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Routledge Handbook of Education in India Debates, Practices, and Policies Krishna Kumar

Indian higher education

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 Philip G. Altbach Published online on: 17 Oct 2017

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 cerned. In the matter of language, con too, English is has body maintained examining its an dominance. What as has role changed its as far as unchanged remarkably remained has university the medium of interaction play in determining the quality of teaching and learning. The Indian and research on the role that pedagogic issues such as the social composition of the classroom or reflection of bereft largely remained has India in sector education higher the Apparently, goal. moral a as inclusivity of discussion the permits separation of kind This quality. of issues from different considered are access of issues Customarily, at. looked normally is education higher vided by institutions of higher education. However, that is not the way the debate on quality in in India. This, by itself, can be regarded as a factor of quality in the experience of learning pro inter for applied commonly national comparison. are that quality of standards the meet India in universities few so why appreciate to required is generation its and knowledge on perspective theoretical larger the in raised issues context of curriculum design and conceptual the pedagogic and examining practices discussed in Part II. A with conjunction in considered be to need discusses policy-­ chapter The obvious). are I, Part in discussed education, school with lels draws the reader’s attention to the institutional diversity that prevails in higher education (paral also chapter This economy. global the in importance growing its despite India elude to tinues con role this in excellence why is on focuses Altbach question The India. modern in history short relatively a has system education higher the of aspect an as generation knowledge Thus, performed mainly as examining universities and degree-­ while, a For time. that since India in universities of development the apparatus this needs social recognised in the mid-­ limited the and apparatus state colonial emerging the serve to up ates those ancient institutions from India’s present-­ with relationship their about separ – society for implications obvious with – break chronological vast a case, any In society. less even and have functioned, not they do how we about India, knowledge in precise existed universities Although India. in conditions colonial under Universities are crucial to the modern occupational structure and forms of knowledge that arose The advent of universities in India is a major facet of modernity and institutionalised education. The other three chapters included in this section explore the social base of higher education nineteenth century. This section opens with Philip Altbach’s chapter on Universities andsociety granting roles; teaching was added later, and research later still. day universities. The latter were formally set related matters this matters related Part IV 203 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 to playinbuildingademocraticsocialorder. able been have colleges and universities that role limited the of indicator an also is distribution Inequitable tribes. and strata, caste lower women, among education higher of distribution able demonstrate how large a constraint is placed chapters upon these the level, quality any at of experience higher educational of education quality by of the factor a inequit is inclusivity as much that higher education is supposed to provide to all sections of society on an equitable basis. In as tribal groups continue to be a victim of deprivation of opportunities for knowledge and mobility that show Data competition. intense of to site a become Owing has education higher sector. expansion, limited the of expansion meagre the in problem the locates Xaxa India. of Tribes education. Here, Virginius Xaxa examines the status of higher education among the Scheduled other higher obtaining in The groups tribal of experience the education. discusses part this in higher theme this on chapter in justice social with equality of goal Constitutional the suing social of perspective the justice. More specifically, this chapter examines the from provision of caste quotas as a means of pur performance and enrolment university examines Deshpande associating certain areas of knowledge with men and others with women. The chapter by Satish women and the areas of knowledge in which it occurs. The chapter underscores the practice of of presence the both at looks She education. higher in women of participation the on focuses social base and the change it has undergone in the recent past. The chapter by Karuna Chanana which theextantnarrowbasekeepspedagogicenvironmentstagnant. in manner the and universities of base social the with do to has that problem core the bypass remedies These universities. private and education distance or online as such remedies new of relevance the objectively more assess to us enables also and India in faces education higher that to ahandfulofinstitutions. restricted is change of kind this but concerns, social larger accommodated have areas certain in universities and colleges have become more inclusive. To an extent, the curriculum and syllabi the Castes, Scheduled the for reservation Scheduled Tribes, and of the Other Backward Classes. In terms of policy their presence in the classroom, the and education school of expansion is the composition of the clientele, and the two main reasons to which this change is related are Universities andsociety 204 The chapters included in this part are aimed at assisting the reader to assess the size of the of size the assess to reader the assisting at aimed are part this in included chapters The set-­ institutional an of picture bigger This up helps us grasp both the nature of the problem the of nature the both grasp us helps up - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 population growth and an expansion of primary and secondary education meant that higher that meant education secondary and primary of expansion an and growth population universities couldbefoundthroughout India. and colleges areas, metropolitan in located were institutions education higher most and elite urban small a to limited was access While standard. international of were which of few a leges, col undergraduate of number respectable a and top, the at institutions specialised and versities uni reputable several with system, education higher mature fairly a developed had India small, diate links to the outside world, access to scientific information, and textbooks. Although fairly near-­ the was English them. on ise ent thanmanyothercountries(Carnoy sion been accompanied by improvement in overall quality, and in this respect India is no differ increased by expan rapid magnified has country no In growth. population been overall with combined access, for have demand challenges India’s access. for population the of segments growing by demand unstoppable an of result the is that enrolments education higher of sion any oftheinternationalhighereducationrankings(Altbach2006). on well score universities India’s of none and – mediocrity of sea a is overall system the lence, to complete a degree. Quality is generally poor – although there are significant islands of excel Shiksha Abhiyan 2013). Dropout rates are high, with many of those who enter the system failing per cent by 2017 and 32 per cent by 2022 – an extremely ambitious target (Rashtriya Uchchtar 18–22-year-­ the of are located in India – many of the colleges are uneconomically small. Approximately 20 per cent and 574 universities. It is estimated that more than half of the world’s post-­ post- ­ in enrolled students million 20 with enrolments, in States United the overtaken recently having numbers, student of terms in education realities are higher contradictory. India, itself, in 2015, India has the Like world’s second-­ development. social and economic behind lagged period, this of much for has, development education country’s the The time. over development reflects country’s and variegated, complex, is 1960s the since education higher Indian of saga The Though the system grew fairly rapidly throughout most of the post-­ the of most throughout rapidly fairly grew system the Though India had several advantages at the time of Independence in 1947, but was unable to capital India, like many developing countries, has been swamped by massification – the rapid expan old age cohort is in post-­ in is cohort age old Twenty-­ Indian highereducation universal medium of higher education, giving India imme India giving education, higher of medium universal secondary education, attending more than 35,500 colleges 35,500 than more attending education, secondary et al. 2013). secondary education – with a goal of enrolling 25 enrolling of goal a with – education secondary first-century challenges largest higher education system P Independence period, Independence hilip secondary institutions

G. Altbach 13 205 1 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 establishment tobuild. education higher a of structure basic the had India – cent per 1 under well – cohort age the of ented. The quality of this small system was relatively high. While serving only a tiny proportion ori scientifically or vocationally were few although institutions, education higher of array sive countries inthemid-­ developing independent newly of standards the By students. 270,000 than fewer of enrolment the needsofcolonialadministration,ratherthanemerging Indiansocietyandindustry. serve to suited were universities and colleges the of graduates the that ensure to sought British The movement. Independence the spearheaded Indians educated since failures, part, in least at were, goals these of Both graduates. unemployed or intelligentsia subversive a of emergence the prevent to order in small enrolments keep to efforts were there Indeed, Indians. from was tion, and the impetus for the modest expansion of higher education in India during colonial rule educa higher on resources few spent authorities colonial The 1966). (Ashby Africa in sessions The policy. British and were more supportive of higher education in patterns India than they were in their British colonial pos to conformed institutions academic of structure and isation of the colonial policy, ensuring that the language of instruction was English and that the organ not prevent its establishment. After a laissez-­ sub-­ (Ashby 1966). from absent largely was education higher example, For pared to most developing countries, India has had a longer history of modern higher education. education was expanded beyond Oxford and Cambridge in England (Kaur 2003). When com higher that time same the around – 1858 in Madras and Calcutta, Bombay, in established were were founded – significantly by Indian initiatives rather than by the colonial rulers. Universities of most other countries. British-­ over much of the subcontinent lasted for several centuries – longer than the colonial experience Like much of the developing world, India experienced a long period of colonialism. British rule A challenginghistory a patternofdevelopmentover time. These are presented in no special order of importance. They are, however, linked and constitute continuing economicgrowth(AltbachandJayaram2010). ‘demo its of graphic dividend’ of a large advantage population of young people who the could, if well educated, spearhead lose may India is improved, it not is Indeed, education education. higher if higher that argued in improvements on effect much had has success economic and the link between higher education and recent economic growth, there is little evidence that most developingcountries,overallqualitydeclinedasenrolmentsincreased. In education. higher on not and education primary on placed was emphasis development, and education concerning thinking global with line In demand. with up keep not could education Philip G. 206 elite tiny a for designed remains largely in place 2015. and British the from inherited system education higher the of ture existing of advantage take to possible strengths and to build not for both quantity and quality. was For example, the basic it organisational struc that meant education, higher on pressures At the time of Independence, there were 19 universities and 695 colleges, with an overall an with colleges, 695 and universities 19 were there Independence, of time the At did they India, in education higher of supporters avid not general in were British the While education. higher Indian characterise that trends broad the of some examining worth is It ‘takeoff education higher India’s about years few past the in rhetoric considerable Despite The challenge of coping with the demands for expansion, combined with political and other Altbach twentieth century,Indiawaswellsituated.Ithadarelatively comprehen style higher education dates back to 1823, when several colleges faire period, higher education was organised as part aaa Arc utl h 1960s the until Africa Saharan ------’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 in higher education. India’s first prime minister, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was sympathetic to the to sympathetic was Nehru, Jawaharlal Pt minister, prime first India’s education. higher in instruction of medium the and – language national the as Hindi of use the for strongly argued Gandhi Mahatma policy. language about India modern of founders the among disagreements fundamental were There education. higher to access have not did Indians of majority huge the in literacy English for India, statistics it was accurate quite unlikely that no even 5 are per cent of there Indians were While literate in English English. in 1950. exclusively Thus, almost was At the time of Independence, the language of instruction in higher education throughout India Language: acontinuingdilemma a modestpercentageofIndians. populations of the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada combined – but still be arealisticnumber.Thisconstitutes morethan100millionEnglishspeakers– the to seems there While India. in conveys medium English that mobility economic and social the they are at a significant disadvantage in the higher education sector and unable to gain access to a extent some to remains it and foreign language. A large majority of Indians do not speak and are Indians, not literate in English – thus of tongue mother the not is English well. as tages tribute directly to the global knowledge network (Altbach 2007). Yet there are some disadvan con may Indians students. international enrol easily more can universities Indian enhanced. is tion. Professors and students can communicate easily with peers in other countries, and mobility affected thehighereducationsectorintwenty-­ in language Indian higher education. Its role, key always strong, has increased in importance as the globalisation has as emerged has English ended, entirely not has education higher Indian munication in journals and on the internet takes place in English. While the language debate in in functions com scholarly most and English, sector by dominated entirely is sector research The well. as English education higher private the of Much Management. of Institutes Indian the and Technology of Institutes Indian the as such – institutions selective highly the in and increased in Indian higher education, especially in the more prestigious universities and colleges was, andremains,variedthroughoutthecountry. education higher in practice and policy language Thus, policy. state the despite English in tion English and the regional language. of In combination some cases, a specificused universities preferredfew toA retain instruc policies. their in varied India of parts other in States languages. regional of use the permitted Some education. higher for language main the as English tinued and scientific work. The states varied considerably in language policy. Most southern states con instruction of language the most as English use to institutions, continued government, central research the by sponsored specialised and universities the of all Almost education. graduate government made some efforts to produce and translate textbooks into Hindi for use in under of policiesindifferentpartsthecountry. power to decide on language issues. These post-­ considerable had which states, the to largely education over authority gave constitution federal some and India’s English. favoured language’ others while ‘link education, in a languages regional of as use the English emphasised favoured thus, and, Hindi to opposed were the of country parts other some in and south the in leaders political Many English. of use continued be no accurate estimate of the proportion of Indians who speak English, 10 per cent seems to The traditional role of English has given India significant advantages in global higher educa Without any reliable statistics, it is certainly the case that the use of the English language has Some of the states in the ‘Hindi belt’ in north India stressed the use of Hindi, and the central Independence realities resulted in a hodgepodge first century. Indian highereducation 207 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 fields and in part due to the low quality of many degree holders. Even in fields such as manage problem in India. This situation, in part, is due to too many graduates for available jobs in these Premji University,theAshokaandShivNadar University,showmuchpromise. several new non- age of the total. As with much in India, there are exceptions to these generalisations. For example, religious organisations, and a small number of others are quite good – but these are a small percent established colleges managed by state authorities, some of those established by Christian and other governmentwell-smallnumberreceivequality.nothatofquitelow­ little funding,Aor of are dling quality education. The vast majority of colleges, particularly newer private ‘unaided’ colleges by state governments, 111 private universities, and 129 ‘deemed’ universities provide poor to mid provide mediocre to poor quality instruction. Most of the 286 public universitiessponsored that directlyare managedby universities the other central several Delhi, government, New in and University Nehru some Jawaharlal colleges as such offer colleges, affiliated high quality teaching – most 35,500colleges universities affiliatedthe of few them. most notably While to a – those without the and universities 574 the attend students Indian of majority large A found. be can excellence of islandssome which mediocrity,in of sea a characterisedby be caneducation higherIndian The seaofmediocrity international conceptsandpracticesisnothelpful. from system the insulating and – ideas good needs India Clearly, education. higher Indian on impact positive a have would market the of rigours the that idea the and door, open an favour ments, partnerships,andothers.Thus,thedoorisperhapshalf-­ joint-­ of number a including – place in put been have less-­ many However, ‘market’. education Indian the in despite considerable overseas interest – institutions foreign attracting for unfavourable sufficiently are tiatives ini other and campuses branch establishing for conditions the passed, is law the if Even viders. pro education other and universities foreign to closed largely remains India thus and delayed, asked and world the to market education India’s open to proposed 2012, to 2009 from development education should engage with the rest of the world. Kapil Sibal, the minister for human resource and otherforeignacademictransplantshavenotbeenallowed. Non-­ world. the citizens cannot of normally rest be hired the as to permanent members closed of academic largely staff, been and branch has campuses education higher Indian – India in as well as California in Valley Silicon example, for in, development economic and technological to significantly contributed have many and – study postgraduate for abroad gone many have Indians While protectionist. largely been has recently, until general in economy the as sector, Indian higher education has interacted gingerly with the rest of the world. The higher education Indian universitiesinaglobalised world Philip G. 208 itable result of massification and can be found Employers indicatethattheymust retrainmanyofthosetheydo hire. and universities are considered deficient in quality and poorly trained for the positions available. ment and engineering, where there is a demand from employers, graduates from many colleges Graduate unemployment in many fields, especially in art and science subjects, is a perennial a is subjects, science and art in especially fields, many in unemployment Graduate Others own. its on education higher developing off better is India that argued have Some higher Indian how concerning India in debate lively a been has there decade past the In To some extent, a decline in quality at the bottom tier of Indian higher education is an inev Parliament Altbach ­profit private universities established by wealthy philanthropists, such as the Azim to approve legislation for this purpose. However, the legislation was repeatedly worldwide degree programmes, franchised arrange franchised programmes, degree . Students with poorer academic quali open. formal arrangements formal ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 close to half of the total. This system also applies to faculty hiring in most fields, and contributes faculty slots – which can be filled only by these groups. The percentage that is reserved is often tribal castepopulations, lower as such groups, and ‘other backward castes’, and reserves a specific proportion of groups, admissions place – and disadvantaged historically specific identifies secondary school achievement, thus contributing to high dropout rates. The reservation system adequate without students for provided is help extra little while groups, these for relaxed are systemofthe time providing opportunities complex that did not exist the before. The existing modest India, admissions standards In higher education. to reservations policyfordisenfranchisedgroupshasexacerbatedthisproblem–whileatthesame access togain able are fications nin cdmc ae trce b nw da ad ih tnad. oee, t s sometimes is it However, standards. high and ideas new by attracted are academics Indian some that showing – salaries high exceptionally paying without – innovation and teaching of success. considerable – achieved have they funded – underfunded all lavishly are they standards are international by institutions indeed, successful these of none While states. the by no involvement or little with government, central the of initiatives all are They system. education higher These institutions have a significant degree of autonomy that is somewhat unique in the Indian universities. traditional the of structure the of outside are and small relatively are All ernment. including JawaharlalNehruUniversityinNewDelhi,arealso heldinhighregard. government, central the by supported universities national the of Several others. and Kolkata, in Institute Statistical Indian the Mumbai), in (both Sciences Social of Institute Tata the and include the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, These others. many are There Management. of Institutes Indian and Technology of Institutes Indian the are institutions these of known best The universities. traditional the to ideas ative outside the established university structure. Planners were unwilling to entrust new and innov high-­ competitive, Despite the immense problems of the Indian higher education system, a small sector of globally Islands ofexcellence improved ormodified,essentialimprovementinIndianhighereducationwillnotbepossible. eaucracy of the affiliating system remains the core of higher education; and untilbur itentrenched isThe limited. significantly been has implementation but degrees, own their offer and sities put in place, such as permitting some of the best colleges to become independent of the univer been have reforms Some problems. their of recognition widespread despite century, a half for unchanged virtually been have institutions these governance, and role, structure, their of terms quasi-­ are many and poor, quite often is colleges these of quality overall the Again, degrees. offer to able thus and universities with affiliated are and decades several past the in emerged have fields other and technology, information engineering, in colleges undergraduate ‘unfunded’ of sands Thou quality. lesser of most with picture, mixed similarly a present universities private New established. well are ones older the of some are although – universities’ quality poor ‘deemed to modest the of institutions of Many system. the of bottom the at mostly – landscape tion the requiredgroupsseekemployment. to a shortage of qualified teachers, since in many cases an insufficient number of applicants from All of these successful institutions were able to attract professors committed to high standards These institutions share several attributes. They are all public and funded by the central gov In reform. to resistant proved have colleges affiliated their and universities traditional The post-­ the onto institutions of types new many brought also has Expansion for-profit institutions. quality post-­ quality secondary institutions exists. It is significant that all of them are them of all that significant is It exists. institutions secondary Indian highereducation secondary educa secondary 209 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 Massification requires a higher education establishment, with institutions serving different pur different serving institutions with establishment, education higher a requires Massification The necessityofsystems has notbeensuccessful,despitearangeofgoodproposalsover theyears. planning education higher that say to fair is it – funding inadequate and change, of mentation responsibility for higher education at the central and state levels, inadequate authority for imple initiatives andprovideacentralfocusforplanning,research, innovation. missionHigherofEducation Researchand willbringtogether number centralaof government played an active role in large-­ somesmall- planninghighereducationandcentralofthedevelopedgovernmentcontrol hasunderthe of – strategy inthe‘VibrantGujarat’project. development state’s the of part as education higher on focused recently has Gujarat and ment, made some effort. Kerala has attempted to think systematically about higher education develop have few A education. higher of expansion for demand the with up keep to tried simply have states the general, In level. state the at innovation or planning of evidence little is there states, other thoughtfulsuggestionsontheshelf. make it unlikely that the 12th Plan’s level recommendations will be government implemented – central joining the many the at priorities new and Commission Planning the of reorganising government’s Modi The education. higher to focus comprehensive some gives time first the for Plan 12th current The provided. funds and outlined were initiatives occasionally although five-­ Commission’s The Planning applied. comprehensively been any have all at case no in but implemented, partly been ful reform, development, and improvement. Over time, elements of some of these reports have and recommendations for the future. These reports have recommended many ideas for thought well-­ latest the is Mission), Education in Committee) (Yashpal Education Higher (National Abhiyan Shiksha Uchchtar Rashtriya 2013 the effort, recent most The 2009. Higher of Rejuvenation and Renovation on Advise to 1948, and including the National Knowledge Commission Report in 2007 and the Committee in Report) (Radhakrishnan Commission Education University the with perhaps starting years, high-­ dozen a half least At Indian higher education has not failed to create a ‘world-­ The failureofplanning a tinyfractionofthestudentswhotakenationalentranceexaminationsfortheseschools. they and some of the others may be the most selective institutions in the world, accepting only difficulties in recruiting. These top institutions also attract the best students in India – and indeed ­difficult to attract top talent – and some of the Indian Institutes of Technology have experienced Philip G. 210 degree universities, and research universities – such as the University of California,to another. In California’s case, the public system has community colleges, four-­ Berkeley – that system, articulate different kinds of institutions various so that meet students and can move clientele from one different type demands.of to college The best organised cater examples, to such as the renowned logically California organised public higher are education that missions and poses s rsl o dvdd oto – ak f oriain mn te ifrn aece with agencies different the among coordination of lack – control divided of result a As The University Grants Commission – responsible at the national level for funding, innovation, the of hands the in is education higher of supervision and funding the of most Although Altbach ­scaleprogrammes curriculum,in teaching,largenot otherandhasandareas, bybut level commissions have issued intelligent reports over the past 60 past the over reports intelligent issued have commissions level scale innovation. The current proposal to establish a National Com er ln gnrly ad ite teto t hge education, higher to attention little paid generally plans year documented and thoughtful analysis of current realities current of analysis thoughtful and documented class’ system because of a lack of ideas. year and master’s year and master’s - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 the central government. India’s 35 states have little in common and range from Uttar Pradesh, Uttar from range and common in little have states 35 India’s government. central the with authority some and states of hands the in education higher for responsibility the of much with system, federal a is India time. over evolved have systems informal although levels, state creep’ andensuringthatinstitutionsstayfocusedontheirestablishedmission. tiescontrolmissionsthe budgets andinstitutionstheof varioustheatdeterringlevels – ‘mission ate levels, provide access, and ensure that the various societal needs are met. Government authori permits, can transfer up to a different type of institution. Systems of this type hold costs at appropri offer doctorates. Students may enter one type of school and, if the quality of their academic work than some other rapidly expanding economies and below European levels of expenditure. From post-­ on product domestic gross its of cent Higher education has never been adequately funded. In 2011–12 India spent a modest 1.22 per A patternofinadequate investment its goalsofquality,access,andthecreationaworld-­ fulfil to unable be will India education, higher of aspects other and institutions, other and leges appointment of vice-­ tutions areoftenlocalpowercentresandclearlyseenasvaluable sourcesofpatronage. sought-­ politics isnotideologicalbutratherregionalorcaste-­ the not, than canturn often More uncommon. not campuspolitics is life cases, academic normal of disruption Inextreme and violent, life. campus infuse may infighting and intrigue Political considerations. academic than political by more determined are decisions Academic politicised. often are unions Student politics. campus in engaged frequently are machines ical Even thecentraluniversitieshaveoccasionallybeenenmeshedinpolitics. jobs to supporters. The location of universities is sometimes influenced by state or local politics. and access providing of way a and machine patronage a as leaders political by established often Indian higher education, much to its detriment, is infused with politics at all levels. Colleges are Politics higher of needs diverse education canberationally met. increasingly the that ensure to order in differentiated and organised inating bodiesinplace. small a only However, coord level. appropriate have and councils implemented fully have Kerala, as such states, of number state the at planning and policy higher rational more towards the IITsaretreatedseparatelyfrommainstreamcollegesanduniversities. high-­ specialised The planning. without largely place taken also has demic staff. The rapid expansion of undergraduate arts and sciences and also research- ­ a professional have colleges few and research, for budgets adequate receive level state the at have a research mission; some are better able to engage in research than others. Few universities with a population of 200 million, to small states with just a few million. All of India’s universities India has never developed a clearly articulated academic system, at neither the central nor central the neither at system, academic articulated clearly a developed never has India As long as political calculations enter into decisions about the location of universities, the universities, of location the about decisions into enter calculations political as long As Universities and colleges, which employ considerable numbers of staff and offer access to a highly University and college elections are frequently politicised. National, regional, and local polit India requires, at both the state and central levels, higher education systems that are rationally The recent centrally supported initiative to establish state higher education councils is a move after commodity – an educational credential – are valuable political engines. Academic insti chancellors and other academic leaders, approval for establishing new col secondary education – a more modest investment modest more a – education secondary based. class highereducationsystem. quality institutions such as such institutions quality Indian highereducation oriented aca oriented 211 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 produce research: they have modest teaching responsibilities and much greater autonomy. Indeed, over manyaspectsofteaching,curriculum,andexaminations is regulatedbytheuniversity. teachers (Altbach 1979). For the high-largethan autonomy majoritymore littleof collegesa only thathaveteachers collegeare that affiliatedobserved been tohas universities,It control autonomy and only modest control over what they teach, and teaching loads tend to be fairly high. participation in college governance or for opportunities few provide and structure in hierarchical are colleges Most regulations. service part tosignificantsalaryincreasesinthepastfewyears. college even Yet, teachers can students. in general live in a middle-­ postgraduate teach and hold departments who university minority in small the appointments and colleges undergraduate in teach who professionals demic aca the of majority large the between significant are salaries and conditions, working status, salaries mustbesupplementedbyadditionalincome. academic where China, including countries, other many to contrast sharp in is This centres. middle-­ a in live generally can they aries, 28 countries (Altbach upper-­ the into fall measures, parity power purchasing to according countries other with compared when Salaries, exist. not does system tenure formal a although security, job have typically Academics colleges. private the especially academics have full-­ oping country standards, the Indian academic profession is relatively well-­ At the heart of any academic institution is the professor. By international and particularly devel The fallandriseofthe guru adequate funding,highereducationcanneitherexpandappropriatelynorimproveinquality. Without recommendations. the implement to done been has Little quality. in improvement reports stressed the significance of the universities and encouraged both expansion of access and (2007) Commission’s Knowledge National The priority. greater received has education higher education. post-­ India’s of policy-­ of concern much for Indeed, education. education secondary higher and than primary and rather literacy basic with concerned more were case any in responsibility fell to the states, many of which were unable to provide the needed support – and the of most case, any In difficult. was coordination since detriment, additional an was ernment for massaccesshasbeeninadequate. expansion and access mass high-­ meaningful a up building of than rather demands the meeting on placed was emphasis beginning, the Philip G. 212 and administerexaminations, andcarryoutother responsibilitiesoftheaffiliating system. academic the of generation next profession.the Many university educating departments in work closely role with the colleges toorganisekey curricula, a set play thus, and, students graduate post supervise also staff University favourable. more also are Salaries teachers. college by not and almost all of the published research by Indian academics is produced by university-­ The small minority of academics with appointments in university departments is expected to to expected is departments university in appointments with academics of minority small The civil by bound is and bureaucracy of levels high by characterised is profession academic The Yet, the academic profession faces some serious problems (Jayaram 2003). The differences in twenty-­ the In The divided responsibility for supporting higher education by the states and the central gov Altbach first century, with the beginning of the Indian economic transformation, Indianeconomic the of the beginning with century, first makers at all levels was for literacy and basic education, rather than higher than rather education, basic and literacy for was levels all at makers time appointments, service conditions are poor in most private institutions, et al. 2012). While Indian academics will not become rich with their sal decision making class style, based on their academic salaries, due in large class style, at least outside of the major metropolitan major the of outside least at style, class middle ranks of a 2012 study of academic salaries in salaries academic of study 2012 a of ranks middle quality university sector, and even financial support financial even and sector, university quality . College teachers, particularly, possess little needne itr, the history, Independence off. While most Indian based academics ­school - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 pared to academics in other developing countries, Indian post-­ is responsible. that system reward any than institution the of tradition and culture the more is it Technology, of Institutes Indian the in as such norm, the is quality top Where work. inadequate punishing or performance good rewarding of way no is there and part, most the for service of rank and performance is seen as marginal are allowed to continue. Salaries are also allocated by the length ity and rank. Few, if any, efforts evaluate productivity in teaching or research, and those whose world-­ create to help may – funds as well as ideas allowed innovative with endowed and sustained, autonomy, ­sufficient if – institutions new These education. on research and education teacher improve to attempting is and system education the on focuses example, for University, Premji non-­ creating them of small number of civic-­ particularly colleges aredirectlyinvolvedinlegitimisingandsupervising this newsector. is case Indian The well. as suffered private unaided new the to affiliation provide that universities sector public the since complex, has quality and lost, been often has sector private new the of direction the over control Public void. the into stepped has sector private the and access, mass for funding provide to unable or unwilling been has state The education. aspects oftheinstitutionsarenotobvious. universities to effectively supervise the large numbers of colleges, particularly when the financial private colleges are affiliated to a university in their region; and it is increasingly difficult for the unaided The hierarchy. academic the of ranks lower the in are all, not although Most, parent. trans very not often is governance and management although profit’, ‘for be to seem versities also private institutions, receiving no government funds. Some of the unaided colleges and uni are universities – pattern normal the of outside universities as institutions some of recognition government for arrangement an to refers other term this – ‘deemed’ and the of many fees Similarly, charges. donation) required of kind (a capitation other levy institutions some capped, are fees tuition Where funds. of sources private other or charges tuition through funding, own their for responsible fully thus and ‘unaided’ are decades several past the in established colleges the most partestablishedbythestates. for institutions, public all were universities The institutions. ‘aided’ were thus and funds thropic societies, religious groups, or others. Most of these private philan colleges as received government such agencies private by managed and interests private by established were colleges combination of public and private institutions. Almost from the beginning, most undergraduate unique, internationally perhaps and curious, a been always has system education higher India’s An increasinglydominantprivatesector brightest’ arenotattractedtotheacademicprofession. and ‘best the that forexample, indicating – cent per 25 approximately ofTechnology, by understaffed are they that Indian Institutes report The supply. inshort are academics ­qualified the higher education system does not encourage academics to do their best work. Further, well- off – either in terms of salary or working conditions. Yet, for the most part, the organisation of The Indian academic profession is in a somewhat paradoxical situation (Patel 2012). Com 2012). (Patel situation paradoxical somewhat a in is profession academic Indian The Indian academics are seldom evaluated for their work. Their jobs depend mainly on longev A new trend in private higher education is emerging as well. In the past several decades, a decades, several past the In well. as emerging is education higher private in trend new A As in many countries, massification has contributed to the rise of the private sector in higher private the of Most 2009). (Agarwal years recent in dramatically changed has situation This class universities inIndia. minded philanthropists have begun to invest in higher education, several profit universities with high standards and a social mission. The Azim The mission. social a and standards high with universities profit secondary teachers are not badly Indian highereducation 213 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 institutions for massive investment and upgrading, significant reforms in management, govern management, in reforms significant upgrading, and investment massive for institutions world-­ become soon will universities existing India’s of any that unlikely quite seems It quality. in breakthrough a about optimistic be to possible not is it education, higher Indian contemporary of realities the Given The challenges ahead for improvement,Indiamaybeabletomoveforward. institutions have also proved successful. If these ideas and experiences could be used as templates commissions have pointed to a variety of ways forward. Small-­ world-­ build higher educationinIndia,iftheconditionsfortheirdevelopment areright. to possible is it that show clearly examples These teaching. undergraduate in excellence of levels high achieved have universities India’s to affiliated colleges of thousands the among number small a Further, system. academic established the of edges the around built were universities research and teaching specialised of group a and Management, of Institutes Indian Technology, of Institutes Indian education. higher Indian of soil inhospitable otherwise century, althoughitisnowcombinedwith‘brainexchange’(Saxenian2006). twenty-­ the in alive still is drain’ ‘brain the that say to fair is it Yet, companies. and leagues col Indian with works overseas, based group, larger somewhat a India, to return graduates of ating class leaves India and achieves remarkable accomplishments overseas. While a small number from the Indian Institutes of Technology are remarkable: a very high proportion of each gradu graduates concerning statistics The overseas. successful highly is and country the left talent this same timethesesystemshaveensuredstabilityinthecontextofcontinuingstress. the at but improving, from system the of segment the prevented doubt no have arrangements half-­ merly untouchable)communitieshaveallgainedgreateraccesstohighereducation. (for Dalit from people young especially and groups, disadvantaged areas, rural widened. from Students steadily been has access and steady, was expansion required, it support the receive post-­ While growth. population continuing account into taking half-­ first policy-­ India’s challenges. most measuresofhighereducationachievement. systems. When compared with two other BRIC nations, Brazil and China, India lags behind successful on most the with favourably compare not does India’s reality out, education higher points contemporary chapter this As mind. to spring would that India from anything if little is there education, higher in ideas’ ‘top or practices’ ‘best international for searching were one If What hasIndiadoneright? Philip G. 214 be luredbackfor aworthyandrealisticcause. a might that on diaspora a of advantage was significant the have does India it However, scale. small rather case that in although successful, be can this that shows Technology of Indian Institutes the of establishment The universities. existing of constraints the without new entirely institutions, create to successful more be might It required. be would areas other and ance, There is no shortage of ideas for improving higher education in India. Various reports and reports Various India. in education higher improving for ideas of shortage no is There post-­ of group impressive and visible but small A half-­ past the in talent remarkable produced has India past the over declined probably overall, has, education higher Indian of quality the While post-­ of context the in progress significant made has India time, same the At century, it has not collapsed. The rigidities of the affiliating system and the bureaucratic the and system affiliating the of rigidities The collapsed. not has it century, Altbach century of Independence and made significant progress in these areas, particularly areas, in these progress significant made and Independence of century class. Even if the Indian government identifies a dozen or so existing so or dozen a identifies government Indian the if Even class. makers stressed literacy and primary and secondary education in the in education secondary and primary and literacy stressed makers secondary institutions has flourished in the in flourished has institutions secondary century. The problem is that much of much that is problem The century. scale experiments and innovative secondary education did not did education secondary Independence class first - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 16:58 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315107929, chapter13, 10.4324/9781315107929.ch13 attention to continued expansion of post-­ 26 per cent and below the other BRIC countries. Thus, India will need to devote resources and 2012, India enrolled approximately 20 per cent of the relevant age cohort – well under China’s A fewofthenewnon-­ provide excellentundergraduateeducation,asdosomeprivatepostgraduateprofessionalcolleges. non-­ private traditional the of Many exist. solutions of elements Yet, problematic. been has good public the for sector private the harnessing far, so But, future. education higher Saxenian, AnnaLee. 2006. AnnaLee. Saxenian, Academic Incompatible Rashtriya Uchchtar Shiksha Abhiyan (National Universities, Higher Education Mission). 2013. New Delhi: Ministry of Indian of Underperformance Academic 2012. J. Pravin Patel, National KnowledgeCommission. 2007. Kaur, Kuldip.2003. Philip In India. in Profession Academic the of Decline The Guru: the of Fall The 2003. N. Jayaram, Kuhns, Katherine Froumin, Isak Dossani, Rafiq Dobryakova, Maria Loyalka, Prashant Martin, Carnoy, Ashby, Eric. 1966. eds. Pacheco, F. Iván and Androushchak, Gregory Yudkevich, Maria Reisberg, Liz G., Philip Altbach, Dividend?’ Demographic the Garner India ‘Can 2010. Jayaram. N. and G. Philip Altbach, 2007. Language’. Academic Dominating the as English Tongue: Imperial ‘The 2007. G. Philip Altbach, Altbach, PhilipG.2006.TinyattheTop, and Chitnis Suma In Bombay. in Teacher College The Guru: Distorted The 1979. G. Philip Altbach, Agarwal, Pawan.2009. References 1 Note greatest challengefacingIndianhighereducation. the is perhaps this – reformed and improved be must them to affiliated colleges of thousands graphic dividend’ and provide appropriate access and equity, the traditional universities and the – if manpower needs for the future are to be fulfilled. If India is to take advantage of its ‘demo world-­ of universities India willaccountformorethanhalfoftheworld’senrolmentgrowthby 2050. mission noted that 1,500 more universities will be needed. It has been estimated that China and n ale vrin f hs hpe ette ‘ World-­ ‘A entitled chapter this of version earlier An Higher Education (ed.), Agarwal Pawan in appeared Dilemma’ Century 21st India’s Education: The greatest challenge, of course, is continued expansion of the system to provide access. In India’s of part a be necessarily will sector private the challenges, the of enormity the to Due At the same time, India’s increasingly sophisticated economy will need some colleges and colleges some need will economy sophisticated increasingly India’s time, same the At Harvard University Press. Human ResourceDevelopment. Culture, andtheSocietalContext. Palgrave. ed., Altbach, Triumph oftheBRICS? 2013. Wang. Rong and Tilak, B.G. Jandhyala MA: HarvardUniversityPress. Routledge. 2012. 8 December. The EconomicandPoliticalWeekly. Philip Altbach,eds, aig h Poesrae A lbl oprsn f opnain n Contracts. and Compensation of Comparison Global A Professoriate: the Paying The Decline of the Guru: The Academic Profession in the Third World Third the in Profession Academic The Guru: the of Decline The (NewDelhi:Sage,2012),pp. 78–83. Universities: British, Indian, African: A Study in the Ecology of Higher Education. Higher EducationinIndia:1781–2003. The IndianAcademicProfession: Indian HigherEducation:EnvisioningtheFuture. class standing – institutions that can compete with the best in the world the in best the with compete can that institutions – standing class profit universitiesseemquitecommittedtotheireducationalmission. Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress. The New Argonauts: Regional Advantage in a Global Economy Global a in Advantage Regional Argonauts: New The 42:3608–3611. Social Change Report totheNation. Wilson Quarterly secondary education. The National Knowledge Com 42: 9–29. nvriy xaso i a hnig lbl Economy: Global Changing a in Expansion University 5–44 NewDelhi:UniversityGrantsCommission. (Autumn,2006): 49–51. . NewDelhi:NationalKnowledge Commission. ls Cuty ihu World-­ without Country Class Delhi:Macmillan. NewDelhi: Sage. Indian highereducation A Half-­ A : 199–230 : . Cambridge, MA: Cambridge, . Century of Indian of Century profit colleges colleges profit e York: New ls Higher Class . New York: New Cambridge, The

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