Sharing the Future

SUMMARY REPORT

SHARING THE FUTURE WORKERS AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 2020s Summary of the final report of the Commission on Workers and Technology Community is a modern trade union with over a hundred years’ experience standing up for working people. With roots in traditional industries, Community now represents workers across the UK in various sectors.

The Changing Work Centre was established by the Fabian Society and the trade union Community in February 2016 to explore progressive ideas for the modern world of work. Through in-house and commissioned research and events, the centre is looking at the changing world of work, attitudes towards it and how the left should respond. The centre is chaired by Yvette Cooper MP and supported by an advisory panel of experts and politicians.

The Fabian Society is an independent left-leaning think tank and a democratic membership society with 8,000 members.

A Community and Fabian Society report This report represents not the collective Community general views of Community and the Fabian secretary: Roy Rickhuss Society, but only the views of the individual Fabian Society general commissioners and authors. The responsibility secretary: Andrew Harrop of the publishers is limited to approving its publications as worthy of consideration within the labour movement. First published in December 2020

Cover image © Johavel, vector/Shutterstock.

2 / Summary report The Commission on Workers and Technology CONTENTS was established in August 2018 by Community and the Fabian Society. It was chaired by Rt Hon 4 Introduction Yvette Cooper MP who led the commission’s work across its life. The other commissioners were Hasan 7 Chapter one: Bakhshi, Sue Ferns, Paul Nowak, Katie O’Donovan, The Covid-19 crisis Roy Rickhuss and Professor Margaret Stevens. The commission’s aim has been to take a ‘worker’s 9 Chapter two: eye view’ of technology change in the workplace, and A fair share in the rewards especially the automation of existing job tasks. It has looked in granular detail at case-study occupations 12 Chapter three: and sectors to draw conclusions on what needs The support to adapt to happen to make new workplace technologies an opportunity not a threat for typical workers. 14 Chapter four: The commission was hosted by the Changing Work Better jobs Centre, a joint initiative by Community and the Fabian Society. Community generously provided financial 16 Chapter five: support for the commission as well as invaluable Making workers’ voices heard access to workplaces and workers; the Fabian Society provided the core research and secretariat capacity, 18 The commissioners in the shape of Josh Abey and Olivia Bailey (until February 2020). Colleagues from both 19 Endnotes organisations made up the wider project team. The lead authors of this report were Josh Abey and Andrew Harrop. They were extensively supported by co-authors Natasha Collett, Lauren Crowley, Alastair Holder Ross, Anna Mowbray and Luke Raikes. The full version of the report is available at www.fabians.org.uk.

Technology is already fast changing the world of work – creating remarkable new opportunities but also serious dangers of widening inequality and injustice unless we act. The Covid-19 crisis makes those dangers much more acute. Government, employers and unions cannot stand back and watch while inequality grows. We need urgent action now to make sure all workers benefit and that we use technology to rebuild a fairer, stronger, greener economy instead. That is what this report is all about.

Yvette Cooper MP, chair of the Commission on Workers and Technology

3 / Summary report Introduction

Covid-19 and the future of work technology in order to survive. Technology is Some people have seen unexpected im- These are extraordinary times. Covid-19 has saving and changing jobs that would other- provements in the way they work this year. taken loved ones, upended lives and will wise have been destroyed by Covid-19, and But those on low incomes have both been have an enduring impact on our future in we are seeing its huge potential to improve most likely to lose out in the short term and ways we cannot yet foresee. The economic work and boost productivity for the future. are at greater risk from the long-term con- shockwaves are hitting communities across But at the same time, the Covid-19 crisis is sequences of the crisis. Unless we act, work- the country and will continue to do so for dramatically accelerating the pace of job dis- place inequality stands to widen because of years to come. ruption and dislocation, something that had both Covid-19 and accelerating automation. Even when the public health crisis has previously been happening at a much slower All of this makes it far more urgent to passed, after so much dislocation the world speed. Jobs in some sectors – like high street address the work and technology issues of work will not just snap back to how it was retail or hospitality – face a ‘double whammy’ our commission has been considering for before. Instead, we are probably entering from Covid-19 and accelerating technology the past two years. We already had choices a decade of unsettling economic transition. change: we found that 61 per cent of jobs to face as a nation, over how to shape the Just like the many structural changes the furloughed in the first half of 2020 were in impact of technology on work for better or UK has experienced over the course of our sectors at high risk of automation.1 worse. But with Covid-19 these challenges industrial history, this one is likely to bring have become immediate and pressing. new opportunities but also to be most pain- 61 per cent of jobs ful for the people and the places that can A crossroads for jobs least afford it. furloughed in the first half The future of work could go in two direc- Technology will be at the forefront of tions after the Covid-19 crisis. whatever transition comes in the months of 2020 were in sectors at In one possible future, jobs get worse as and years ahead. For two centuries tech- technology gets better. Millions of people nology change has been reshaping how we high risk of automation face greater insecurity, harder work, more work; building up and tearing down differ- surveillance, and worse pay and condi- ent industries and sources of employment Many of the jobs put on hold by public tions. They are shut out of decisions without across our villages, towns and cities. And at health measures will not come back even rights or representation and are denied the times of crisis, technology-driven change when better times return. Spending patterns training to adapt to new jobs and prepare can be at its fastest. are shifting permanently towards digitally for the future. In this world, only a minor- During 2020 digital technologies have based consumption, and to cope with new ity of workers share in the new wealth and enabled transformations in the way we conditions businesses are adopting technol- opportunities that technologies create, and work that have been unprecedented in their ogies that frequently replace human tasks, people who lack the skills needed in future speed and scope, with employers of every even if they also have the potential to create jobs are shut out. The scars from a painful shape and size innovating and investing in new or better jobs. Covid-19 recession run deep – and those

4 / Summary report who lose their jobs struggle to find good to respond to the crisis by driving positive ers are drawn from experts, businesses and new work. Inequalities with respect to earn- change. The way we have had to react dur- trade unions, and the focus of our work has ings, working conditions and control get ing 2020 shows us how fast we can change been on reserved UK policy (although there wider, and the people and places with least and how radical we can be when it is need- are also lessons in our findings and propos- are hardest hit. In our work as a commis- ed. Building back better means using this as als for decision makers in Northern Ireland, sion, we have already glimpsed this dismal a moment to reset the economy: a chance Scotland and Wales). future in parts of the labour market today. to force the pace on ambitious new agen- We examined how technology is chang- But there is a second, more optimistic fu- das from decarbonisation to strengthening ing everyday jobs now and in the next few ture too. Technology change can be a huge our public services, from a skills revolution years, hearing from hundreds of people force for good. We need it to solve Covid-19, to reducing inequality and improving all our in different jobs in different sectors of the support our ageing population, make our working lives. economy across the country. Other reports economies more productive, fund and im- This is a moment where politicians, have looked at the future of work over prove our public services, and deal with the workers and business leaders can shape the a much longer time frame. This report is fo- crisis of climate change. We can use tech- future together. But it needs active leader- cused on jobs and the labour market in the nological innovation to make our country ship. In previous eras of major technologi- short and medium term, and we have delib- fairer, stronger, cleaner and greener. We cal and economic change it took decades erately taken a workers’ eye view. have seen that in the way smartphone apps, for new legislation and new institutions to During our work, we sought answers to video conferencing, cloud computing and emerge to tackle injustice and to make sure a series of big questions: responsive algorithms have helped millions the rewards were fairly shared. In the midst of people keep working safely from home or of a global crisis, we cannot afford to wait • How can we ensure that technology nar- at a distance throughout the Covid-19 crisis. that long. We need to start preparing for the rows rather than widens inequality, and That better, fairer future – where tech- future now. that it generates prosperity to be shared nology makes work safer, more flexible and by all? more productive – can be achieved. In the Our commission past each new wave of technology has in The Commission on Workers and Tech- • What action is needed so that technol- time created more new jobs and more bet- nology was established in August 2018. It ogy change leads to jobs getting better ter jobs than those that went before. Today, is chaired by Yvette Cooper MP and host- not worse? on average, jobs are safer and higher qual- ed by the Changing Work Centre, a joint ity than they were a generation ago. And research initiative from Community union • What do we need to do to support the majority of people we spoke to for our and the Fabian Society. Our commission- people to adapt to change at work? commission were positive about the capacity of technology to improve their work. But we need to act.

Leadership The Covid-19 crisis forces us to make an active choice between these two paths. We cannot sit back. As a country we have made big choices about the future of work many times before in our 250-year industrial history – the passing of the Factory Acts, the creation of trade unions, the building of the welfare state. The shape of our economy is not deter- mined by uncontrollable technological forces, but by the decisions taken in workplaces, boardrooms, communities and in politics. We can create policies, partnerships and plans to deal with the dual challenges of Covid-19 and accelerated technology change; to ensure that the quality of work improves, that rewards are fairly shared, that workers get a voice in change, and that everyone is equipped to adapt and make the most of new opportunities as work is transformed. After Covid-19, we need to build back Commissioners visiting an Asda better. Government, businesses, unions and warehouse in Normanton communities all have opportunities now

5 / Summary report Siemens in Congleton

• How should workers get a say and how In chapter 2 we look at prospects for ples of technology being used to exploit, should government, employers and trade technology and inequality as the economy dehumanise and dominate. We recom- unions work together to shape the adop- recovers. We find that new technology is mend measures and safeguards to make tion of workplace technology? needed to boost productivity and pay, but sure technology is used to improve work there is a significant risk that it will lead to and protect people’s rights. The Covid-19 crisis and the new recession inequalities widening unless we act, as peo- Finally, in chapter 5, we look at whether has brought a fresh urgency to all these ple with low incomes and low skills are at workers are getting a say when technol- questions. It has also led us to ask what ur- most risk of losing out. We set out proposals ogy is changing and find that the lack of gent action is needed on jobs and technol- to help everyone get a fair share in the gains worker voice and representation underpins ogy right now to get us through the coming from new workplace technologies. many of the potential problems that lie months, which is where our report starts. In chapter 3 we look at how best to help ahead. We call for reforms to institutions people keep up with fast-changing work- to facilitate stronger partnerships between Our report place technology, and how to ensure em- government, employers and unions, and In chapter 1 we look at the relationship be- ployers make the most of their human for more worker representation and con- tween the Covid-19 crisis and technology talent. Currently those who need the most sultation in workplaces. change. We show how the coronavirus retraining and support receive the least. We are at a crossroads and the decisions cession is accelerating the adoption of tech- The UK adult skills system is totally inad- taken now by government, employers and nologies. While this is saving some jobs and equate and cannot meet the scale of the trade unions will shape the future of work businesses, unless action is taken the com- challenge we face. It needs a complete for decades to come. Without action, the bination of a severe downturn and accel- overhaul and we present proposals for combined risks of the Covid-19 recession erating automation could also lead to an a comprehensive new adult skills offer and accelerated automation in the com- employment crisis with long-lasting con- for workers and employers. ing years could result in mass unemploy- sequences including widening inequality In chapter 4 we look at the quality of ment, worse jobs and widening inequality. and long-term structural unemployment. jobs. We find that there is huge potential But with leadership, new technology can We make immediate recommendations to for technology to improve the quality of be harnessed to improve work, empower the government including targeted support work, to make jobs better, safer, and deliv- workers and boost productivity across the for key industries and work-and-train guar- er the kind of flexibility that workers want. country. We need to get it right first time antees for those who lose their jobs. However, we also point to worrying exam- and this report sets out how to do that.

6 / Summary report Chapter one: The Covid-19 crisis

uring the covid-19 crisis technology consequences of the pandemic would 61 per cent of furloughed jobs were in Dhas protected jobs, as small and large have been much greater (in April 2020 al- sectors where there is a high risk of jobs businesses have embraced new technolo- most half of workers were able to work being replaced by automation.3 5.9m of gies and modes of working in order to sur- at home).2 Services from retail to edu- the 9.6m furloughed workers came from vive. Many of these changes will be perma- cation have used digital technologies to the third of sectors with jobs at highest nent and will bring long-term benefits for move online, transform their operations risk of automation; and 3.1 million came productivity and the quality of work. The and continue without disruption, saving from the very most vulnerable fields: rapid take-up of new technologies dur- jobs in the process. hospitality, retail and the motor trade. ing this crisis has also given us insight into The people whose jobs have been sus- the opportunities that technology presents pended during the Covid-19 crisis are for the future. Jobs in some sectors – like therefore also more likely to see their However, the combination of the work replaced by technology. This is par- Covid-19 recession and the acceleration of retail and hospitality – are ticularly concerning because these sec- technology change also presents real dan- tors are key recruiters for young and un- gers. Jobs in some sectors – like retail and likely to be hit twice, by employed people. hospitality – are likely to be hit twice, by Covid-19 and by a quicker Covid-19 and by a quicker pace of auto- • Inequality is likely to rise as low- mation. Those with low incomes and low pace of automation paid and disadvantaged workers are skills are also doubly at risk from losing at greater risk from the Covid-19 re- their jobs – from the immediate effects of cession and from automation: There the Covid-19 crisis and from the ongoing • The Covid-19 crisis is set to accelerate is a sharp disparity between the work- automation it triggers. There is a risk of job-replacing automation meaning ers who are benefiting from technolog- enduring structural unemployment, with that vulnerable sectors face a ‘double ical trends linked to the crisis and those some parts of the UK particularly hard hit. whammy’: Past recessions have acceler- who are being hit. During the spring The Covid-19 crisis will exacerbate existing ated automation, replacing human tasks 2020 lockdown, 42 per cent of employees inequalities unless action is taken. with technology, and there is already evi- in the bottom earnings quintile were fur- dence that this is happening again during loughed, lost their job or worked fewer Our findings the Covid-19 recession. Sectors includ- hours, compared to under 15 per cent in • Jobs have been saved during the ing hospitality and retail face a ‘dou- the highest quintile.4 Low-paid and dis- Covid-19 crisis because of new tech- ble whammy’ because they are being hit advantaged workers are also much more nologies: Without the capacity of tech- by Covid-19 restrictions now and also likely to work in jobs at high risk of au- nology to allow businesses to adapt and have the most job tasks that can be automation with women, younger and old- people to work remotely, the economic tomated. Our research has found that er workers, people from minority ethnic

7 / Summary report backgrounds and disabled workers more for freelancers (England/UK). Minis- likely to lose out. ters should urgently provide free training or education courses for all workers • Some places will also be affected furloughed this winter. Where there is no more severely by the combination of employer-provided training, furloughed Covid-19 and automation than others: workers should be offered free train-

We are very worried by the prospects for ing through the Union Learning Fund UK © Flickr/WorldSkills city centres over the coming months as Jobcentre Plus, further education colleg- office workers and customers stay away es or online courses to improve oppor- during the Covid-19 pandemic. But most tunities for workers whose jobs may not of the English local authority areas most return. The government should also pro- vulnerable to the combination of Cov- vide more robust support for freelanc- id-19 and automation over the medium ers, newly self-employed workers and term are made up of towns and smaller others who have been excluded from communities (25 out of 28 areas).5 Places existing job support schemes. with less resilient, less skilled and less di- verse labour markets, and concentrations 2. Introduce new industry plans for sec- of employment in high-risk sectors, may tors where jobs are most at risk (UK). end up suffering most in the long term. Urgent action plans are needed for sectors facing big job losses – either tempo- • The government’s economic response rarily or permanently – including hos- to the first wave of Covid-19 was ef- pitality, culture, leisure and high street fective in the short term, but ministers retail. Plans should include additional have done little to address the ‘dou- help for businesses to adopt technolo- ble whammy’ of Covid-19 and tech- gy that could keep them viable and sup- nology change: In the first six months port jobs; additional targeted training people of either a job with training or of the Covid-19 crisis the government in- and courses for workers facing the cor- a return to full-time education. The troduced some extremely important and onavirus-automation ‘double whammy’; guarantee of a job with training should successful measures to support employ- and measures to help with sector-spe- also be extended to unemployed peo- ment, working in partnership with em- cific issues – for example, local author- ple aged over 25. Jobseekers should en- ployers and trade unions. After a damag- ities working with high street landlords rol in training as soon as they are out ing delay, these measures were extended to keep small retailers open. Govern- of work and job centres should aim to to reflect the second England-wide lock- ment investment should come with place people of all ages with low skills down. But there has been little recogni- conditions regarding skills and into apprenticeships. tion of the combined impact of Covid-19 employment practices. and automation and the added pressure 5. Fund a major increase in adult train- on workers and businesses in particular 3. Create and support good jobs to ab- ing and education during the next sectors. Reforms to the skills system from sorb unemployment during the re- 12 months (England). While the labour April 2021 are so far vague and appear cession (England/UK). The govern- market is weak and so many people are underfunded; and training and jobseek- ment should provide direct support likely to be underemployed or unem- er support are not well integrated. People for job creation to prevent unemploy- ployed, the government should fund a will be left on furlough for up to a year ment rising. This should include bring- major expansion in adult education and without any training or work and will ing forward capital investment that can training, as well as training for all work- find it harder to get new employment if be delivered quickly on a widely dis- ers on the furlough scheme (recommen- their jobs do not return at the end of the persed basis (including energy efficien- dation 1); this would include free tech- Covid-19 crisis. cy improvements, social housebuilding, nical education for all adults choosing digital infrastructure, roads and flood priority courses; higher education tuition Our solutions defences). It should also support ad- and bursaries for career changes into The government needs to work urgent- ditional jobs in education, health and skills shortage jobs; an expansion of the ly with employers and unions on a major social care to respond to immediate Union Learning Fund instead of its abo- plan to support the labour market through Covid-19 related challenges. lition as the government has proposed; the recession and beyond – including tar- and a nationwide version of the Nation- geted support for the sectors and workers 4. Introduce a ‘work and training’ guar- al Retraining Scheme to act as a gate- where most jobs are at risk as a result of antee for the unemployed during the way for these new entitlements. Univer- both Covid-19 and technology change. recession (UK). The government’s new sal credit rules should also be changed Kickstart programme for the young un- to support full-time learners on level 2 1. Provide immediate training for employed should be expanded to offer courses or those aged 18 to 21, and part- furloughed workers and more support a guarantee for all unemployed young time students in other circumstances.

8 / Summary report Chapter two: A fair share in the rewards

urning to the medium term, it is clear increased the risks. It will take new policy a risk that a sharp cyclical jobs contrac- T that new technologies have the po- and new partnerships to ensure the rewards tion could give way to long-term, struc- tential to bring extraordinary economic, of change are fairly shared. Without action, tural unemployment as industries are social and environmental benefits. But new technologies will further polarise the restructured and technologies replace without action they could also lead to grow- labour market so those who already have human tasks. Researchers have differ- ing inequality, with those on low incomes least end up losing most. ent views on the future potential for losing out. tasks and jobs to be automated but the We want to see a future where work- Our findings ONS has produced estimates suggesting ers receive a fair share of the rewards from • New technology is needed to boost that more than 1.5 million low-skilled technology change – both as the economy productivity and pay in the UK: Before jobs are at particularly high risk.7 New recovers in the next few years and across the Covid-19 crisis, the UK experienced jobs will also be created, both tech-ena- the 2020s. The dividends of new workplace a decade of stagnant pay linked to ter- bled jobs and those focused on relation- technology need to translate into higher rible productivity growth (caused part- ships and creativity. But evidence from earnings, or into shorter working hours if ly by insufficient and uneven investment past recessions suggest it may be many that is what people prefer. And these im- in technology). France, Germany and the years before employment returns to pre- provements must be fairly shared: everyone USA produce more than the UK for each vious levels; and that even when it does should be able to gain from the rewards of hour worked, and the differences in out- some people could be trapped in persis- technology change, no matter where they put between their high and low produc- tent long-term unemployment, as in the live or what their demographic characteris- tivity businesses are smaller.6 In order to 1980s, because of a mismatch between tics. Technological developments should be improve pay and living standards, and the new jobs and the profile and location used to narrow inequality not to widen it. stay competitive, firms across the econ- of jobseekers. Technology is a force for good that has omy need to adopt technology more the potential to boost future living stand- widely. The UK is a world leader in in- ards for all, while also reducing carbon novation with lots of firms at the frontier Without action, new emissions. However, each wave of tech- of productivity and an excellent higher nological change has also brought dislo- education system. But we need to trans- technologies will further cation: as work changed, some jobs were late these assets into faster productivity polarise the labour market destroyed, while others were created. The growth everywhere, greater diffusion of rewards from technological change are not technology and higher living standards. always shared, and the disruption it causes • New technology risks widening in- can lead to unemployment, exploitation • Rapid automation risks high levels of equality and further concentrating and injustice. The Covid-19 recession and technology driven-job replacement: power and wealth: Many of the job the technology change it has triggered have With a deep recession beginning, there is roles with the most tasks at risk of au-

9 / Summary report tomation over the next 10 years pay the nities between people and places. We want and promoting firm-level commitments lowest wages. But when increases in pro- to see a gradual shift from immediate crisis on earnings inequality; setting a statu- ductivity take place, these are not cur- support to measures that steer the direction tory target for the national living wage rently being translated into better re- of future growth. by the mid-2020s; and introducing rewards for low-skilled workers (unlike forms to increase collective bargaining. in economies with stronger trade un- 6. Adopt a new industrial strategy with The government should make a start by ions or collective bargaining).8 Minimum renewed focus on high-employment drawing up a plan with employers and wage policies have increased both pay industries and increased infrastruc- unions for introducing sectoral pay bar- and productivity in low-paid sectors, but ture investment (UK). Since Boris gaining in social care. they are not enough. To tackle inequali- Johnson came to power the government ty, we also need more workplace repre- has ignored Theresa May’s 2017 indus- sentation and bargaining, so that work- trial strategy. A new strategy is planned The government should ers benefit from the rising productivity and will reportedly be even more fo- that technology can bring. cused on pioneering science and tech- set out a plan to increase nology. This approach is too narrow. • People who already have least could The post-Covid-19 industrial strate- the status of and rewards lose most: People from disadvantaged gy should include a major focus on im- for workers in key low- groups are more likely to be in occupa- proving productivity and the quality of tions with routine job tasks that are at work in high-employment industries paid occupations significant risk of automation. Accord- with relatively low productivity today, ing to ONS estimates, of the 1.5 million drawing on the experience of high-pro- people in England in jobs most vulnera- ductivity service sectors like the creative 8. Increase the value, status and pay of ble to automation, 70 per cent are wom- industries. Our proposed Covid-19 in- care work and other essential low- en and 99 per cent do not have higher dustry plans (see recommendation 2) paid jobs that are unlikely to be au- education degrees. Workers aged 55 to should therefore evolve into long-term tomated (England). We recommend 64 are more than twice as likely to be in industrial strategies for each sector with that the government sets out a ro- these high-risk jobs as workers in their decade-long plans for innovation, tech- bust strategy to increase status, pay, 30s; and young workers aged 16 to 24 are nology, skills and working practices. In job security and professional devel- more than eight times as likely.9 addition, we need increased investment opment for social care and early years in infrastructure to support new jobs jobs, and other low-paid occupations • The places that already have least growth, including in green and digital less susceptible to automation where could lose most: As things stand, the infrastructure and in public service in- new jobs are likely to be created. The capacity for workers to share in the ben- frastructure in areas such as education, Covid-19 crisis has demonstrated how efits of technology-driven growth is de- social care and early years. much society relies on these roles and pendent on where they live. Jobs that are other key workers. To prevent further vulnerable to automation are also con- polarisation of the labour market be- centrated in economically disadvantaged We recommend tween those with high levels of aca- areas. The 20 local authority areas where demic qualifications and those with existing jobs are most likely to face au- a sequenced package of low levels of qualifications, the govern- tomation are mainly rural, coastal or ment should set out a plan to increase ex-industrial towns.10 measures to ensure that the status of and rewards for workers inequality does not widen in key low-paid occupations, starting • AI may entrench existing discrimina- with expanding sectors like social care. tion and disadvantage: New selection, during the recession assessment and monitoring technolo- 9. Combine employer support for in- gies risk creating new forms of work- novation, business development and place bias and unfairness, worsening ex- 7. Act to prevent higher earnings in- skills to drive up productivity, tech- isting inequalities. Without intervention, equality during the recession and nology adoption and support for the biased technology risks locking disad- promote rising pay and productiv- workforce (UK). We recommend that vantaged groups out of the changing la- ity over time (UK). We recommend services supporting employers on in- bour market. a sequenced package of measures to novation, business development and ensure that inequality does not wid- skills are coordinated and expanded. en during the recession and that as the In England local growth hubs should Our solutions economy is recovering, pay rises for lead delivery, supported by national Strong collective leadership is needed to low and middle earners become a spur agencies such as Innovate UK, and in- achieve high employment, technology- for better use of technology and high- creased funding should be guaranteed driven productivity improvements, rising er productivity. The package should in- for at least five years. Following the wages and a fair distribution of opportu- clude extending pay ratio transparency Covid-19 crisis this assistance should

10 / Summary report © Unsplash/Elevate

be combined with support on employ- and ensuring local enterprise partner- Towns need their own ment and skills, to help businesses up- ships are fully accountable everywhere grade the skills of new recruits and to elected leaders. jobs plans and training their existing workforce so they can work well with new technology. 11. Transform towns with plans for jobs, and skills provision training and investment (England). 10. Empower local leaders to help more We recommend that the government businesses use new technology and provides special support to enable dis- create good jobs (England). Signif- advantaged towns to adapt. Towns or establishes a review of how equali- icant economic power and funding clusters of smaller communities need ty law is working in the age of auto- should be devolved to towns and cities. their own jobs plans; corresponding mation, led jointly by the Equality and Options include extending devolution training and skills provision; and a sin- Human Rights Commission and In- to non-metropolitan areas; ensuring gle investment plan, to coordinate and formation Commissioner’s Office to that towns are adequately represent- prioritise all public and regulated in- clamp down on technology-powered ed and served within city-regions; de- vestment in the area (including early discrimination before it emerges as volving responsibilities for adult ed- access to full fibre broadband). a serious issue. The review should lead ucation budgets (where this has not to new guidance and codes of practice already happened), employment sup- 12. Establish a review of equality law and should consider whether there is port and economic development pow- and automation (Great Britain). a need for legislative change or extra ers (eg transport, housing, innovation); We recommend that the government resources for the regulators.

11 / Summary report Chapter three: The support to adapt

ovid-19 and the acceleration of tech- • People that need most help receive • Employers don’t provide enough C nology adoption demands a com- least: Employees with a degree or training and good employer prac- plete overhaul of the adult skills and edu- equivalent higher qualification are al- tice appears to be the exception not cation system. This is a dangerous moment most four times as likely to have recent- the rule: We found excellent examples for millions of workers facing painful transi- ly received training at work as employ- of good practice when it comes to provi- tions, but it can also be a catalyst for change. ees with no qualification at all. A survey sion of learning for workers, both in job- We need to reset the way the UK delivers for the commission also found that peo- specific training and in general, porta- training and employment support through- ple with degrees are much more like- ble skills. But this is the exception not out people’s working lives. ly to be offered training to prepare for the rule. Across the economy employers The UK has the capacity to create a radi- technology changes compared to peo- spend around half the EU average on vo- cally better system to help workers keep ple educated to GCSE level.12 cational training, and training participa- pace with changing technology and jobs, tion is particularly poor in SMEs. and our commission found that workers • Too many local economies are stuck have an appetite to retrain and acquire new with weak demand and supply in • People want to train for work. But they skills. Workers need urgent and active sup- skills: There is a strong spatial dimen- need to see the point of it and often port to keep up with changes to their jobs sion to the UK’s skills challenges and too they don’t: Nine in 10 workers say they or to flourish in new occupations that may many communities are trapped in a ‘low- would be likely to take part in training to need very different skills. skills equilibrium’ with low demand for help them prepare for future changes to skills and low supply in skills: most plac- their role.14 However, the benefits of seek- Our findings es with low workplace productivity also ing training are not always clear. People in • The skills and training system is not fit have residents with few qualifications. jobs at high risk of automation find it hard for the challenges we face and needs to imagine their jobs disappearing and a major overhaul: England’s adult skills • Government is badly underfund- feel that the future is too unpredictable to system has been failing for a long time de- ing adult skills: There has been a steep take steps to prepare for change. spite many well-intentioned public policy decline in funding for adult skills pro- initiatives. Participation in employer-based vision. Public spending on adult edu- • Workers often don’t have the time or training is well below the EU average and cation in England apart from apprentice- the money to participate in learning fell in the decade between 2005 and 2015. ships has declined by almost 50 per cent opportunities: Educating working-age In England adult participation in further since 2009–10 and by almost two-thirds people means addressing the opportuni- education (FE) also fell by 39 per cent be- since the start of the century.13 The gov- ty cost: the loss of pay while learning. Ul- tween 2012/13 and 2018/19. Without ac- ernment’s new national skills fund, while timately, learning becomes inaccessible tion 7 million extra workers will have in- welcome, will only make up around one when the only option is learning outside sufficient skills for their jobs by 2030.11 fifth of the cuts made since 2010. working hours. Some other European

12 / Summary report countries have schemes to provide adults guarantee we propose as a response to 18. Create a new national digital ser- with an income while learning. the Covid-19 crisis (see recommenda- vice to support all workers to retrain tion 4) should evolve into a permanent and expand the union learning fund • Jobcentre Plus is not equipped to deal system of support, where every jobseek- (England). We recommend that the UK with retraining or with high levels of er takes part in training and people at risk government creates a new national sup- unemployment: Jobcentre Plus has not of long-term unemployment are guaran- port service to help people plan their ca- had to support mass unemployment for teed a paid job placement with training. reers and retrain, to act as a coherent na- a very long time. It will need to change the tional gateway for all our proposals on support it offers, not just during the height 15. Support incomes while workers skills and training. One cost-effective of the Covid-19 recession but beyond, as train (UK). We recommend that the option would be to create a personal- more people have to move jobs or sectors government develops a package that ised digital portal for all workers to be or retrain because of changing technology. will make it much easier for learners accompanied by a major promotional to work part-time and train part-time; campaign and employer-facilitated en- take short periods off work to train; or, rolment. Alongside this the government Our solutions in the case of 19 to 21-year-olds, train should reverse its decision to scrap the In the short term, the priority is to help peo- full-time. We propose four measures: Union Learning Fund, so that it can be ple who have lost their jobs or are at risk of universal credit for part-time work and expanded and repurposed to become becoming unemployed in the months ahead. part-time learning; statutory training a trade union-based arm of the But we also need to make enduring and pay; a statutory training allowance; and personalised learning offer. long-overdue changes to employment sup- a special scheme for 19 to 21-year-olds. port and adult training, with a permanent, 19. Reform Jobcentre Plus and create universal offer where both employers and 16. Gradually build apprenticeships into ‘work and skills’ hubs in every part government take greater responsibility for the mainstream in-work pathway for of the country (Great Britain). We rec- skills. We must act to provide workers the intensive training (England). During ommend that Jobcentre Plus should support to adapt whenever their jobs change the Covid-19 recession apprenticeships evolve over five years into a ‘work and or disappear as a result of new technology. should be a principal route for unem- skills’ service, open to those in work as ployed people of all ages into good jobs. well as those without a job, and that it 13. Create an integrated adult skills sys- For now, no artificial limits should be should be integrated with other local tem with a training offer for every- placed on the number of jobseekers re- services as part of devolution arrange- one (England). We want to see an inte- cruited onto apprenticeships. Then, once ments. The DWP should determine grated adult skills system, operating on unemployment starts to fall, we want to a set of core national services linked to a scale never seen before in this country, see apprenticeships promoted to em- benefits, and other employment sup- working as a partnership between gov- ployees of all ages and all occupation- port, career guidance and skills servic- ernment, employers and people. There al levels, whether they are starting out, es should be commissioned locally. Job should be multiple training offers to meet reskilling or advancing in their careers. centre buildings should be community the needs of each individual and employ- Apprenticeships should evolve into path- ‘work and skills’ hubs. er including: short job centre courses; ways for anyone who would benefit from FE courses; apprenticeships; regular on- 12 months or more of training, at least 20. Over time introduce new require- the-job training for all workers; sector- one-day-a-week, on an accredited work- ments on employers to support train- led training and accreditation pathways; place programme. ing and skills (England/UK). We will and HE courses for career change. The only solve our national adult skills chal- spine of the new system should be per- 17. Support local areas and sectors to lenges if all employers shoulder more sonal digital portals and specialist skills fund high-priority technical qualifica- of the burden. Requirements need to be support for employers. Creating this in- tions beyond the new national entitle- phased in over a number of years, once tegrated adult skills system will necessi- ment to free adult training (England). businesses have recovered from the tate additional public spending over time, We welcome the government’s deci- Covid-19 crisis, with no extra responsi- although the returns to the economy are sion to use the new national skills fund bilities introduced in the depths of reces- likely to be considerable and the costs to offer a free level 3 (A-level equivalent) sion. A sequenced package could include remain significantly lower than expendi- qualification to anyone without one. This responsibilities for employers to prepare ture on higher education. new national offer should however be skills reviews and plans (with assistance supplemented by access to additional from specialist skills services); promote 14. Support unemployed people to ‘work funded qualifications in strategically im- and support our proposed learning por- and train’ on a permanent basis (Great portant skills: local skills funders should tals; consider requests for time off to train Britain). After the recession unemployed be mandated to offer extra qualifications (expanding this ‘right to request’ to all people should continue to be helped to to meet local needs and sectors should workers); and administrate and poten- ‘work and train’ as part of a long-term receive match-funding to strength- tially co-fund our proposal for statutory change to the support offered by DWP en their own occupational training and training pay. Other obligations might be and Jobcentre Plus. The ‘work and train’ accreditation pathways. agreed on a sector-by-sector basis.

13 / Summary report Chapter four: Better jobs

e want to see all jobs become good Our findings • Technology-enabled flexibility can in- Wjobs as a result of technology change. • Technology is being used to signifi- crease insecure and precarious work: The adoption of new technologies pre- cantly improve the quality of many Technology-enabled flexibility can come sents both employees and employers with jobs but decisions about how technolo- with significant drawbacks for work- the chance to improve the quality of work, gy is implemented really matter: Tech- ers including the proliferation of precar- and in doing so to also improve productivity nology change is providing new ways of ious working contracts, increasing work- and the creative contribution workers make. making work better. In a 2019 survey for related stress, and social isolation. New There is the potential for jobs to become the commission we found that 57 per cent forms of flexibility involving self-em- more fulfilling; relationships with man- of workers with jobs affected by new tech- ployment or atomised ‘gigs’ too often agers, colleagues and customers to grow nologies in the previous five years said it come at the expense of social protections stronger; and for work to become more flex- had had a positive impact; only 7 per cent associated with more traditional kinds ible, healthy and secure. said negative.15 But in similar workplaces of employment including statutory and However, we have also seen signifi- we heard of examples of technologies be- contractual employment rights and the cant evidence of technologies being used ing implemented in ways that were both support of trade unions. to reduce the quality of work by facilitat- empowering and oppressive. ing precarious working contracts, increas- • Technology can lead to safer, fairer, ing work-related stress, and creating social • Technology has enabled flexible more human work: New technology isolation. We have found that too often working for more and more people: is relieving workers of repetitive, stren- new forms of flexibility come at the ex- Flexible working, most notably remote uous or dangerous tasks, so that they can pense of social protections associated with working and working from home, has spend a higher share of their time adding more traditional kinds of employment. become an option for more and more value, with more interesting, creative or And we are concerned by the increase in people because of the proliferation of human-focused tasks. Workers also told employer use of technology for monitoring inexpensive, secure systems to link to- us that appropriate use of technology can and surveillance, alongside excessive puni- gether employees with their employ- lead to fairer, more transparent manage- tive practices reducing worker autonomy. ers. Many people will choose this as ment decisions. We want technology change always to a permanent way forward after Cov- lead to better jobs, not worse ones. But we id-19 (although some may be also • Technology is extending opportuni- face major choices ahead. We are optimis- forced out of offices against their wish- ties for employer control, monitor- tic that technology can be used in a hugely es). Technology has also enabled flex- ing and surveillance: New technology positive way, but this will not happen ible rostering arrangements and plat- is encouraging excessively punitive prac- without stronger action from government, form apps where individuals chose their tices by employers and reducing work- employers and unions. working hours. er autonomy. Problematic, tech-enabled

14 / Summary report • Technology can negatively impact partnership body for platform work (in- personal interaction in the workplace: itially as a voluntary initiative but with New technologies can reduce the hu- the potential for statutory underpinning man interaction that is a valued aspect to make it more effective). The council of many service jobs. A recurring theme would enable platform businesses and from our focus groups was the dissatis- trade unions to develop a framework faction workers felt when new technolo- for improving employment standards, © Unsplash/Kevin Grieve © Unsplash/Kevin gy reduced their face-to-face interaction training pay and benefits for gig work. with colleagues and customers. 24. Clarify who is eligible for employ- Our solutions ment rights and seek to eliminate The Covid-19 crisis has spurred the rap- financial incentives for employers id, unplanned adoption of new technolo- to use contractors rather than em- gy-enabled working practices by employ- ployees (UK). The government should ers and workers across the country. Many change the law to create a clear defini- changes have been beneficial and overdue, tion of a ‘worker’, in order to provide but businesses acted fast without being able people with employment rights in situ- to consider implications for the overall qual- ations where they personally undertake ity of jobs. work and there is substantial control by We want technology change always to the hiring organisation. It should also lead to better jobs. For this to happen we pass a law stating that anyone taxed as need strong partnerships and a robust pol- an employee must also have a worker’s icy framework. We hope that good progress employment rights. Ministers should monitoring and surveillance practic- can be made through voluntary approaches, monitor whether Covid-19 and in- es appear to be increasingly common with national and local leaders supporting creased remote working triggers more in traditionally structured businesses as and facilitating partnership between em- insecure freelance or platform working, well as through tech-enabled platforms. ployers and trade unions. But some legisla- and they should also continue to act to Three-quarters of workers believe that tive action is also needed. reduce financial incentives for employ- technology is being used to monitor col- ers to use contractors over employees. leagues in their workplace.16 21. Establish good work standards and require large employers to take part • The intensity of work is increasing, es- to access government procurement A full review of the role pecially for low-skilled workers: For and grants (England or UK). We rec- of automated decisions some people technology change is re- ommend the establishment of a na- sulting in the intensification of work and tional good work standard drawn up by in recruitment is needed greater work-related stress (the propor- employers and trade unions. Govern- tion of people reporting stress at work ment decisions on public procurement has risen in recent decades). A tech-en- and access to funding could be contin- 25. Reform privacy legislation and codes abled ‘always on’ culture reduces op- gent on large firms adopting or work- of practice to restrict automated de- portunities for informal breaks during ing towards the standard. Each indus- cision-making and workplace mon- the day and encroaches on non-work- try should also develop its own good itoring (UK). The government should ing hours. There is no evidence that in- work standard. consult on amending data protection creased work intensity and the erosion legislation to give greater protection to of a healthy work-life balance lead to 22. Introduce a stronger universal right workers in the context of automated higher productivity. to request flexible work (UK). The decision-making and workplace mon- right to request flexible working should itoring. The information commission- • How technology is designed and im- be expanded in response to technology er could also be tasked with publishing plemented matters immensely: The changes making remote working and tougher, clearer codes of practice which problem of intensification of work is of- flexible hours much easier. This would the courts would be required to refer ten linked to the bad design or imple- mean extending the right to workers to in interpreting the law. Key areas for mentation of technology. People re- who are not classed as ‘employees’ and consideration include workplace moni- sent having to operate poorly designed to job applicants and employees with toring, automated decision-making and technology that is difficult to use, breaks less than 6 months’ service. consent. In particular, a full review of down or makes errors. Workers appreci- the role of automated decisions in re- ate new technology when they see it as 23. Create a platform economy coun- cruitment is needed, with a proper sys- ‘right for the job’ and dislike it when it cil to improve gig work (UK). The tem of transparency and safeguards to is dysfunctional, unsuitable or misunder- UK government should convene a new prevent recruitment technology build- stood by managers. platform economy council, as a social ing in discrimination or unfairness.

15 / Summary report Chapter five: Making workers’ voices heard

hroughout this report, many of the Our findings • Workers are far less likely to be repre- T problems we have identified – work- • Workforce consultation and represen- sented than was once the case: Mem- ing people not getting a fair share, poor in- tation improves work and productiv- bership of trade unions and the propor- novation and low productivity, lack of ade- ity: Consultation, representation, and tion of workers covered by collective quate training, technology implemented in voice at work are widely considered by bargaining agreements on pay and con- a way that makes jobs worse not better – workers to be valuable in themselves. ditions have been in long-term decline. reflect the lack of involvement workers But worker voice has also been shown to Union membership fell from 52 per cent often have in decisions about adopting be highly effective at improving pay and of workers in 1979 to 21 per cent in 2019; new technology. conditions; and employee involvement is collective bargaining coverage fell from At a time when there is going to be very also shown to improve business perfor- two-thirds of employees in the mid- significant disruption in the labour market mance and innovation. 1980s to 29 per cent today.18 and when the adoption of new technology will be at the heart of many changes tak- • Representation is lowest where tech- ing place – both saving jobs and replacing Industries with a high nology is making work more precar- them – voice and representation are im- ious: Industries with a high proportion mensely important. Employers need to be proportion of jobs of jobs susceptible to automation tend to able to draw upon the innovation, ideas have especially low rates of trade union and views of their workforce if they are susceptible to automation membership: in 2019 only 2.3 per cent to get new technology right, introducing tend to have low rates of of employees in the accommodation and changes smoothly and with consensus. food services sector were union mem- This is not a call for a return to the in- trade union membership bers. Self-employed workers, temporary dustrial relations practices of the 1960s workers and people employed by small and 1970s but a new, modern approach to businesses are also less likely to be un- workplace partnership that recognises the • Most workers currently have little say ion members.19 scale of employment changes likely to take about new workplace technology: In place as a result of new technology. Coop- 2019 we surveyed workers whose jobs • Small but successful steps have recent- eration between employers, workforce rep- had been impacted by the introduction ly been taken towards stronger social resentatives and government is essential to of new technology in the last five years; partnership: Although the UK has a his- support people in the workplace, prevent 65 per cent said that they had not been tory of weak social partnership in recent rising inequality, smooth transitions and consulted by their employers the last time decades, there have been some new and deliver the best results for the economy. new technologies were introduced.17 successful examples of social partner-

16 / Summary report ies: the Industrial Strategy Council, the national skills fund, sector partnership bodies and local enterprise partnerships.

29. Technology and skills should become part of collective bargaining at firm and sector level (UK). Employ- ers and trade unions should come together to roll out a significant extension of collective bargaining on issues relat- ing to technology change and skills. At workplace level, recognised trade unions should seek agreements with employers to bargain on new technology and on skills. The formal process for union recognition should also allow unions to ap- Commissioners visiting an Asda ply to negotiate on these issues. At sec- warehouse in Normanton tor level, recognised social partnership bodies should seek to agree sector-wide agreements on training and skills and in- ship working at national, local and firm sectors to promote workplace consul- volving workers in technology change. level. In particular, the TUC and CBI have tation on technology. worked closely with the government on 30. Extend worker consultation across the development of measures to support 27. Trade unions should redouble their the economy and introduce worker businesses and workers during the early efforts to support vulnerable work- directors for large firms (UK).Worker phases of the Covid-19 crisis. ers and demonstrate the benefits of consultation should be extended across strong social partnership (UK). Trade the economy and worker directors unions should redouble their efforts should become the norm on the boards Our solutions to recruit and organise people in inse- of large companies. Formal consulta- The initial economic policy response cure work who are at risk of technolo- tive arrangements should be compul- to the Covid-19 crisis, which involved gy change and facing pressure as a re- sory in workplaces with over 100 staff cooperation between government, employer sult of the Covid-19 crisis. Unions need and ministers should build consensus organisations and trade unions, dem- to draw on all the good practice that on how to establish effective consul- onstrated the value of worker voice at exists and take it to scale. During the tation in small firms. Workers in large national level. Within workplaces and sec- pandemic the TUC and individual un- businesses should be granted rights to tors, action is also needed to enable mean- ions have also demonstrated the ben- elect employee directors to their com- ingful consultation and influence over efits of solutions-focused partnership pany’s board and renumeration com- technology change. More dialogue will working. Unions should showcase this mittees. The government should con- benefit employers. partnership approach to make the case sult on models of board representation for it to become a permanent fixture in for firms of different sizes and charac- 26. Employers should embrace a new Britain’s economic landscape. teristics and reach agreement through culture of workplace partnership negotiations with unions and business. and involve workers and trade un- 28. Transform national, sectoral and re- ions in technology-related decisions gional economic leadership bodies 31. Remove barriers to trade union rec- (UK). Across the economy we need into social partnership institutions ognition and organisation (UK). We to see major culture change so that (England/UK). Key economic institu- recommend that barriers to trade union workforces are routinely involved in tions should be transformed into tri- organising and recognition are greatly developing ideas and making decisions partite social partnership bodies bring- reduced. The government should con- on new technology. Culture change ing together government, employers and sider the following proposals: update among employers should be led by workers (taking account of the changing all trade union law to facilitate use of employer organisations, ACAS, the In- labour market, so including voices for electronic communications and ballot- dustrial Strategy Council and local en- small businesses and the self-employed). ing; enhance unions’ rights of physi- terprise partnerships. Union engage- For our country to be able to secure the cal and digital access to workers where ment with members and employers benefits and manage the challenges of they are not recognised; relax rules on should promote continual dialogue on fast-changing technology, government statutory recognition procedures; and technology and skills. The government needs to work in partnership. Specifical- require employers to provide informa- should also use its public procurement ly, we propose that the following insti- tion about joining trade unions to new role and its engagement with different tutions become social partnership bod- recruits and workers.

17 / Summary report The commissioners

Fellow at Cambridge University. Prior to her time at Google, Katie established the communications and policy team at Mumsnet, and worked in politics, Yvette Cooper MP, Sue Ferns, senior deputy general both for prime minister Tony Blair chair of the commission secretary, Prospect and David Miliband.

Yvette is the Labour Member of Parliament Sue has been deputy general secretary for Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford of Prospect since 2013 and was previously and has represented the constituency their head of research. Her responsibilities at Westminster since 1997. She served in in Prospect include leading the union’s the Cabinet between 2008–2010 as Chief work on equal opportunities, legal services, Secretary to the Treasury and Secretary skills, campaigning and communications, Roy Rickhuss CBE, of State for Work and Pensions. Yvette has and on science, engineering and general secretary, Community also represented the official opposition sustainability. Sue has been a member as Shadow Foreign Secretary and Shadow of the TUC General Council since 2005. Roy is a lifelong trade unionist, first joining Home Secretary, chaired the Labour Party’s She is also chair of Unions 21. one of Community’s founding unions in Refugee Taskforce and is now chair of the 1979, and has been general secretary of Home Affairs Select Committee. Yvette Community since 2013. He represents has long campaigned on the issues Community on the TUC General Council of support for working parents and and is a member of the Executive Council tackling child poverty. of the General Federation of Trade Unions. He was invited to join the government’s Paul Nowak, deputy general secretary, Industrial Strategy Council in 2018, and Trades Union Congress in the 2019 New Year honours he was awarded a CBE for services to the steel Paul has been TUC deputy general industry. Roy is a member of the Unions secretary since 2016. He previously held 21 Commission on Collective Voice and the Hasan Bakhshi, director, Creative roles and was an activist in CWU, GMB, Money and Mental Health Commission. Industries Policy and Evidence Centre Unison, and BIFU. He introduced the (PEC); and executive director, creative TUC’s Leading Change programme. economy and data analytics, Nesta

Hasan leads Nesta’s creative and digital economy research programme and is a recognised authority in the field. His work Margaret Stevens, professor includes co-authoring the Next Gen skills of economics, University of Oxford review of the video games and visual effects Katie O’Donovan, industries, which led to wholesale reforms head of public policy, Google UK Margaret is a labour market economist of the school ICT and computing curriculum and an expert on vocational and in England, and The Future of Skills which Katie is responsible for Google’s skills policy. She is currently head of analyses what global trends will mean engagement with the UK government the department of economics at the for the workforce skills mix in the future. to ensure Britain remains a world-leading University of Oxford. The main application He is also an adjunct professor at the digital economy and Google continues of her work has been to the economics Queensland University of Technology. to meet its commitments to responsible of vocational training. In particular, innovation. Katie sits on the board Margaret has studied the effects of youth charity Redthread, has been of government policies on training a board member for the Internet Watch in international contexts. Foundation and UKCISS and is a Policy

18 / Summary report ENDNOTES

1. ONS. 2019a. The probability of automation in England; HMRC. 2020a. Coronavirus Job Retention Scheme statistics: August 2020. 2. ONS. 2020a. Coronavirus and homeworking in the UK: April 2020. 3. ONS. 2019a; HMRC. 2020a. 4. Cominetti, Nye, Laura Gardiner and Hannah Slaugh- ter. 2020. The full monty: Facing up to the challenge of the coronavirus labour market crisis. Resolution Foundation. 5. ONS. 2019a; HMRC. 2020a; HMRC. 2020b. Self-Em- ployment Income Support Scheme (SEISS) statistics: July 2020; ONS. 2020b. Annual Population Survey: April 2019 – March 2020; House of Commons Library. 2018. City and town classification of constituencies and local authorities. 6. Haldane, Andrew G. 2018. The UK’s productivity problem: Hub no spokes (speech given at the Academy of Social Sciences Annual Lecture). Bank of England. 7. ONS. 2019a. 8. Ciarli, Tommaso, Edgar Salgado and Maria Savona. 2018. Does increasing firm and sector productivity drive up wages for workers? Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 9. ONS. 2019a. 10. ONS. 2019a. 11. Social Mobility Commission. 2019. The adult skills gap: Is falling investment in UK adults stalling social mobility?; Department for Education. 2020. Further education and skills: July 2020; Industrial Strategy Council. 2019. UK skills mismatch in 2030. 12. ONS. 2019b. Characteristics and benefits of training at work, UK: 2017; Commission on Workers and Tech- nology 2019 survey. 13. Britton, Jack, Christine Farquharson and Luke Sibi- eta. 2019. 2019 annual report on education spending in England. Institute for Fiscal Studies. 14. Commission on Workers and Technology 2019 survey. 15. Commission on Workers and Technology 2019 survey. 16. TUC. 2018. I’ll be watching you: A report on workplace monitoring. 17. Commission on Workers and Technology 2019 survey. 18. Bank of England. 2020. A millennium of macroeco- nomic data. Available at: www.bankofengland.co.uk/ statistics/research-datasets [Accessed 19/08/2020]; Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. 2020. Trade union statistics 2019. 27 May 2020 release; Machin, Stephen. 2000. Union decline in Britain. Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics; OECD. 2017. OECD employment outlook 2017. 19. Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strat- egy. 2020; Brock, Jason. 2019. Getting organised: Low- paid self-employment and trade unions. Fabian Society.

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