Pezoporus wallicus wallicus* ground parrot – – Prototroctes maraena Australian grayling v VU Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian devil v VU Sterna bergii* crested tern – – Sterna caspia Caspian tern – – + Sterna nereis nereis fairy tern r – Thalassarche cauta shy albatross v VU Thinornis rubricollis* hooded plover – –

TSP Act: r = rare, v = vulnerable, e = endangered, x =presumed extinct. EPBC Act: VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, CR = Critically Endangered. * = Protected under the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970; # = Protected under either the Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) or China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 43 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 10. Threatened and significant fauna recorded within 500 m of the APCA priority tracks APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 44 ______

5.4.1. SHOREBIRDS Species at risk include those that nest, roost and/or feed on beaches, spits, mouth of estuaries, shingle beds or adjacent dunes, viz., fairy tern, hooded plover, black-fronted dotterel, red-capped dotterel, double- banded plover, Caspian tern, crested tern, red-necked stint, ruddy turnstone, pied oystercatcher, sooty oystercatcher (Tables 7 and 8).

The fairy tern and hooded plover favour sand and shingle beaches, dunes and estuaries, especially those containing drift line debris such as seaweed. The breeding period (pairing, nesting, fledging) is from the 1st September through to 31st March each year. The hooded plover may occasionally be found at other sites such as nearby dry lagoon beds. Nests are situated on sandy beaches and spits, in close proximity to the high tide mark, often on the widest expanse of sand.

At regular periods throughout the day and night, shorebirds (particularly migratory species) feed on intertidal mudflats and beaches that are exposed at low tide and then roost (rest) at high tide just above the water level. These habitats are rich in invertebrates, and shorebirds have developed a variety of techniques (and beak shapes) enabling their extraction, such as probing deep into the substrate, hunting under or in between beach-strewn debris or gathered from the surface. A range of food items are consumed including limpets, snails, chitons, mussels, clams, bivalves, pipi, crabs, barnacles, sandhoppers and other amphipods, worms and sea squirt. The feeding habitat for many migratory species is typified by an elevation above mean low water of no more than 10% of area ‘high and dry’, at least 50% of area ‘wet’, no more than 50% of area ‘shallow’ (to 50 mm deep) and no restriction on tidal flow. Studies have shown that each species requires differing areas for feeding, while landform and vegetation surrounding feeding sites also influence the location and use of high tide roost sites. During migration, shorebird species stop over at different intermediate staging sites targeting the most productive ecosystems (East Asian Flyway). These sites are essential so that birds are able to build up their fat reserves to sustain the long flight home and rapid return to breeding condition.

Key sites in the APCA (as per Bryant & Jackson 1999, Threatened Species Unit 2002) • Greenes Point Beach • Mawson Bay • Arthur River (mouth) & Arthur Beach12 * • Nelson Bay * • Hazard Bay * • South of Pollys Bay • Ordnance Point * (fairy tern) • Southern end of Kenneth Bay * • North Pedder River, Sandy Cape * (fairy tern)

Key Threats • Inadvertent disturbance and destruction of nests and nesting habitat by ORVs and quad bikes during the breeding season from 1st September to 31st March. Nests and chicks are easily crushed by tyres, and regular disturbance can lead to abandonment and reproductive failure — also disturbance by dogs off leads; • Introduction and spread of exotic weed species making dunes unsuitable for nesting, e.g., marram grass (Ammophila arenaria) and sea spurge (Euphorbia paralias).

12 * = Healthy populations of shorebirds recorded during 2006 surveys; see Tables 6 and 7. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 45 ______

Table 7. APCA shorebird surveys, Autumn 2006 (shaded entry = significant site or number of birds).

Birds present (common species not shown) Track Track on accessing Survey Time Distance Beach site beach beach method surveyed covered HP BFD RCP DBP CT POC SOC FT Mawson Bay 101 walking 20 min 2 ha Beach north of 107 walking 20 min 2 ha 2 Arthur River Mouth of Arthur 107 walking 20 min 2 ha 1 River Arthur Beach 215, 217 207, 208, walking 90 min 3.3 km 13 15 35 18 4 4 2 211, 212, 218 Nelson Bay 222 walking 70 min 2 km 15 12 2 Hazards Beach 308 311, 312 walking 40 min 1 km 5 11 1 4 Ordnance Point 324 walking 20 min 2 ha 14 8 4 3 Kenneth Bay (north) 402 driving 10 min 300 m 2 Kenneth Bay 402 driving 10 min 300 m 1 (middle) Kenneth Bay (south) 402 403, 405, driving 10 min 300 m 7 4 408 scope 10 min 200 m 7 5 3 Sandy Cape to 501 408 driving 20 min 350 m 17 11 1 Johnsons Head Entrance of 501 503 scope 20 min 500 m Interview Mine Track

Species codes: HP = hooded plover, BFD = black-fronted dotterel, RCP = red-capped plover, DBP = double-banded plover, CT = crested tern, POC = pied oystercatcher, SOC = sooty oystercatcher, FT = fairy tern. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 46 ______

Table 8. APCA shorebird surveys, Spring 2006

Birds present (common species not shown) Track Track on accessing Survey Time Distance Beach site beach beach method surveyed covered HP BFD RCP DBP CT FT POC SOC Gannet Point to 308, 309 walking 2.8 km 9 3 1 12 7 Ordnance Point** 318, 322, 324 Kenneth Bay** 402 309, 403, walking 12.2 km 10 3 22 405, 408 Sandy Cape to Johnsons 501 408 driving 35 min 3.5 km 3 2 6 3 Head Johnson Bay 501 walking 20 min 1 km 2 2 2

Johnson Head to 501 walking 5.5 hrs 9 km 13 8 14 3 Interview River Entrance of Interview 501 503 walking 20 min 500 m 1 Mine Track Sandy Cape to Interview 501 408, 503 walking 18.2 km 17 12 1 31 9 River**

Species codes: HP = hooded plover, BFD = black-fronted dotterel, RCP = red-capped plover, DBP = double-banded plover, CT = crested tern, FT = fairy tern POC = pied oystercatcher, SOC = sooty oystercatcher. [** = Surveys by E. Woehler for Cradle Coast NRM.] APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 47 ______

Habitat Management • Do not allow vehicles access to significant beaches and adjacent dunes during the breeding season 1st September to 31st March; • Do not disturb nesting birds by driving in the upper beach or dune area during the breeding season; keep below the high water mark and away from nesting areas.

To protect nesting shorebirds it is recommended that the following beaches be closed to vehicular traffic between 1st September and 31st March: • 215 & 217: Arthur Beach south of ‘The Bowl’ (211); • 222: Nelson Bay Sarah Anne Track; • 227: Central Couta to Temma Track; • 324: Ordnance Point Track.

If seasonal closure of beaches is implemented then signs to that effect should be erected at the following beach access tracks: 212, 218, 231, 232, 324.

It is recommended that the following beaches be closed to vehicular traffic to protect nesting shorebirds and a range of other values (as identified in the individual track descriptions in Appendix 1): • 308: Dartys to Gannet Point Track; • 501: Sandy Cape to Interview River.

5.4.2. ORANGE-BELLIED PARROT The endangered orange-bellied parrot migrates each year between Tasmania and southeast Australia (Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team 1998; Bryant & Jackson 1999). During the winter months the parrots feed on mainland Australia in coastal areas extending from southeast Victoria to the Coorong in South Australia. A small proportion of the population may occasionally over-winter in the northwest of Tasmania, including the APCA. The species returns to breeding grounds in southwest Tasmania between Louisa Bay and Macquarie Harbour from October to November. By February adult orange-bellied parrots begin their migration back to the mainland and travel north following the west coast. During migration, birds may stop to feed anywhere along the west and northwest coasts (Table 9). Favoured habitats during migration include saltmarshes, beaches, coastal dunes and heathland, eating a range of native and exotic seeds (Brown & Wilson 1984), e.g., glasswort (Sarcocornia spp.), sea rocket (Cakile maritima), buzzy (Acaena novae-hollandiae), grasses and sedges. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 48 ______

Table 9. Orange-bellied parrot: key feeding sites in the APCA

Risk of Risk of habitat disturbance to Key feeding sites Tracks nearby Habitat damage individuals Bluff Hill Point to south of Australia 107 ASS, native low high Point grasses Sundown Point to Nelson Bay 222 SR moderate moderate Sarah Anne Rocks to Rebecca Point 225 ASS, native low moderate grasses Temma Harbour to Eva Point 303, 304, 308 GTL, ASS high moderate Ingram Bay to Greenes Point 308, 309, 312, GTL, ASS, very high high 314, 317, 318, SR 322, 324, 325, 326, 327, 333 Venables Corner to Native Well Bay 405, 408, 412, ASS, exotic low high (Sandy Cape) 413 grasses Johnsons Head 501 GTL, ASS moderate low Italian River – Lagoon River 501 GTL, ASS, high low SR Interview River to Pieman River 601 ASS, native very high high grasses

Habitat Code: ASS = glasswort, GTL = Poa rodwayi native grassland, SR = sea rocket.

Key Threats in the APCA • Disturbance of birds by human activity; • Loss and/or degradation of key feeding sites by off-road vehicles and cattle; • Increased risk of predation by cats due to tracks and habitat fragmentation; • Invasion of feeding sites by coastal weeds such as sea spurge and marram (Campbell-Ellis 2007), reducing the availability of native food plants.

Habitat Management • Vehicles (cars, quad bikes, etc.) should not be permitted to access key feeding sites; • Protection of key feeding sites at regular intervals along the APCA coast; • Where practicable, invasive coastal weeds should be eradicated from key feeding sites.

5.4.3. MARRAWAH SKIPPER The Marrawah Skipper is endemic to the coastal northwestern tip of Tasmania between Penguin and Temma, where it was first recorded in 1962. Its preferred habitat in the APCA is Carex appressa sedgeland at the margins of poorly drained paperbark (Melaleuca ericifolia) scrub and forest (Braby 2000; Table 10).

Key Threats in the APCA • Disturbance and destruction of habitat; • Hot or frequent fires in its sedgeland habitat; • Lack of information on the distribution and ecology of the species, preventing adequate management.

Habitat Management • Prevent habitat trampling and dune destabilisation from vehicle use near potential habitat; • Avoid any hot burns in known or potential habitat that may contain adults, larvae or the food plant, especially between mid-January to mid-February. Cool winter or early autumn burns in a patchwork mosaic are preferred to minimise disturbance and protect habitat integrity. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 49 ______

Table 10. Marrawah skipper: key sites in the APCA

Risk of habitat Key habitat sites Tracks nearby damage from ORVs Tiger Flats Temma Road very low (fenced) Nelson Bay 222 low North of Temma Temma Road very low (fenced)

Potential habitat assessed Dawsons Point (OBP exclosure) 308, 314 very high North Pedder River (mouth) 403, 404 very high Johnson Head (two areas) 501 low Italian–Lagoon Rivers 501 moderate 2km north of Rupert Point 601 moderate

5.4.4. CARNIVOROUS MARSUPIALS Signs, in the form of scats and tracks, of spotted-tailed quolls and Tasmanian devils were found in many different locations in the APCA. These two species are well known to use roads and are common in the APCA, with eastern quolls present in much smaller numbers. The Temma to Greenes Creek Track (309) had numerous devil tracks on every day surveyed, with one road-killed individual found (not showing signs of facial tumour disease). Road-kills should not be an issue due to the generally low speed of vehicles on the tracks, which in turn reduces the number of road-killed carcasses to feed upon.

5.4.5. RAPTORS The proximity of known raptor nests to APCA tracks was measured as part of the desktop study to assess the potential for disturbance from track use. No known nests within 500 m of tracks.

5.4.6. WETLAND FAUNA Species at risk include the green and golden frog and the striped marsh frog.

The green and golden frog (Litoria raniformis) and striped marsh frog (Limnodynastes peronii) occur in southeastern Australia, including localised parts of Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands. In Tasmania the green and golden frog is found in lowland areas, predominantly coastal and mainly in the north, northeast (stronghold) and southeast, while the striped marsh frog is found mainly in the northwest and King Island (Littlejohn 2003). Green and golden frog populations have declined throughout Tasmania, especially in the Midlands, northwest and Bass Strait islands, as well as nationally. Although populations vary on a seasonal basis according to rainfall, it is estimated that their range has contracted by over 50% in the last 20 years (Bryant & Jackson 1999).

Green and golden frogs live in or near permanent or temporary water bodies such as streams, swamps, and vegetated pools. Plants such as waterribbons (Triglochin procera), Juncus species and sedges usually dominate the waterbodies. The frogs spend most of their time on the ground among vegetation within or at the edge of the water body and are rarely seen in open water. They are dependent on permanent fresh water for breeding and ideally prefer sites that are shallow with diverse vegetation. Green and golden frogs breed in spring and summer and striped marsh frogs in late spring and summer; eggs are laid in a mat that sinks to the bottom of the water. The aquatic tadpole stage probably lasts for more than a year.

Five of the eleven species of frogs in Tasmania have been confirmed as being susceptible to chytridiomycosis, via infection from chytrid fungus, Batrachytrium dendrobatidis (Pauza & Langstaff 2006). This infection is strongly associated with the decline of frog populations in many parts of the world (Speare 2004) and is listed as a key threatening process under the EPBC Act (Pauza & Langstaff 2006). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 50 ______

The fungus has been demonstrated to persist in damp soil environments (Johnson & Speare 2005) and has been found recently along the Western Explorer road, near the APCA (M. Pauza 2007, pers. comm.). Therefore a risk of spread of the fungus into and through the APCA exists through mud lodged on vehicles that have traversed this road. Disease management guidelines will be developed by DPIW, which may include the need to disinfect tyres or limit movement in some areas (M Pauza 2007, pers. comm). Surveys in the APCA may be necessary to determine the presence or absence of the fungus.

Key sites in the APCA A list of significant wetlands adjacent to tracks is shown below (Table 11). Many wetlands have been damaged by vehicles, while some are currently intact and in good condition. Fencing or closure of tracks is recommended in different instances, as noted in the individual track descriptions (Appendix 1). Other water bodies do exist on tracks, though these are already fenced or are classed as creek crossings or puddles.

Table 11. Wetlands along the APCA priority tracks Track No. Easting Northing Wetland condition 227 305660 5438550 Drained and partially cleared 229 306370 5438090 Good 231, 232 306700 5437400 Rebecca Lagoon: edges damaged by cattle 308 309130 5426530 Excellent (three wetlands between Dawson River & 317 junction) 309 310389 5424721 Driven through 312 308615 5428841 Excellent (c. 100 m south of track) 318 309109 5425554 Road through middle 320 309138 5425438 Damaged by vehicles 323 310970 5424060 Damaged by vehicles (past records for green & golden and striped marsh frogs) 327 311560 5422090 Driven though 403 315005 5415058 Partially damaged by vehicles 501 318200 5403980 Track through western margins 501 318650 5403455 Intact – brown tree frogs 501 318700 5403170 Intact 601 324173 5393445 Mostly intact, braiding on eastern edge 601 325373 5390154 Two wetlands – track through one 601 325536 5389199 Damaged; braiding 601 325920 5386540 Intact (small)

Key Threats in the APCA • Loss of wetland habitat for any reason, e.g., destruction through inappropriate ORV use; • Weed invasion; • Pollution, overgrazing and trampling of water bodies by stock; • Collection of wetland fauna for use as fish bait.

Habitat Management • Protect all wetlands in the key breeding range of the green and golden and striped marsh frogs as this will help to maintain current population levels. Do not drain wetlands or draw water during the summer for other purposes; wetlands are fragile ecosystems that may naturally dry and fill on a seasonal basis.

5.4.7. BURROWING CRAYFISH Burrowing crayfish of the genera Engaeus, Geocharax and Parastacoides are known to inhabit the APCA (Inland Fisheries Commission 1999). During the 2006 surveys burrows were found in the vicinity of the APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 51 ______following tracks: Dam Circuit Track (202), Ridge 1 Dam Track (203), Windmill Track (205), Firebreak Horseyards Track (209), Balfour Track (313), Mt Balfour Track (330), Interview Mine Track (503), Interview to Elliots Track (504), Interview River to Pieman River Track (601) and Elliots Track (602), though identification to species level was impractical due to time constraints. Potential affects to the populations arise from any extra track development into habitat and any changes to drainage. No specific points of impact were identified.

5.4.8. STREAM & CREEK CROSSINGS Threatened species potentially at risk include the giant freshwater lobster, several species of threatened caddis flies, freshwater snails, dwarf galaxias and the Australian grayling.

Numerous creek and stream crossings were encountered along the APCA tracks, as noted in the individual track descriptions (Appendix 1). Most crossings require ongoing monitoring of their condition to assess the need for amelioration of erosion, sedimentation and/or vegetation loss.

Key Threats in the APCA Unmanaged vehicle tracks may increase the sediment load to streams, affecting the survival ability of aquatic species. There is also potential for the loss of vegetation and erosion on the verges of all creek crossings. Interference with the natural flow of rivers also threatens the existence and natural integrity of sandbars and spits used by breeding shorebirds (Bryant 2002).

Habitat Management Avoid clearing native vegetation from streamside zones or stream banks. Vegetation provides shelter, shade (therein maintaining water temperature) and essential food for graylings and other aquatic fauna. Vegetation also reduces the input of nutrients and sediments into streams by filtering surface runoff, whilst maintaining slope and bank stability.

5.5. Rehabilitation In some cases closure or upgrading of tracks will be sufficient to reduce accelerated soil erosion and allow revegetation to occur naturally. In other cases active rehabilitation will be necessary, in order to manage acute erosion hazards and/or to assist giving effect to track closures. Rehabilitation works are likely to be required in the following contexts: • Vegetated dunes, particularly where eroded on crests or seaward slopes (Temma land system): these sites are prone to sandblows, which can be difficult to address once wind deflation has commenced. Examples include Possum Banks (Gannet Point to Dartys Corner Track), Big Eel Dune (Bens Top Track), Johnson Head and the area between Italian and Lagoon Rivers (Sandy Cape to Interview Track). • Steep slopes on siliceous colluvium (Balfour land system), particularly where wheel ruts have development into deep gullies due to fluvial erosion of the underlying colluvium. The Mt Balfour Track is a major example of this process. • Poorly drained peat soils (Thornton River, Granite Creek and Neasey Plains land systems): vehicles driving on peat soils invariably causes them to become churned up and boggy, which in turn promotes braiding as drivers attempt to bypass the worst sections. Examples include the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, Mt Balfour Track and Burkes Track. Damaged areas may recover naturally in time, although deeply rutted and waterlogged areas may warrant rehabilitation.

A framework for prioritising rehabilitation works and details concerning a rehabilitation trial at Possum Banks is provided in Appendix 6. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 52 ______

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. General recommendations 1. Manage vehicular tracks in the APCA in accordance with the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003. The Code defines minimum standards for reserve management in Tasmania. Many vehicular tracks in the APCA do not meet standards prescribed in the Code, and are a source of serious environmental degradation. Tracks should be either actively managed in accordance with the Code, or closed and rehabilitated. 2. Protect soils by avoiding unnecessary disturbance of vegetated and mobile dunes, blanket bog peat soils and steep slopes on siliceous colluvium. The highly erodible character of the terrain and the presence of organic soils prone to waterlogging and loss of structure are defining characteristics of the APCA. Damage to soils is a major source of environmental degradation in this area. 3. Clearly identify tracks available for public use, through the provision of signs and/or information provided to visitors. Other tracks should be closed off. The current proliferation of tracks and their poor condition in many cases creates route-finding difficulties and encourages pioneering of new routes. 4. Exclude quad bikes and trail bikes from those parts of the APCA south of Temma Quad bikes and trail bikes differ from heavier ORVs in their speed and versatility on almost any terrain. Their use is associated with highly destructive practices such as ‘circle work’ on marsupial lawns, wetlands and sandblows, and travelling cross-country on vegetated and mobile dunes. Many quad and trail bike riders are undoubtedly responsible reserve users; however, there is widespread evidence of irresponsible behaviour, which is difficult to police and damages the environment. Accordingly, these vehicle types should be restricted to areas north of Temma, where they can be better managed and the integrity of the environment is generally lower. 5. Initiate a scientific investigation into the history and causes of sand mobility in the APCA, in order to determine appropriate management of the aeolian (sand) landforms. There has been considerable discussion regarding the naturalness or otherwise of massive mobile dunes in the APCA. Some observers regard these as natural phenomenon, others believe they have been triggered by fire and grazing. This debate has practical import in determining whether management should be directed at stabilising the dunes or avoiding interfering in a potentially natural process. 6. Develop a beach weed management program that is consistent with the Tasmanian beach weed strategy (Rudman 2003), with initiatives directed at removing and containing the spread of weeds in key areas. Invasive sand-binding weeds such as marram and sea spurge are a significant threat to the integrity of vegetation and landforms of coastal areas in the APCA. 7. Review opportunities to develop additional walking tracks; some tracks currently used by vehicles may be suitable for redevelopment as walking tracks. The APCA contains a limited selection of walking tracks. Some existing vehicular tracks would be better suited as walking tracks from an environmental perspective. 8. Develop effective systems for monitoring the condition of vehicular tracks in the APCA. The following areas need to be addressed: (1) potential development of new tracks in currently un- tracked areas; (2) changes in the condition of tracks identified for continued use; (3) progress in the recovery of closed tracks and other areas identified for rehabilitation; and (4) levels of use of vehicular tracks. The monitoring program should be developed with appropriate scientific input from DPIW’s Resource Management and Conservation Division (e.g., Magnus & Harris 2004). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 53 ______

9. Develop a computerised system for issuing and recording ORV permits. Useful data on ORV activities in the APCA, including numbers of users and sites visited, is available via records of permits issued. This information will assist interpreting results of monitoring track condition. However, the current system is paper-based and not amenable to easy interrogation. 10. Prepare a rehabilitation plan to address existing serious erosion problems, in accordance with the approach described in Appendix 6. Any proposed rehabilitation works need to be carefully planned and implemented. A rehabilitation plan is needed to ensure that areas are targeted strategically and resources used efficiently.

6.2. Specific recommendations The specific recommendations are of three broad types (Table 12 and Figure 11): • tracks that should not be open to vehicular access at any time; • tracks that should not be open to vehicular access in certain seasons; and • other actions considered necessary to protect environmental values.

Recommendations that certain tracks should not be available for vehicular access have been made where a track is causing or likely to cause a significant adverse effect on the environment (Appendix 1). In this context ‘causing or likely to cause a significant adverse effect’ refers to: • tracks that are subject to extensive or locally severe erosion likely to be compounded if subject to ongoing vehicular traffic; • tracks that are located in areas of high erosion risk, for example on vegetated or mobile dunes prone to wind deflation (even if not currently eroding); • tracks that are a potential conduit for spread of Phytophthora to areas containing susceptible vegetation types and currently free or largely free of Phytophthora; or • tracks that are a threat to the integrity of specific natural features of high conservation value, such as a threatened flora and fauna species or community, or a site of geoconservation significance.

These circumstances apply to all vehicular tracks in the APCA. However, the following circumstances were also taken into account where a recommendation is made concerning access: • track has no necessary management function; • track is not required to access licensed shacks, private land or designated camp sites; • track replicates an existing track of lesser environmental impact; • environmental impacts that cannot be addressed with limited maintenance or upgrading; or • environmental impacts that cannot be addressed by other measures such as closure during certain periods (e.g., during nesting periods for shorebirds or at times of higher Phytophthora risk).

The provision of opportunities for ORV-based recreation was not part of the project brief and was not taken into account in the development of recommendations. Nor did this assessment consider cultural heritage values.

Some tracks not subject to specific recommendations concerning access are currently closed to ORVs under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002). In these cases the lack of a recommendation should not imply that opening these tracks to vehicular access is endorsed. Instead, it indicates that the risk of a significant adverse effect on the environment is relatively low compared to other priority tracks in the APCA. The authors recognise that environmental impacts are one of several factors that need to be considered by the PWS in determining whether or not a track should be available for vehicular access. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 54 ______

Table 12. Summary recommendations for specific tracks Track Name Current Access Policy* Recommendations 101 Mawson Bay Track Authorised with permit Monitor the condition of erosion-prone ramps on the foredune. Stabilise affected slopes or close all or part of the track if necessary. 107 Church Rock to Arthur No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or River Track restrict vehicles to the area between the mouth of Arthur River and the point where the track leaves the beach. 202 Dam Circuit Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or allow seasonal access under permit. If made available for seasonal access, permits should only be issued for that portion of the track east and south of its junction with the Windmill Track (205) during the summer period (1st December to 30th March). This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed. 203 Ridge 1 Dam Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or allow seasonal access under permit. If made available for seasonal access, permits should only be issued during the summer period (1st December to 30th March). This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed. Monitor the lime fern and burrowing crayfish populations near the track’s crossing of Lime Fern Creek to provide early detection in the event of adverse affects due to direct physical impacts or sedimentation. 205 Windmill Track No current access No specific recommendations. 207 Prickly Wattle Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. Reinstate the fence within the main sandblow with a more robust structure. Assess options to interpret the geomorphology of the sandblow to visitors. 208 Davidson to Arthur Beach Authorised with permit No specific recommendations. Track 209 Firebreak Horseyards Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. 211 Bowl Track Authorised with permit Consider options to reduce unauthorised driving on adjacent dunes. 212 North Bullock Hill Track No current access If made available for vehicular access, this track should be rerouted along an existing sidetrack at GR 305510E 5449460N. The alternative route passes though coastal scrub, bypassing a steep section of track and a known threatened orchid population. The take-off point from the Temma Road should be at GR 306020E 5449380N and marked. 213 Middle Bullock Hill Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. 214 South Bullock Hill Track No current access Track should be maintained for fire management purposes only. 215 Arthur Beach to Sundown Authorised with permit Arthur Beach south of The Bowl should be closed to Track vehicles from 1st September to 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. No permits should be issued in this period. 216 Old Kelp Track No current access This track should not be maintained if the site is no longer required for bee keeping. Clean up the site; remove the redundant shed. 217 Track Through Sundown No current access If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued from 1st September – 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. 218 South Bottle Creek Track No current access If made available for vehicular access, this track should be upgraded to address erosion problems at the Bottle Creek end. 220 Shepherds Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 55 ______

Track Name Current Access Policy* Recommendations 222 Nelson Bay Sarah Anne No current access If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be Track issued from 1st September – 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. The eroding middle section of track should be assessed as a potential priority in the proposed rehabilitation strategy. 224 Sarah Anne Inland Track No current access No specific recommendations. 225 Sarah Anne Coastal Track No current access The northern section of the Sarah Anne Coastal Track should not be made available for vehicular access between the junctions with Sarah Anne Central Track (226) and Sarah Anne Inland Track (224). 226 Sarah Anne Central Track No current access If made available for vehicular access, the Sarah Anne Central Track should be upgraded by improving the drainage and surface, to alleviate bogginess and braiding. 227 Central Couta to Temma Authorised with permit The section of track between Rebecca Point and Stinking Track (part only) Beach should be closed to vehicles from 1st September – 31st March, to reduce disturbance to nesting shorebirds. No permits should be issued in this period. 229 Camp Elsewhere Track No current access If made available for vehicular access, monitor track erosion on the vegetated dunes. Remedial works and/or limitations on vehicle numbers may be required. 231 Pollys Bay Track No current access Fence Rebecca Lagoon to exclude cattle and ORVs. Investigate options to restore the native vegetation. Steep eroding ramps used to access the beach from the Pollys Bay Track and Lady Kathleen Beach Track (232) are not suitable for vehicles. They should be closed and assessed as potential priorities under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. 232 Lady Kathleen Bay Track No current access Steep eroding ramps used to access the beach from the Pollys Bay Track (231) and Lady Kathleen Beach Track are not suitable for vehicles. They should be closed and assessed as potential priorities under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. 303 Richardson Track No current access Assess eroded sections as a potential priority under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. Assess the practicality of fencing off sensitive vegetation types adjacent to the track. 304 Dartys Corner Track Authorised with permit Undertake track maintenance works, particularly at the (access to shack site) eastern end. 305 Big Eel Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. Monitor incipient sandblows on the crest of the Big Eel Dune — these may require active rehabilitation if they continue to enlarge. Eroding slopes near the junction with the Temma to Greenes Creek Track (309) should be assessed as a potential priority under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. 306 Bens Top Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. Monitor incipient sandblows on the section of track south of Big Eel Creek — these may require active rehabilitation if they continue to enlarge. 308 Dartys to Gannet Point No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy Track between Dartys Corner and its junction with the Gannet South Track (317). Fence off native grassland areas at Possum Banks to exclude ORVs and cattle; the area that requires fencing is shown in Schahinger (2005). Initiate stabilisation of sandblows at Possum Banks. Reinstate the fence near the Bird Fence Track (314), to protect foraging habitat for the orange-bellied parrot. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 56 ______

Track Name Current Access Policy* Recommendations 309 Temma to Greenes Creek Authorised with permit Continue to block off unnecessary sidetracks and repair Track damaged barriers. Undertake limited upgrading of the track on the boggy northern section, and other problem areas, to mitigate bogholes and braiding. This is likely to require drainage works and surfacing with gravel. Extend existing fencing near Smiths Gulch to protect marsupial lawns and elevated cobble beaches adjacent to the track (e.g., feature at GR 310310E 5424800N). 310 No Mans North Track Authorised with permit The track should be closed if access to the shack is no (access to shack site) longer required. 311 No Mans South Track Authorised with permit That portion of the track to the west of the shack should be (part only: access to shack closed, in accordance with the recommendation for the site) Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308). The track to the shack should be closed if access is no longer required. 312 Possum Creek Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy, in accordance with the recommendation for the Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308). 313 Balfour Track Authorised with permit Restrict access to the summer period (1st December – 30th March), to reduce soil degradation and spread of Phytophthora. No permits should be issued outside this period. Investigate options to stabilise deep gully erosion in sandy country towards the western end of the track, as a potential priority under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. 314 Bird Fence Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy (other than for management), in accordance with the recommendation for the Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308). 315 Greys North Track Authorised with permit The following options should be considered to alleviate soil (access to shack site) degradation: (1) harden the route, (2) re-route the track onto ground with a firmer base, (3) close the track to general access. The track should be closed if access to the shack or private land is no longer required. 317 Gannet South Track Authorised with permit Assess potential alternative gravel sources. If the quarry is (access to shack site) no longer required, rehabilitate the site (potentially retaining a representative section for study purposes). If it is desirable to continue to operate the quarry, this should be subject to a more detailed assessment of potential impacts to geoconservation values. 318 Gannet Gulch to Smiths No current access If made available to vehicular access, the impact of this Gulch Track track on the cobble beach and vegetation should be monitored. If necessary, the track should be re-routed at the cobble beach. 320 Swampy Loop Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. If the Gannet Gulch to Smiths Gulch Track (318) is made available to vehicular access, fence off the track to prevent further damage to the wetland. 322 Smiths Gulch South Track Authorised with permit No specific recommendations. (access to shack site) 323 Brooks Creek Backtrack No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. The wetland adjacent to the track should be fenced off to prevent further damage by stock and vehicles. 324 Ordnance Point Track No current access If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued from 1st September to 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 57 ______

Track Name Current Access Policy* Recommendations 325 Greenes Point Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. Monitor incipient sandblows on the vegetated foredune — these may require active rehabilitation if they continue to enlarge. 326 & Carvings Track & North No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. 327 Track Carvings Fence off the grassland and wetland adjacent to the track, to exclude stock and vehicles. 328 Burkes Track Authorised with permit The track should be closed if access to the private land (access to shack site) parcel is no longer required or an alternative access is developed. If ongoing access is required, this should be during the summer period if possible (1st December – 30th March), to reduce soil degradation and spread of Phytophthora. 330 Mt Balfour Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. Investigate options to stabilise gully erosion on the track as a matter of priority. 331 Yafflers Hole Track Authorised with permit The surface of this track requires maintenance. (access to camp site) 332 Dawkins Track Authorised with permit This track should not be available to vehicular access if (access to shack site) access to the shack is no longer required. 333 Bird Fence South to Coast No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy, to Track protect foraging habitat for the orange-bellied parrot. Reinstate the damaged fence. 401 Thornton Falls Track No current access east of Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy east of the junction with Yafflers the track’s junction with Yafflers Hole Track (331). Hole Track 402 Kenneth Bay Track Authorised with permit No specific recommendations. 403 Pedder Park Track Authorised with permit Fence off the wetland and Marrawah skipper habitat (a (access to camp site) 100–150 m stretch west of the junction with the Airport Track (404)). Manage the Pedder Park camp site to maintain the area of cleared ground within present limits. 404 Airport Track Authorised with permit Close redundant sidetracks in the vicinity of the landing (access to camp site) strip. 405 Sandy Cape Inland 1 Track Authorised with permit Stabilise or close the northern end of the track if (access to camp site) monitoring indicates significant ongoing erosion. 406 Sandy Cape Inland 2 Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. 408 Cutting Track 2 Authorised with permit If made available for vehicular access, investigate options to (east of junction with re-route the track in favour of a ramp down to the beach Sandy Cape Inland 1 east of the present location at Venables Corner. Track) Fence off the sandrock outcrop near Venables Corner, to exclude ORVs and stock. 409 Club 24 Track Authorised with permit No specific recommendations. (access to camp site) 410 & Kitchen Track & Loop Authorised with permit These tracks should be closed if access to the shacks is no 411 Track (access to shack site) longer required. 412 Cape Fishing Tracks No current access No specific recommendations. 413 Cape Fishing Track 2 No current access This track is redundant and should not be available for vehicular access. 501 Sandy Cape to Interview Authorised with permit Close the track between Sea Devil Rivulet and Lagoon River River (practical considerations suggest that this will require closing the coastal route south of Native Well Bay). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 58 ______

Track Name Current Access Policy* Recommendations 503 Interview Mine Track No current access If the recommendation concerning the closure of the Sandy Cape to Interview River Track (501) is followed, this track will, in effect, also be closed. If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued during the summer period (1st December – 30th March). Assess the management requirements for mining heritage in the Interview River area. 504 Interview to Elliots Track No current access If the recommendation concerning the closure of the Sandy Cape to Interview River Track (501) is followed, this track will, in effect, also be closed. If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued during the summer period (1st December – 30th March). 601 Interview River to Pieman No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. River Track This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed. Fence wetlands adjacent to the track, to prevent non- permitted vehicles causing further damage. 602 Elliots Track No current access Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. The plateau area should be further investigated for possible classification as a Phytophthora Management Area (Schahinger et al. 2003). This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed.

* As per the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (see Section 3.4.2). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 59 ______

Mawson Bay to Eva Point Eva Point to Johnsons Head Johnsons Head to Pieman River

Figure 11. APCA priority track recommendations APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 60 ______

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8. APPENDIX 1. Track descriptions

Mawson Bay Track (101) Date assessed: 2 April & 5 July 2006 Length: 2.8 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 & Marrawah 3046 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy Authorised with permit 13

101: Mawson Bay Track, southern end. 101: Ramp onto marram-infested dune at Black Rocks.

Route: This track is an access along the foreshore at Mawson Bay, and is frequented by trail and quad bikes. The route is mostly along the beach, with short sections extending inland onto vegetated dunes. Mawson Bay south of Woodside Creek is a designated area for off-road driving under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002. A route continues along the foreshore north of Woodside Creek.

Track condition: Erosion has occurred where the route bypasses rocky points along the coast via steep ramps on unconsolidated sand, as at the southern end of Mawson Bay and just south of Woodside Creek. Ramps between the beach and the vegetated foredune are invariably eroding. Fresh tyre marks were noted on both occasions this track was visited during the study, with evidence of ‘circle work’ and unnecessary excursions onto the steeply sloping foredune.

Geodiversity: Rocky Cape Group correlates crop out at various points along the foreshore, including orthoquartzite at Blacks Rocks and mudstone, argillite and chloritic mudstone at the southern end of the bay (Lennox 1980). The rocks display an array of sedimentary structures, including well-preserved ripple marks between Woodside Creek and Black Rocks. The geological features are recognised as a site of geoconservation significance — Site 2: Mawson Bay-Gardiner Point Precambrian Sedimentary Structures — which is listed in the TGD. Beaches and occasional shore platforms backed by vegetated dunes dominate the landforms.

Flora: Track mostly on beach: bare sand (OSM) fringed by marram grassland (Ammophila arenaria, FMG) and infestations of sea spurge (Euphorbia paralias). An alternate parallel track in the far south passes through dune scrub dominated by Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae, with Leucopogon parviflorus, Rhagodia candolleana, Carpobrotus rossii, and the sedges Isolepis nodosa and Lepidosperma gladiatum (SAC).

Fauna: The impact on beach nesting birds would be limited if traffic remained on the lower beach. There are previous records of the striped marsh frog (Limnodynastes peronii) in this area.

Management issues: • erosion of steep ramps occurring on the seaward slopes of the foredunes, where the route passes inland at rocky sections of foreshore;

13 As per Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (see Section 3.4.2). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 68 ______

• unnecessary excursions onto the steeply sloping foredune (i.e., well above the waterline) by some ORV users.

Recommendation: Monitor the condition of erosion-prone ramps on the foredune. Stabilise affected slopes or close all or part of the track if necessary. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 69 ______

Church Rock to Arthur River Track (107) Date assessed: 2 April 2006 Length: 4.0 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

107: Coastal grass and herbfield (GHC). 107: Track erosion resulting in disturbance to dune supporting Isolepis sedgeland (FRG).

107: Track erosion exposing midden material, Australia 107: Recent beach gravels overlapping sparsely vegetated Point. The cut is about 1 m deep. elevated cobble beach near Church Rock.

Route: This track extends along the foreshore between Arthur River and Church Rock on the northern side of Australia Point. The route continues north of here towards Bluff Hill Point, outside the study area.

Track condition: The southern portion of the route is mainly along the beach at the mouth of the Arthur River. The first few hundred metres from Arthur River Bridge are popular for fishing near the river mouth. The northern portion extends inland across rocky ground, cobble beaches and vegetated sand sheets. A few short boggy patches are present, while the sandy sections are deeply eroded in places.

Geodiversity: The following features of geoconservation significance were noted: • A rare example of ladder ripples — intersecting ripple sets (in this case ripple casts) superimposed on a single bedding plane — is located a short distance off the track on private land (Site 1: Australia Point Ladder Ripples)14. • Correlates of the Precambrian Rocky Cape Group displaying complex sedimentary structures including well-developed cross-bedding and ripple marks. These features are clearly exposed at

14 Geoconservation site numbers used here refer to Appendix 3 (not the TGD). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 70 ______

various points along the coast (Site 2: Mawson Bay-Gardiner Point Precambrian Sedimentary Structures). • Numerous springs along the break of slope at the base of foredunes and in the intertidal zone on the beach near the Arthur River mouth (part of Site 37: Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands). • The Arthur River occupies a flooded valley that was inundated by rising sea levels with the onset of warmer conditions in the Late Pleistocene. The relatively unmodified condition of the Arthur River estuary is recognised in its listing in the TGD (Site 33: Arthur River Estuary). • Ambiguous cobble beaches 3–4 m above high water mark between Australia Point and Church Rock – these are listed in the TGD as part of Site 28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches.

Flora: Eastern 2 km of track mainly on beach: bare sand (OSM) fringed by marram grassland (FMG); short inland incursion with vegetation dominated by marram grass, Isolepis nodosa and Lepidosperma gladiatum (FMG/FRG). Western section on Precambrian quartzites overlain in parts by sand: (1) rocky areas – Austrostipa stipoides grasslands and associated wet herbfields dominated by Schoenus nitens and Apium prostratum (GHC); succulent saline herbfield dominated by Sarcocornia sp. (ASS); low wind-pruned heaths dominated by Cyathodes abietina (SSC); (2) sandy areas – grassland and sedgeland dominated by a mix of marram, Isolepis nodosa and Lepidosperma gladiatum, with the occasional Carpobrotus rossii and Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae (FMG/FRG); Schoenoplectus pungens sedgeland (ASF) at head of small bay between Church Rock and Australia Point.

Fauna: Abundant Tasmanian devil tracks (Sarcophilus harrisii). Beaches with suitable shorebird nesting habitat and hooded plovers present. Food sources for orange-bellied parrots (Neophema chrysogaster) were noted south of Church Rock, viz., glasswort (Sarcocornia spp.), buzzy (Acaena novae-hollandiae) and native grasses.

Management issues: This track is causing significant environmental damage: • traverses sensitive wet herbfields at GR 302210E 5453260N with the potential for impact on adjacent saline herbfields, the latter a valuable food source for the orange-bellied parrot; • severely eroded sandy sections, with cuttings up to 4 m deep exposing interbedded layers of sand and middens; • erosion and compaction of cobble beaches — in some cases probably relict landforms with potential to provide important insights into past sea level fluctuations.

Options to address these issues by re-routing the track further inland, particularly along the critical section between Australia Point and Church Rock, are constrained by the fact that at this point the APCA comprises a narrow corridor between the coast and adjacent private land. Even if re-routing were practicable, there would still be a risk that some ORV users would use the track as a jumping off point to access the coast, perpetuating and extending the impacts.

Recommendation: Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or restrict vehicles to the area between the mouth of Arthur River and the point where the track leaves the beach. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 71 ______

Dam Circuit Track (202) Date assessed: 25 February 2006 Length: 5.2 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma & Thornton River Management zone: Visitor Services & Recreation Current access policy: No current access

202: Eucalyptus nitida shrubby woodland/forest on sands 202: Wet heathland (SHW) with ineffective rock barrier with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent (DNI). on sidetrack.

202: Possible relict dune between (between Dam Circuit 202: Boggy middle section of Dam Circuit Track. Track and the Arthur River).

Route: This track is a loop off the eastern side of the Temma Road just south of Arthur River. It connects with several other tracks: Ridge 1 Dam Track (203), Windmill Track (205) and Firebreak Horseyards Track (209). That section of the Dam Circuit Track between the Temma Road and the Windmill Track junction is maintained as a burn unit boundary (S8; Parks and Wildlife Service 2003).

Track condition: This track generally traverses well-drained sandy terrain and is in good condition, if somewhat overgrown by Leptospermum laevigatum scrub between Firebreak Horseyards Track and the Temma Road. However, the middle portion of the track (between Windmill Track and Firebreak Horseyards Track) is boggy, deeply rutted and subject to braiding.

Geodiversity: For the most part this track crosses an erosion surface at an elevation of 40–50 m above the nearby Arthur River, potentially within the TGD-listed Site 18: Sumac Dissected Erosion Surface site – a large and very robust feature. Sandy terrain near the Temma Road is associated with a large transgressive sand sheet behind Arthur Beach (Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes). Further west, patches of whitish rounded siliceous pebbles, typically about 10 mm in diameter, are encountered and have been quarried at one point (GR 306685E 5451616N). The gravels appear to be fluviatile in origin and evidently APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 72 ______pre-date the incision of the erosion surface by the Arthur River. The gravels are considered to be a locally significant geoconservation site (Site 23: Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete). A small quarry at the junction of Dam Circuit Track and Ridge 1 Dam Track exposes the Precambrian basement rocks. The rock comprises a pale creamy mudstone that dips to the north. The quarry may be of interest for geological study in an area where the bedrock is generally obscured by sand cover

Flora: Dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland on sands with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent (DNI); dry heathy Eucalyptus nitida scrub (SSC); wet heath/scrub dominated by Melaleuca squarrosa and/or Melaleuca squamea (SHW); damp shrubby Eucalyptus obliqua forest (WOB/DOB); dry scrub on alkaline sands dominated by Leptospermum laevigatum (SCA).

Fauna: Grey Goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae) seen in area near dam — likely nesting habitat nearby. Burrowing crayfish present in the wetter vegetation types.

Management issues: Symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi infection are evident in the wet heaths in the southeast, with initial infection likely to date to the proliferation of tracks south of Arthur River in the 1970s. Sidetracks provide conduits for further disease spread via vehicles. Attempts by the Parks and Wildlife Service to prevent access to at least one sidetrack with large boulders have been bypassed (GR 306860E 5451730N). The middle portion of the track is very boggy under wet conditions, resulting in deeply rutted and braided sections.

Recommendation: Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or allow seasonal access under permit. If made available for seasonal access, permits should only be issued for that portion of the track east and south of its junction with the Windmill Track (205) during the summer period (1st December to 30th March). This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 73 ______

Ridge 1 Dam Track (203) Date assessed: 25 February 2006 Length: 2.0 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma & Thornton Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

203: Low Eucalyptus nitida heathy woodland (SSC). Note 203: Eucalyptus obliqua wet forest (WOB) & lime fern, at track base of siliceous gravels. Lime Fern Creek.

Route: This track is a loop off the Dam Circuit Track (202), onto the southern portion of Brooks Ridge at the Big Bend on the Arthur River.

Track condition: The track mostly crosses flattish terrain on well-drained sandy soils or siliceous gravels. The gradient increases, approaching 15° at one point, as the track descends to ‘Lime Fern Creek’ (GR 306100E 5453260N). Gully erosion has occurred on the steeper sections of track.

Geodiversity: Patches of rounded siliceous pebbles, sometimes cemented by a matrix of silcrete to form fist-sized lumps of conglomerate or ‘greybilly’, are prominent on this track. The gravels are interpreted as evidence of fluviatile activity on an erosion surface that was later incised by the Arthur River (Site 23: Big Bend Gravels and Silcrete). Lime Fern Creek (Site 38) shows calcareous deposits in the form of tufa. This phenomenon is best developed at a cascade just upstream of the where the creek is forded (GR 306060E 5453290N). The track extends marginally inside the boundary of the TGD-listed Site 33: Arthur River Estuary.

Flora: Dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland (DNI) on sands; dry heathy Eucalyptus nitida scrub (SSC); wet heath/scrub dominated by Melaleuca squarrosa (SHW); Eucalyptus obliqua wet forest with broad-leaf shrubs and tree ferns (WOB); damp shrubby Eucalyptus obliqua forest (WOB/DOB).

Fauna: There is a threat of disturbance to a white-bellied sea eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) nest on the opposite side of Arthur River if activity on this track is very high and noisy during the breeding season (Sept–Dec.). Burrowing crayfish present on the poorly drained flats along Lime Fern Creek.

Management issues: The following issues need to be addressed: • Phytophthora cinnamomi infection has resulted in plant mortality in the Eucalyptus nitida communities. The most conspicuous casualties adjacent to the track are southern grasstrees (Xanthorrhoea australis); the population here is the most westerly in Tasmania, c. 60 km from the nearest stands at Rocky Cape, and is of regional significance; • Lime ferns (Pneumatopteris pennigera) on Lime Fern Creek are the largest reserved population of this endangered plant in Tasmania (with about 70 plants growing along a 300 m stretch of creek) and APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 74 ______

should be protected from direct physical damage or any increase in sediment loads that may threaten plants — and also burrowing crayfish — downstream of the creek crossing; • Eucalyptus obliqua wet forest along Lime Fern Creek represents the most significant example encountered in this study and is locally significant; • Track gradients in the vicinity of Lime Fern Creek exceed those recommended in the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003.

Recommendations: • Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy or allow seasonal access under permit. If made available for seasonal access, permits should only be issued during the summer period (1st December to 30th March). This track may be more suitable as a walking experience, provided Phytophthora hygiene protocol is followed. • Monitor the lime fern and burrowing crayfish populations near the track’s crossing of Lime Fern Creek to provide early detection in the event of adverse affects due to direct physical impacts or sedimentation. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 75 ______

Windmill Track (205) Date assessed: 25 February 2006 Length: 1.4 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services & Recreation Current access policy: No current access

205: Eucalyptus nitida shrubby woodland/forest on sands 205: Typical sandy base of tracks in this area. with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent (DNI).

Route: This track extends east of the Temma Road to intersect the Dam Circuit Track (202), and is maintained as a burn unit boundary (S8; Parks and Wildlife Service 2003).

Track condition: The track crosses well-drained sandy terrain and is in good condition compared to other tracks in the area.

Geodiversity: The track traverses aeolian sands on the eastern margin of a large transgressive sand sheet behind Arthur Beach (Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes).

Flora: Dry scrub on alkaline sands dominated by Leptospermum laevigatum (SCA); dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent (DNI). Copses of the threatened Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest (NME) occur in poorly drained swales to the northwest of the track, though are not considered at risk.

Fauna: No sensitive species issues.

Management issues: No specific recommendations.

Recommendation: No specific recommendations. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 76 ______

Prickly Wattle Track (207) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 1.5 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services Current access policy: No current access

207: Coastal scrub on alkaline sands (SCA) with Olearia 207: Acacia longifolia coastal scrub (SAC) & Marram glutinosa (shrub at left). grassland (FMG). The darker sand at the base of the blowout is a palaeosol.

207: Evidence of ORVs using sensitive areas within the 207: Hardpan exposed in the big blowout. blowout.

Route: This track provides relatively direct access between the Temma Road at the Prickly Wattle Campground and Arthur Beach or the Bowl Track (211). The track is currently used by trail and quad bikes only.

Track condition: The track is mostly on deep loose sand. The western section traverses a large active sandblow.

Geodiversity: The big sandblow on Prickly Wattle Track is one of several major sandblows within the otherwise mostly vegetated dunefield behind Arthur Beach. Multiple palaeosols (buried soil layers) are exposed in the slopes of the sandblow, including a basal unit of black sand with abundant remains of shrubby vegetation preserved in growth position. At somewhat higher level is a dark grey hardpan that forms a prominent terrace along the northern side of the sandblow. The hardpan is developed above sands dated at 9,200+/-1,000 years BP (W3980). At least three and possibly four palaeosols may be seen at higher elevation on the eroding slopes of an adjacent dune. Study of these features has the potential to enhance our understanding of the environmental history of the site and its relationship with events elsewhere. This is one of the most complex and clearly exposed palaeosol sequences recorded in this study APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 77 ______and has been accepted for listing in the TGD (Site 13: Prickly Wattle Palaeosols). A sizeable spring emerges from the base of the foredune near the western end of the blowout (Site 37: Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands). Tufa (precipitated calcium carbonate) has encrusted wood and other surfaces in the creek below the spring.

Flora: Inland end — dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland (DNI) on sands with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent; coastal scrub dominated by either Leptospermum laevigatum or a mix of Acacia longifolia var. sophorae, Leptospermum laevigatum, Leucopogon parviflorus and Olearia glutinosa (SCA/SAC); bare sand (OSM) with some recolonisation by sand-binding native grasses (Festuca littoralis, GHC); marram grassland at coastal end (FMG) with wet herbfields beside small stream (GHC). The regionally significant woody shrub Olearia glutinosa occurs within the coastal scrub alongside the middle section of the track, though it is not considered to be at risk.

Fauna: Track gives access to beach, with the potential for disturbance to beach-nesting shorebirds during the breeding season.

Management issues: An existing fence along the northern side of the blowout is a worthwhile initiative but has been only partially effective in confining ORVs to a route away from the most important palaeosol sections and surrounding erosion-prone slopes. The fence had fallen over or been knocked down when visited during this study, with fresh ORV tracks across the lowest palaeosol and onto adjacent steep slopes. The Davidson to Arthur Beach Track (208) is a more environmentally acceptable route for ORVs to access Arthur Beach. In additional to their value for scientific study, the spectacular palaeosols at Prickly Wattle Track provide opportunities to interpret aspects of the environmental history of the area to visitors, including the potential role of human activities in triggering sandblows.

Recommendations: • Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. • Reinstate the fence within the main sandblow with a more robust structure. • Assess options to interpret the geomorphology of the sandblow to visitors. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 78 ______

Davidson to Arthur Beach Track (208) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 1.3 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services Current access policy: Authorised with permit

208: Davidson to Arthur Beach Track. 208: Springs adjacent to the track.

Route: This track provides access from Davidson Street, Arthur River, to the northern end of Arthur Beach and The Bowl Track (211).

Track condition: The track has a few poorly drained sections but is otherwise in good condition with sections of gravel surface.

Geodiversity: Precambrian sedimentary rocks at Gardiner Point and shows well-preserved sedimentary structures including numerous clear examples of ripple marks (Mawson Bay-Gardiner Point Precambrian Sedimentary Structures geoconservation site). Well-sorted rounded siliceous pebbles cover an area of several hundred square metres at GR 303800E 5451600N, off the eastern side of the track and about 200 m from the present shoreline. The gravels are reminiscent of presumed fluviatile gravels on Dam Circuit Track, but the context of the Arthur Beach site is suggestive of a palaeoshoreline. Thin patchy sheets of crumbly material occur in association with the gravels, in some cases broken up by stock trampling. These are interpreted as a calcrete duricrust exposed by deflation of the sand profile. A number of sizeable springs issue from the base of vegetated dunes behind the shore. At some sites the water emerges from steep head-like embayments where springs have undercut the face of the foredune, causing it to retreat (Site 37: Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands).

Flora: Mosaic of Marram grassland (FMG), culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland (FRG) and pockets of low wind-pruned coastal scrub dominated by Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae and Leucopogon parviflorus (SAC); Lepidosperma gladiatum sedgeland at Arthur River end (= degraded SAC).

Fauna: The rocky shoreline indicates that ORVs will have little impact to beach-nesting shorebirds.

Management issues: The Precambrian ripple marks at Gardiner Point provide an opportunity to interpret aspects of the geological history in interpretative material presented at the viewing platform off Davidson Street.

Recommendation: No specific recommendations. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 79 ______

Firebreak Horseyards Track (209) Date assessed: 25 February 2006 Length: 1.6 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma & Thornton Management zone: Visitor Services & Recreation Current access policy: No current access

209: Dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland on sands (DNI)

Route: This track provides a link between the Temma Road to the west and the Dam Circuit Track (202) to the east.

Track condition: Track is difficult to follow in the southwest and badly overgrown in the northeast, with no sign of recent use.

Geodiversity: The track traverses aeolian sands on the eastern margin of a large transgressive sand sheet behind Arthur Beach (Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes).

Flora: Scrub on alkaline sands dominated by Leptospermum laevigatum (SCA); dry shrubby Eucalyptus nitida woodland on sands (DNI); dry shrubby Eucalyptus obliqua woodland/forest (DOB); damp shrubby Eucalyptus obliqua woodland/forest (WOB/DOB). The central section skirts an unusual dune-barred Eucalypt brookeriana wet forest (WBR) with a fern-rich ground layer.

Fauna: Burrowing crayfish occur within the dune-barred Eucalypt brookeriana wet forest community. Evidence of spotted tailed quolls (Dasyurus maculatus maculatus) and hollows suitable for breeding (masked owls etc).

Management issues: This track serves no useful purpose, is almost entirely overgrown and shows no sign of recent use. Any increase in vehicular traffic could compromise the integrity of the Eucalypt brookeriana wet forest community and associated fauna.

Recommendation: Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 80 ______

Bowl Track (211) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 1.8 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services Current access policy: Authorised with permit

211: Isolepis nodosa sedgeland (FRG) and Acacia longifolia 211: The Bowl – Marram grassland (FMG) in coastal scrub (SAC), north of The Bowl. foreground, Acacia longifolia coastal scrub (SAC) in background.

Route: This track extends along a vegetated sandy terrace on the seaward side of the dune complex behind Arthur Beach. It provides access to ‘The Bowl’, a sandblow occupying an area of about 1 ha. The Bowl is identified as a venue for ORVs under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002 (PWS 2002).

Track condition: The track extends off the Davidson to Arthur Beach Track (202) on well-drained sand and is in good condition. The Bowl is a major active sandblow.

Geodiversity: The Bowl is one of several major sandblows within an otherwise mostly vegetated dunefield behind Arthur Beach (Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes). Palaeosols (buried soils) are exposed in the eroding seaward faces of the dunes, at The Bowl and north of here (GR 304280E 5450650N; Site 14: Arthur-Pieman Coastal Palaeosols). Sizeable springs emerge at the base of the foredunes at several points (Site 37: Coastal Springs in Quaternary Sands).

Flora: Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG); low wind-pruned coastal scrub dominated by Acacia sophorae and Leucopogon parviflorus (SAC); Marram grassland at coast (FMG) with some sea spurge (FWU).

Fauna: No issues.

Management issues: The Bowl provides opportunities for ORV driving in a large sandblow not far from Arthur River, possibly alleviating some of the pressure on other sites that may be used without authority for this purpose. However, The Bowl also provides as a take-off point for unauthorised excursions into the vegetated dunes to the east — several trail bikes were observed to do this during this study. The steep slopes of the sandblow are actively eroding at the expense of the surrounding vegetated dunes. In contrast, the base of the blowout is a firm surface close to the level of the coastal sand aquifer and not prone to further rapid deflation under present conditions.

Recommendation: Consider options to reduce unauthorised driving on adjacent dunes. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 81 ______

Bullock Hill: North Track (212), Middle Track (213) & South Track (214) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 1.7 km (212), 0.8 km (213) & 1.1 km (214) Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

212: Isolepis nodosa sedgeland (FRG) near coastal end of track.

Route: These tracks provide access between the Temma Road and Arthur Beach, 0.5 km south of The Bowl. Arthur Beach is a designated off-road route under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002. The North Bullock Hill Track and South Bullock Hill Track form the northern and southern boundaries of an ecological burn unit designed to manage for the endangered Arthur River orchid (Pterostylis rubenachii) (Parks and Wildlife Service 2003).

Track condition: The eastern portion of the North Bullock Hill Track crosses flat sandy terrain on a firm base. A short steep pinch eroded to a depth of about 1 m is encountered as the route enters the vegetated dunes behind the beach. The Middle Bullock Hill Track (213) and South Bullock Hill Track (213) are vague routes that do not appear to be used with any frequency.

Geodiversity: The track enters an area of aeolian landforms within Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes.

Flora: The vegetation comprises dry shrubby Eucalyptus viminalis woodland on sands with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent (DVC); Coastal scrub on alkaline sands dominated by Leptospermum laevigatum (SCA); culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG); Marram grassland (FMG) at coastal end. The endangered arthur river greenhood (Pterostylis rubenachii) is known to occur within a few meters of the North Bullock Hill Track at GR 305425E 5449375N, with additional patches beside the Middle and South Tracks (Johnson & Schahinger 1999).

Fauna: This track provides access to Arthur Beach, where ORV activities have the potential to impact upon shorebird habitat.

Management issues: There is a significant erosion risk on the middle steep section of the North Bullock Hill Track. The steep section is also the location of a threatened orchid population, which is considered to be at high risk of direct physical impact given the present location of the track. The take-off point for the North Bullock Hill Track — the principal track — at the Temma Road entrance is not obvious, with at least two access points about 100 m apart currently in use. The existence of three closely situated tracks leading to the same destination is — aside from the fire management considerations noted above — unnecessary, and increases the area subject to ORV impacts.

Recommendations: APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 82 ______

• North Bullock Track: If made available for vehicular access, this track should be rerouted along an existing sidetrack at GR 305510E 5449460N. The alternative route passes though coastal scrub, bypassing a steep section of track and a known threatened orchid population. The take-off point from the Temma Road should be at GR 306020E 5449380N and marked. • Middle Bullock Track: Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. • Southern Bullock Track: Track should be maintained for fire management purposes only APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 83 ______

Arthur Beach to Sundown Track (215) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 4.0 km Map sheet: Bluff 3045 & Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services & Recreation Current access policy: Authorised with permit

215: ‘Circle work’ on Arthur Beach 215: Informal track leading into dunes

Route: This track traverses Arthur Beach, connecting with the Davidson to Arthur Beach Track (208), Prickly Wattle Track (207) and Bowl Track (211) in the north, and the North Bullock Hill Track (212) in the south.

Track condition: The route follows the beach; condition is changeable depending on the state of the tide and sea.

Geodiversity: The 5 km long Arthur Beach is a major beach linked to Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes.

Flora: Bare sand (OSM) fringed by Marram grassland (FMG), with some sea spurge infestations (FWU). The uncommon native herb Atriplex billardierei grows amongst log debris on the beach, though it is not at risk from vehicles.

Fauna: Significant population of shorebirds and breeding habitat, with likely disturbance during the breeding season.

Management issues: The following issues were identified in this study: • informal sidetracks provide access to sand dunes behind the beach and are causing erosion of the foredune; • the beach provides habitat for nesting shorebirds, which are susceptible to ORV impacts at certain times of the year.

Recommendation: Arthur Beach south of The Bowl should be closed to vehicles from 1st September to 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. No permits should be issued in this period. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 84 ______

Old Kelp Track (216) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 0.3 km Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

216: Sagg-dominated heath & beehives.

Route: This short track provides access to a dilapidated shed about 160 m off the Temma Road. The site is currently used for beekeeping.

Track condition: The track has a firm base on imported gravels.

Geodiversity: No issues.

Flora: Temma Road end — low shrubby Eucalyptus viminalis woodland on sands with Leptospermum laevigatum prominent and Monotoca glauca, Banksia marginata and Leucopogon australis (DVC; not considered at risk). Inland end — induced heathland dominated by sagg (Lomandra longifolia), with bracken (Pteridium esculentum) and the woody shrubs Aotus ericoides, Leptospermum scoparium and Hibbertia sericea.

Fauna: No issues.

Management issues: This track serves no useful purpose other than its current use as a beekeeping location. The shed is evidently no longer in use and contains much rubbish.

Recommendations: • This track should not be maintained if the site is no longer required for bee keeping. • Clean up the site; remove the redundant shed. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 85 ______

Track through Sundown (217) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 1.9 km Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

217/218 junction: Marram grassland (FMG) south of 217: Southern end of Arthur Beach from Sundown Bottle Creek. Point.

Route: This track is a route along the southern end of Arthur Beach, within the Sundown Point State Reserve. It is contiguous with the Arthur Beach to Sundown Track (215).

Track condition: The route follows the beach, the condition of which is changeable depending on the state of the sea.

Geodiversity: The 5 km long Arthur Beach and the dune complex associated with it are good examples of these classes of landform (Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes).

Flora: Bare sand (OSM) fringed by Marram grassland (FMG), with some sea spurge infestations (FWU). The uncommon native herb Atriplex billardierei grows amongst log debris on the beach, though it is not at risk from vehicles.

Fauna: Significant population of shorebirds.

Management issues: The beach provides habitat for nesting shorebirds, which are susceptible to ORV impacts at certain times of the year.

Recommendation: If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued from 1st September – 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 86 ______

South Bottle Creek Track (218) Date assessed: 1 April 2006 Length: 0.9 km Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

218: Acacia longifolia coastal scrub (SAC) and Isolepis 218: Track beside Bottle Creek near coast. nodosa sedgeland (FRG).

Route: This track extends between the Temma Road and the southern end of Arthur Beach. The track enters the Sundown Point State Reserve as it approaches Arthur Beach.

Track condition: The eastern portion of the track crosses flat sandy terrain, with a short steep pinch subject to braiding and significant erosion where the route enters the vegetated dunes behind the beach. Soft sand is encountered towards the beach. A rock bar on the creek creates a scenic setting that is reported to be popular with locals.

Geodiversity: A palaeosol is exposed on the northern side of Bottle Creek where it cuts through the dune at GR 305060E, 5447140N (Site 14: Arthur-Pieman Coastal Palaeosols, Site 24: Arthur-Sundown Dunes).

Flora: Marram grassland at coastal end (FMG); culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG), small patches of Acacia longifolia coastal scrub (SAC), and the occasional old Banksia marginata persisting at the Temma Road end.

Fauna: Unidentified fish in slow moving creek with reeds and bordered by dune. Track has encroached close to Bottle Creek near beach (see photo above).

Management issues: Poorly consolidated sands, particularly at the steep pinch in the vicinity of the boundary between the APCA and the Sundown Point State Reserve, are prone to erosion.

Recommendation: If made available for vehicular access, this track should be upgraded to address erosion problems at the Bottle Creek end. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 87 ______

Shepherds Track (220) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 1.9 km Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

220: Regenerating Coastal heathland (SCH).

Route: This track is an access between the Temma Road and a camping area at Sundown Creek in the Sundown Point State Reserve. It provides a rough alternative to the hardened route via shacks at Nelson Bay.

Track condition: The track crosses well-drained sandy soils and is somewhat eroded but otherwise is in reasonably good condition — lower lying areas are likely to be inundated in winter.

Geodiversity: No issues.

Flora: Dry coastal heathland/scrub (SCH) and Wet heathland (SHW) regenerating from fire in December 2002. The threatened orchids Caladenia pusilla and Diuris lanceolata were recorded close to the track in the early 1990s. Symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi evident in heath communities.

Fauna: Potential ground parrot habitat.

Management issues: • Track duplicates a better road to the same site via shacks at Nelson Bay. • The track is a source of Phytophthora infection for heathland communities currently free of infection.

Recommendation: Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 88 ______

Nelson Bay Sarah Anne Track (222) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 3.6 km Map sheet: Sundown 3044 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

222: Cakile maritma north of Nelson Bay River 222: Advanced erosion at the inland section mid way along Nelson Bay.

Route: This track is an access along the shoreline between shack settlements at Sarah Anne Rocks and north of Nelson Bay River.

Track condition: The route is mostly along a sandy beach but passes briefly inland near Sardine Creek to bypass a short section of rocky foreshore. The bypass crosses poorly consolidated sands that have been eroded to a depth of up to 1.5 m, with slumping sides and exposed middens.

Geodiversity: Complex sedimentary structures are displayed by Precambrian rocks on shore platforms mid way along the beach at Nelson Bay. Attractive small-scale aeolian weathering features have developed on rocks at the northern end of the beach.

Flora: Bare sand (OSM) fringed by marram grassland (FMG), with some sea spurge infestations (FWU); Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae low coast scrub (SAC) along inland section.

Fauna: Significant population of shorebirds. The large interface between the lagoon and the sea is especially important in providing foraging habitat for these species, as well as the orange-bellied parrot in the form of sea rocket (Cakile maritima).

Management issues: • The beach is a significant habitat for nesting shorebirds. • Track monitoring should give priority to assessing the condition of the short inland section mid way along Nelson Bay; the sandy substrate is highly erodible and may require stabilising to limit further damage.

Recommendation: • If made available for vehicular access, no permits should be issued from 1st September – 31st March, to alleviate pressure on nesting shorebirds. • The eroding middle section of track should be assessed as a potential priority in the proposed rehabilitation strategy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 89 ______

Sarah Anne Rocks: Inland Track (224), Coastal Track (225) & Central Track (226) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 0.9 km (224), 1.0 km (225), 0.3 km (226) Map sheet: Sundown 3044 & Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

225: Wind-pruned scrubs (SSC), marsupial lawns and 226: Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest (NME) on the coastal grassland (GHC) on the coastal track. central track.

225: Deep gulch adjacent to the coastal track; the cobble 225: Coastal grasslands (GHC) and midden. beaches at Sarah Anne Rocks typically occur in association with similar features.

Route: These tracks are access routes between shack settlements at Couta Rocks and Sarah Anne Rocks

Track condition: The Coastal track (225) is mostly on rocky ground with some boggy patches subject to rutting and braiding. There is one very steep pinch where the track descends to a small beach and midden (GR 304830E 5440650N). This section may be impassable at times, depending on sea conditions. The short Central Track (226) is badly rutted in a poorly drained area to the immediate south of the junction with the Inland Track (224). The latter has a firm rocky base for most of its length.

Geodiversity: Sarah Anne Rocks is a rugged coastal section where the Precambrian rocks have been eroded into a series of deeply incised gulches, small bays and rocky promontories. Some gulches are backed by small boulder beaches up to 5–6 m above present sea level. A somewhat larger example occurs just north of Couta Rocks (GR 305300E 5459880N). The cobble beaches are enigmatic features that have been accepted for listing in the TGD (Site28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches). The track passes across some of these features, eroding and compacting the boulders. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 90 ______

Flora: The vegetation of the coastal track is dominated variously by coastal grasses Distichlis distichophylla, Austrostipa stipoides or Poa poiformis with Carpobrotus rossii (GHC); wet herbfields (GHC) grading into succulent saline herbfields dominated by Sarcocornia sp. (ASS); wind-pruned heath/scrub dominated by Cyathodes abietina or Melaleuca ericifolia, with Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae, Leptospermum scoparium, Leucopogon parviflorus, Banksia marginata, Correa sp. (SSC). The rare Fabaceous herb Cullen microcephalum was recorded close to the northern section of the track in the late 1980s — the current surveys were too late in the season to locate flowering plants, though it is considered likely the species persists in rockier areas (Lynch 1993). Potential for damage to wet herbfields and succulent saline herbfields to south, the latter being a valuable food source for the orange-bellied parrot. The vegetation of the central track and northern section of the inland track is a closed heath/scrub dominated by Melaleuca ericifolia, with Leucopogon parviflorus, Correa sp. and Cyathodes sp. (SSC), grading into low Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest (NME) in more poorly drained parts of the middle track. Further south, the inland track passes through low wind pruned coastal heath dominated by Leptospermum glaucescens, with Aotus ericoides, Epacris impressa, Banksia marginata and Lepidosperma concavum (SSC).

Fauna: Saline herbfields on the coastal track are a potential food source for orange-bellied parrots.

Management issues: The proliferation of tracks in this area puts sensitive herbfields at risk, particularly along the coastal section. By necessity, the Coastal Track follows grassy corridors that provide foraging habitat for the endangered orange-bellied parrot. The gradient of the short steep section at the northern end exceeds recommended guidelines under the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003 and will continue to erode if subject to ongoing traffic. Grasslands and a midden are being damaged by ORVs at this site, which may be impassable under some sea conditions. The Central Track is deeply rutted and requires upgrading to mitigate further damage to soils and vegetation.

Recommendations: • Sarah Anne Inland Track: No specific recommendations. • Sarah Anne Coastal Track: The northern section of the Sarah Anne Coastal Track should not be made available for vehicular access between the junctions with Sarah Anne Central Track (226) and Sarah Anne Inland Track (224). • Sarah Anne Central Track: If made available for vehicular access, the Sarah Anne Central Track should be upgraded by improving the drainage and surface, to alleviate bogginess and braiding. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 91 ______

Central Couta to Temma Track (227) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 8.1 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation. Current access policy: Authorised with permit (part only)

227: Northern section of track traversing beach and 227: Southern section with beach fringed by marram Isolepis nodosa sedgeland. grass (FMG).

227: Cobble beach crossed by the track just south of 227: Wetland (AHF) due to impeded drainage behind Couta Rocks. the cobble beach.

Route: This track is an access along the foreshore between Couta Rocks and Temma. The section between Stinking Beach and Rebecca Creek is available for vehicular access under the Arthur-Pieman Conservation Area Management Plan 2002.

Track condition: The track is mostly along sandy beaches.

Geodiversity: A number of high-level cobble beaches are present on the northern side of Rebecca Point, part of the TGD-listed Site 28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches. The track crosses a large example associated with an impounded wetland at GR 305660E 5438550N. Vehicles driving on the cobble beach disturb the constituent gravels, which have been deliberately excavated at one point (to obtain fill?). The southern end of the track traverses the margin of Site 30: Temma Beach Ridges.

Flora: North: culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG). South of Rebecca Point track traverses beach: bare sand (OSM) fringed by marram grasslands (FMG), with some sea spurge infestations (FWU). Nearby historic records for the woody shrub Spyridium vexilliferum and the orchid Caladenia dienema but habitat along track considered unsuitable for these species. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 92 ______

Fauna: Good habitat for beach-nesting shorebirds, particularly south of Pollys Bay. Known ground parrot sites in immediate area.

Management issues: The coast between Temma and Couta Rocks is an important shorebird habitat, especially south from Pollys Bay. Ideally, vehicles should be discouraged from driving across the cobble beach at the northern end; however, the feature is already quite impacted and an alternative route along the foreshore would not be viable in some sea conditions.

Recommendation: The section of track between Rebecca Point and Stinking Beach should be closed to vehicules from 1st September – 31st March, to reduce disturbance to nesting shorebirds. No permits should be issued in this period. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 93 ______

Camp Elsewhere Track (229) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 0.7 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

229: Inland section of track with coastal scrub (SAC). 229: Grassy swales in dune complex near mouth of Rebecca Creek.

Route: This track extends between the Temma Road and the coast near the outlet of Rebecca Creek.

Track condition: The eastern portion of the track crosses grassy paddocks. Steeper gradients and some soft sand are encountered in the vegetated dunes behind the beach, with patches of erosion developing.

Geodiversity: The western part of the track crosses a vegetated dune complex behind Lady Kathleen Beach.

Flora: Track passes through turfed openings in scrubs, with Leptospermum laevigatum and Acacia longifolia subsp. sophorae dominant on the coastal dunes (SCA/SAC) and Melaleuca ericifolia on poorly drained flats (NME). Nearby historic records for the listed orchids Caladenia dienema, Caladenia pusilla, Diuris lanceolata and Prasophyllum favonium but habitat along track considered unsuitable for these species.

Fauna: Wetland to east of track currently in good condition. Some Carex appressa amongst surrounding Melaleuca ericifolia — potential Marrawah skipper habitat. Known ground parrot sites.

Management issues: Rolling grassy terrain near the mouth of Rebecca Creek is evidently frequented by ORVs. Although erosion is limited at present, continued use of the vegetated dunes by ORVs creates a risk of serious erosion problems developing in an area already under pressure from grazing cattle. The wetland east of the track should be protected from the impact of cattle while still in good condition.

Recommendation: If made available for vehicular access, monitor track erosion on the vegetated dunes. Remedial works and/or limitations on vehicle numbers may be required. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 94 ______

Pollys Bay Track (231) & Lady Kathleen Bay Tracks (232) Date assessed: 31 March 2006 Length: 0.7 km & 0.4 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Recreation Current access policy: No current access

231: Rebecca Lagoon with the Pollys Bay and Camp 231: Steep eroding ramp to beach off Pollys Bay Track. Elsewhere Tracks to the left (south) and right (north), respectively. Plantation and Temma Road in foreground.

232: Isolepis nodosa sedgeland (FRG) with Rebecca 232: Marram grass at coastal end of Lady Kathleen Bay Lagoon at left. Track (FMG).

Route: The Pollys Bay Track (231) extends between the Temma Road and a point overlooking Pollys Bay, skirting Rebecca Lagoon on the southern side. The Lady Kathleen Bay Track (232) branches off to the north as the Pollys Bay Track approaches the beach.

Track condition: The tracks are mostly in good condition. Steep (~20°) actively eroding ramps on soft sand lead down to the beach at the western end of these tracks.

Geodiversity: Rebecca Lagoon is a significant example of a wetland due to drainage impoundment by the coastal dunes. It is listed in the TGD (Site 36: Rebecca Lagoon Dune-barred Drainage).

Flora: Culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG); marram grassland at coastal ends (FMG). APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 95 ______

Fauna: The beach is significant for nesting shorebirds (see Central Couta to Temma Track). The fauna of Rebecca Lagoon was not sampled during this study, although it undoubtedly provides habitat for a range of taxa. Ground parrot sites are known from the immediate area.

Management issues: The integrity of Rebecca Lagoon — a significant landform and ecosystem — has been compromised by the loss of natural vegetation, pugging by cattle and ORVs driving around the margins. Despite this, the overall form of the feature is intact and the ecosystem has potential to recover. Every attempt should be made to alleviate ongoing disturbance by stock and ORVs. Ramps leading down to the beach are actively eroding and damaging middens. They exceed track gradients recommended in the Tasmanian Reserve Management Code of Practice 2003. ORVs should avoid these erosion-prone slopes.

Recommendations: • Pollys Bay Track: Fence Rebecca Lagoon to exclude cattle and ORVs. Investigate options to restore the native vegetation and integrity of the wetland. • Pollys Bay Track and Lady Kathleen Bay Track: Steep eroding ramps used to access the beach from the Pollys Bay and Lady Kathleen Beach Tracks are not suitable for vehicles. They should be closed and assessed as potential priorities under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 96 ______

Richardson Track (303) Date assessed: 21 February 2006 Length: 2.1 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Visitor Services & Natural Current access policy: No current access

303: Wind-pruned coastal heath/scrub (SSC). 303: ‘Circle work’ on a marsupial lawn adjacent to track.

Route: This track is a coastal access route between Temma and the Dartys Corner shack site.

Track condition: The track crosses rocky ground with some vegetated sand patches, where the route is entrenched to 1.5 m. Some braiding is evident, especially near the trig point just north of Dartys Corner; north of here a marsupial lawn beside the track has been churned up by ORVs.

Geodiversity: High-level cobble beaches occur just south of Temma (GR 306230E 5432100N) and at a small bay about mid way along it (GR 306230E 5432760N). The cobble deposit at the latter site is free of vegetation and may be subject to storm wave activity (Site 28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches). Portions of the track occupy the crest of these features, causing erosion and compaction of the constituent gravels.

Flora: Low wind-pruned coastal heath with Cyathodes abietina prominent (SSC); marsupial lawns (GHC). The small woody shrub Spyridium vexilliferum was recorded beside the track, but is not considered at risk.

Fauna: This track provides access to more southerly beaches along the Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308), which are significant for nesting shorebirds. Rocky stream crossing (GR 306240E, 5432110N) — no sedimentation problems.

Management issues: Richardson Track is significantly eroded in places and provides access for ORVs onto sensitive marsupial lawns.

Recommendations: • Assess eroded sections as a potential priority under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. • Assess the practicality of fencing off sensitive vegetation types adjacent to the track. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 97 ______

Dartys Corner Track (304) Date assessed: 30 March 2006 Length: 1.0 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Natural (controlled access) Current access policy: Authorised with permit (access to shack site)

304: Dry coastal heathland/scrub (SCH). 304: Eastern end of track under winter conditions.

Route: This track provides access between the Temma to Greenes Point Track (309) and shacks on the coast at Dartys Corner. It connects with Richardson Track (303) and Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308).

Track condition: The track is mostly across well-drained sandy ground, except near the junction with the Sandy Cape Track, which becomes a water hole under wet conditions.

Geodiversity: The eastern portion of this track falls within an area identified as significant for the TGD- listed Site 8: Western Tasmanian Blanket Bogs. The track has caused localised damage to peat soils.

Flora: Dry coastal heathland/scrub dominated by Leptospermum glaucescens (SCH) and Wet heathland dominated by Melaleuca squarrosa (SHW). Records of Phytophthora cinnamomi in the area date back to 1978, with Sprengelia incarnata the most obvious casualty observed in the 2006 track surveys.

Fauna: Track provides access to beach with significant shorebird population.

Management issues: The Dartys Corner Track provides access to the coast south of Dartys Corner where ORV traffic impinges on habitat for nesting shorebirds at certain times of the year –— see entry for the Dartys to Gannet Point Track (308).

Recommendation: Undertake track maintenance works, particularly at the eastern end. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 98 ______

Big Eel Track (305) Date assessed: 30 March 2006 Length: 1.9 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma Management zone: Natural Current access policy: No current access

305: Regenerating dry coastal heathland (SCH). 305: Eroded section of track on crest of Big Eel Dune.

Route: This track extends between the Temma to Greenes Creek Track (309) and Bens Top Track (306) near Temma farm. Like Bens Top Track, the Big Eel Track appears to have been created to facilitate movement of stock between the farm and the coastal strip.

Track condition: The eastern portion of the track is rocky ground. The western portion is a sandy substrate originally under peat soil. Deflation of the sand on the base of the track becomes severe towards the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, with some parts comprising a trench 1–2 m below the level of the adjacent land surface. Sizeable areas of bare sand and considerable track braiding mark the junction with the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, where rehabilitation of an eroding sandy slope adjacent to the main track has been attempted by hand planting with native species (some still in pots). The rehabilitation has not been effective in stabilising the slope.

Geodiversity: The western end of the track traverses the Big Eel Dune, a linear transgressive dune formed in sand that has been dated to 21,300+/-2,700 years BP (W3977). It is a key feature within the TGD-listed Site 29: Possum Banks-Big Eel Dune Complex. Incipient sandblows where the track traverses the crest of the dune, and sheet erosion on slopes near the junction with the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, threaten the integrity of this significant feature. Parts of this track fall within an area identified as significant for the TGD-listed Site 8: Western Tasmanian Blanket Bogs.

Flora: Dry coastal heathland/scrub dominated by Leptospermum glaucescens (SCH). Symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi evident in heath communities.

Fauna: No issues.

Management issues: • Severe erosion has occurred on the eastern section of track as it approaches the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, impinging on the integrity of the Big Eel Dune, a significant landform. • The conversion of Temma farm to a tree plantation implies that this track now serves no commercial purpose. It appears to be rarely used. • The track is a source of Phytophthora spread in heathland communities.

Recommendations: APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 99 ______

• Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. • Monitor incipient sandblows on the crest of the Big Eel Dune — these may require active rehabilitation if they continue to enlarge. • Eroding slopes near the junction with the Temma to Greenes Creek Track (309) should be assessed as a potential priority under the proposed rehabilitation strategy. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 100 ______

Bens Top Track (306) Date assessed: 30 March 2006 Length: 2.9 km Map sheet: Temma 3043 Land system: Temma & Thornton Management zone: Natural Current access policy: No current access

306: Track erosion towards eastern end. 306: Crossing point at Little Eel Creek.

Route: This track extends between the southern end of Temma farm and the Temma to Greenes Creek Track (309) near Pardoe Creek. It was evidently used in the past for moving cattle between the farm and the coastal strip south of Temma

Track condition: South of Big Eel Creek the track crosses poorly consolidated sands in an area of peat soils. Loss of the protective soil cover on the surface of the track has exposed the underlying sand to wind erosion, which has excavated holes up to 1.8 m deep in the base of the track. The gradient increases beyond Little Eel Creek and the route is occasionally rutted and steep. The route flattens off beyond the junction with Big Eel Track, with a base of sand or gravel. The creek crossings are shallow and not problematic for vehicles.

Geodiversity: Patches of rounded siliceous gravels occur on the track between GR 308800E 5432550N and GR 308920E 5432638N. The context – an interfluve between Big Eel and Little Eel Creeks at an elevation of ~50 m asl – suggests that the deposit is an alluvium that predates entrenchment of drainage on this western margin of the coastal erosion surface. Alternatively, the deposit may be evidence of a palaeo-shoreline. In either case the site is of considerable geomorphic interest (Site 22: Mt Balfour-Temma Rounded Gravels). The track falls within an area identified as significant for the TGD-listed Site 8: Western Tasmanian Blanket Bogs.

Flora: Dry coastal heathland/scrub dominated by Leptospermum glaucescens (SCH); Wet heathland (SHW) dominated by Melaleuca squarrosa; low Eucalyptus obliqua shrubby woodland with Melaleuca squarrosa and Gleichenia microphylla prominent (WOB) along Big Eel Creek and Little Eel Creek; wet scrub with Eucalyptus nitida prominent (SWW). Todea barbara (king fern) with basal trunk diameters of 0.5–1.0 m present along Little Eel Creek. Symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi evident in heathland communities.

Fauna: Numerous Tasmanian devil tracks were noted. The crossing point at Big Eel Creek has a mixed rock and mud base, implying potential for sedimentation problems if subject to frequent use by vehicles. No fish were collected despite sampling with a hand net. The crossing point at Little Eel Creek has a muddy base and would be prone to sedimentation with even low levels of vehicular traffic. Guano indicates that the Little Eel Creek is a raptor roost and watering site.

Management issues: APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 101 ______

• Severe erosion has occurred on the section of track between Big Eel Creek and the Temma to Greenes Creek Track, due to deflation of sand exposed in the base of the track. • Crossing points on Big Eel and Little Eel Creeks are prone to sedimentation, with implications for aquatic fauna. • The conversion of Temma farm to a tree plantation implies that this track now serves no commercial purpose. It appears to be rarely used. • The track is a source of Phytophthora spread in heath communities.

Recommendations: • Maintain the current PWS no vehicular access policy. • Monitor incipient sandblows on the section of track south of Big Eel Creek — these may require active rehabilitation if they continue to enlarge. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 102 ______

Dartys to Gannet Point (308) Date assessed: 21 February, 30 March 2006 & 5 July Length: 7.9 km Map sheet: Ordnance 3042 Land system: Temma Management zone: Natural Current access policy: No current access

Route: This route traverses the coast between Dartys Corner in the north and Gannet Point in the south. It connects with numerous other tracks, the majority of which link to the Temma to Greenes Point Track (309). The route continues south from Gannet Point as the Gannet Point to Smiths Gulch Track (318) and north from Dartys Corner as Richardson Track (303).

Track condition: The northern end of the route lies inland between the southern end of the beach at Dartys Corner and Eva Point, passing through an area of native grasslands known as Possum Banks. The vegetated dunes at Possum Banks have been subject to a major sandblow in recent years, with others obviously in the process of developing. The start of a long beach section south of Eva Point is marked by a deeply entrenched ramp in a cutting, exposing sand horizons interbedded with midden material. A similar but less deeply entrenched ramp occurs at Driftwood Cove, while the junction between the coastal route and Possum Creek Track (312) also entails a steep ramp (~20°) on the erosion-prone seaward slope of the foredune. The southern section between Gannet Point and Driftwood Cove passes inland of a large sandblow (‘bird fence’) before traversing the crest of low vegetated dunes behind a rocky shore. A short beach at the mouth of Dawson River and a potentially difficult river crossing precedes a deeply eroded section towards the junction with Gannet South Track (317). Some steep gradients (18°) occur on this section. The final stretch out to Gannet Point is relatively stable compared to other inland parts of the route.

The track is divided into four parts to facilitate description of the natural values.

Dartys Corner to Eva Point

308: Isolepis nodosa sedgeland at Eva Point (FRG). 308: Sandblow at Possum Banks threatening Poa rodwayi grasslands (GTL) and several listed flora. APCA Vehicle Track Assessment: Geoconservation, Flora and Fauna Values and Impacts 103 ______

308: Degraded Schoenoplectus pungens sedgeland (ASF) at 308: Elevated cobble beach near outlet to Big Eel Creek. Possum Banks, July 2006.

Geodiversity: Possum Banks is a significant complex of vegetated dunes listed in the TGD (Site 29: Possum Banks-Big Eel Dune Complex). The dunes are formed in sand dated to 12,900+/-1,000 years BP (W3979), implying that these are relict features formed at a time of climatic amelioration in the closing stages of the Pleistocene. The integrity of the landforms is threatened by the development in recent years of sandblows. Photographic evidence obtained at the site during this study confirms that the sandblows are actively enlarging. Two sets of high-level cobble beaches at slightly different altitudes occur at the outlet to Big Eel Creek. These TGD-listed features are in good condition and not threatened by the track (Site 28: Tarkine High-level Cobble Beaches).

Flora: Beach fringed by marram grassland (FMG) with some sea spurge infestations in north; culturally induced Isolepis nodosa sedgeland with an exotic grass element (FRG), Marram grassland in south (FMG). Significant species and communities: Poa rodwayi grasslands (GTL, northwest variant) on stable dunes immediately inland of track, with the listed species Euphrasia collina subsp. tetragona, Lotus australis, Pterostylis cucullata, Scaevola albida and Vittadinia australasica var. oricola. Schoenoplectus pungens sedgeland (ASF) and degraded Melaleuca ericifolia swamp forest (NME) in poorly drained area between Big Eel Creek and Possum Banks.

Fauna: The grasslands at Possum Banks are an important food source for orange-bellied and blue-winged parrots, while Carex appressa sedgelands at the margins of Melaleuca ericifolia copses provide potential habitat for the Marrawah skipper.

308: Buried soil horizon in main blowout at Possum 308: The same site 4.5 months later. Banks, February 2006.