Government of Bolivia

Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box 500, A-1400 Vienna, Austria Tel: (+43-1) 26060-0, Fax: (+43-1) 26060-5866, www.unodc.org

BOLIVIA Coca Cultivation Survey

June 2004

Printed in Bolivia Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

Abbreviations

DIRECO Bolivian National Direction of Agricultural Re-conversion GIS Geographical Information Systems GPS Global Positioning System GCP Ground Control Point ICMP UNODC Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime FELCN Special Force for Drug traffic Fight

Acknowledgements

The following institutions and individuals contributed to the 2003 Bolivia coca survey and the preparation of the present report:

Bolivian Government • Vice-Ministry for Alternative Development • DIRECO

UNODC • Ivan Alfaro - Chief Technical Advisor (Project) • Ramiro Cartagena - Remote Sensing Specialist (Project) • Gonzalo Aruquipa - Remote Sensing Specialist (Project) • Robert Szucs - GIS Specialist (Project) • Patricia Delgado - GIS Specialist (Project) • Claudia Ortega - Administrative Assistant (Project)

• José Manuel Martinez - Morales - UNODC Representative (field office) • José Rocabado - UNODC National Programme Officer (field office)

• Denis Destrebecq – ICMP Programme Management Officer (UNDOC – Vienna) • Thomas Piestschmann, - Research Officer (UNODC – Viena) • Ayako Kagawa, Associate Statistician and Spatial Analyst (UNODC – Vienna)

The US Narcotic Affairs Section (NAS) provided the complete set of multispectral and panchromatic IKONOS Imagery for the survey

The implementation of UNODC’s Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme in the Andean countries, and of the Bolivian survey in 2003, was made possible thanks to financial contributions from the Governments of the United Kingdom, Spain, France and Italy.

Pictures: UNODC BOL/F57

0 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Preface

The results of this first nation-wide coca cultivation survey conducted jointly by the Bolivian Government and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, confirmed that the production of coca leaf, the raw material for the processing of cocaine remained far behind the levels reached in Colombia and Peru. With 23,600 ha of coca cultivation in 2003, it was only half the levels estimated in the early and mid-1990s. The implementation of sustainable livelihood initiatives and the sustained eradication efforts, in particular in the Chapare area that accounted for most of the coca cultivation in Bolivia a few years ago, appear to have been key to the Bolivian success over the last few years.

It is encouraging to note that in the Chapare area, coca cultivation continued to be on the decline. However, there are worrying signs that coca cultivation is nowadays on the increase in the Yungas of La Paz, and this outside the traditional coca cultivation area as authorized under Bolivian law. Efforts have to be made rapidly to stop this trend in the Yungas and to preserve the benefits of the investments made so far in Chapare.

Preventing the return of a sizable coca-cocaine industry remains an important priority. I am aware that this will not be easy, not only because we will have to compete with an illegal market whose value is far from negligible (this year coca leaf farm-gate value of US$150 millions is equivalent to 2% of the GDP), but also because of the current social, economic and political challenges faced by the country. What has been true for Bolivia throughout the past years is particularly valid in the immediate future: namely, dry control policies must be accompanied by credible sustainable legal economic options for ex-coca growers in particular and the impoverished indigenous peasants and miners in general.

Another cause for concern was to learn that coca cultivation was expanding at the expense of the primary forest, making irreversible damages within national parks and biosphere reserves.

I therefore encourage the Bolivian Government to sustain its successful efforts towards the reduction of coca cultivation and call on the donor countries, aid agencies and NGOs to assist in developing commercially-viable and environmentally sound actions to guarantee a licit and sustainable income for the rural poor to prevent their involvement in coca cultivation.

Antonio Maria Costa Executive Director

1 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

2 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Table of contents

1 SUMMARY ...... 4

2 BACKGROUND ...... 7

3 FINDINGS...... 11 3.1 COCA CULTIVATION ...... 11 3.1.1 Coca Cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz ...... 15 3.1.2 Coca Cultivation in Apolo Municipality ...... 27 3.1.3 Coca Cultivation in the Chapare Area ...... 30 3.2 COCA PRODUCTION...... 39 3.3 COCA PRICE ...... 40 3.4 COCA VALUE...... 41 3.5 ERADICATION ...... 42 4 LAND USE MAP OF THE YUNGAS OF LA PAZ...... 44

5 METHODOLOGY ...... 45 5.1 COCA CULTIVATION...... 45 5.2 FIELD WORK ...... 53 5.3 ACCURACY ASSESSMENT ...... 55 5.4 COCA YIELD ...... 56 5.5 COCA PRICE ...... 56 6 ANNEXES ...... 57

3 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Fact Sheet, Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

Total coca cultivation in 2003 23,600 ha of which - permitted by Bolivian law 1008 12,000 ha - non-permitted by Bolivian law 11,600 ha

Total dry coca leaf production in 2003 28,300 metric tons of which – dry coca leaf for cocaine production 17,100 metric tons

Potential cocaine production in 2003 60 metric tons

Average dry coca leaf price in 2003 US$ 5.4 / kg

Total gross potential farmgate value of coca leaf production US$ 153 million in % of Bolivian GDP 2002 2 % (with a GDP of US$ 7.8 billion) in % of the agricultural GDP 2002 13.4% (with an agricultural GDP of US$ 1.1 billion)

Average gross income from coca leaf production per capita (coca growers and non-growers) in Chapare, the Yungas of La Paz and Apolo: US$ 500

Bolivia GDP per capita in 2002 US$ 880

4 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 1 Summary

Under its Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme, UNODC has been assisting the Bolivian Government in the implementation of a national coca monitoring system. For the first time in 2003, the Bolivian project provided an estimate on coca cultivation at the national level.

The results of this first national survey revealed that 23,600 hectares were under cultivation of coca bush in Bolivia as of December 2003. This amount of coca cultivation represented about 15% of the world coca cultivation (in the early to mid-1990s coca cultivation in Bolivia accounted for about a quarter of the world total). It continued to place Bolivia far behind Colombia and Peru.

Although coca cultivation in 2003 for Bolivia was only about half of the levels reported from other sources in the mid-1990s, there are worrying signs that coca cultivation is on the increase. In the Yungas of La Paz which accounted for 69% of total coca cultivation in the country, coca cultivation increased by 18% as compared to 2002.

Precise comparisons of the levels of coca cultivation in 2002 and 2003 in other coca growing areas (Chapare and Apolo) is not possible because the project surveyed these areas for the first time in 2003. Reports from DIRECO, supported by anecdotal information collected during the field missions by the project, indicated, however, that coca cultivation in Chapare was on the decrease following the sustained eradication campaign in the area. In 2003, the Bolivian Government reported the eradication of 10,100 ha of coca fields. A comparable level has been reported since 1998.

Nonetheless, given the larger importance of the Yungas of La Paz area for the national coca cultivation, it must be assumed that there was a net increase of coca cultivation in Bolivia between 2002 and 2003. This continued the upward trend observed in Bolivia over the 2000-2002 period, reported by other sources.

Distribution of Coca Cultivation in Bolivia in 2003 Area 2003 Coca Cultivation % of 2003 total Yungas of La Paz 16,200 69% Chapare area 7,300 31% Apolo 50 0.2% Rounded total 23,600 100%

The overall estimate of 23,600 ha also includes 12,000 ha, permitted by the Bolivian Law No 1008 (“Law on the Regime Applicable to Coca and Controlled Substances”, 1988), for traditional uses such as leaf chewing, medicinal preparations and coca tea. Thus, the total area under coca cultivation not permitted by the Bolivian Law No 1008 amounted to 11,600 ha. The overall area under coca cultivation produced an estimated 28,300 metric tons of dry coca leaf, of which 17,100 metric tons were estimated to have been used for cocaine production.

Applying a conversion ratio of one metric ton of dry coca leaf to 3.5 kg of cocaine (as established by US Government studies), the potential cocaine production in Bolivia amounted to 60 metric tons in 2003.

Prices of dry coca leaf averaged US$ 5.4 per kilogram in 2003. Assuming that farmers sell their entire production as dry coca leaf, the total gross potential farmgate value was estimated to be approximately US$ 153 million in 2003. This was equivalent to 2% of GDP or 13% of the GDP of the agricultural sector.

Following the strong price rise in 1999 – in line with a strong decrease in the dry coca leaf production - dry coca leaf prices remained largely stable over the subsequent years, including in 2003.

5 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Monthly dry coca leaf prices 1990 – 2003 (in US$/kg)

7 100,000

90,000 6 80,000

5 70,000

4 60,000 50,000

3 40,000 2 30,000

Dry coca leaf price (US$ kg) Dry coca leaf 20,000 Dry coca leaf production (mt) 1 10,000

0 - 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

Bolivia Dry coca leaf production

The results for the area under coca cultivation are based on a census of all coca fields in the coca growing areas of Bolivia, making use of the interpretation of high-resolution satellite images of one- meter spatial resolution completed by extensive ground verification. To facilitate the progress of alternative development activities, the project also developed a land use map for the Yungas of La Paz. This land use map is now the main source information used by the Vice-Ministry of Alternative Development to plan alternative development actions. .

6 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 2 Background

The objectives of UNODC’s Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme (ICMP) are to establish methodologies for the collection and analysis of data on illicit crops and to improve Governments’ capacity to monitor illicit crops in the context of the strategy adopted by Member States at the General Assembly Special Session on Drugs in June 1998. ICMP is currently active in seven countries: Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Afghanistan, Myanmar, Laos and Morocco.

The Bolivian Government and UNODC launched the project “Land use management and monitoring system in the Yungas of La Paz” in October 2001. Initially, the project focused only on the Yungas of La Paz, but in 2003, it extended its scope to include the provision of estimates on coca cultivation at the national level as well. This report presents the project’s findings for 2003 and the methodologies used in that year.

Until 2002, the US Government was the sole source of national estimates for coca cultivation in Bolivia. These estimates placed Bolivia third in worldwide coca production, far behind Colombia and Peru. 225

200

175

150

125

100

'000 of hectares 75

50

25

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Bolivia Colombia Peru

Estimates for Colombia since 1999, for Peru since 2000 and for Bolivia since 2003 come from the national monitoring systems established by the respective governments with the support of UNODC. Because of methodological differences, these figures are not directly comparable with previous estimates based on US Department of State data.

Table 1: Coca cultivation in the Andean region, 1994-2003 % change 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2002- 2003 Bolivia 48,100 48,600 48,100 45,800 38,000 21,800 14,600 19,900 24,400 23,600 n.a.1 Peru 108,600 115,300 94,400 68,800 51,000 38,700 43,400 46,200 46,700 44,200 -5% Colombia 44,700 50,900 67,200 79,400 101,800 160,100 163,300 144,800 102,000 86,000 -16% Total 201,400 214,800 209,700 194,000 190,800 220,600 221,300 210,900 173,100 153,800 -11% Sources: US department of State National monitoring systems supported by UNODC

1 not applicable: 2002 results from US department of State and 2003 results from the Bolivian monitoring system supported by UNODC relied on different methodologies and thus are not directly comparable. 7 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

In Bolivia, coca cultivation is concentrated in the departments of La Paz (in the areas of the Yungas of La Paz and Apolo) and Cochabamba (Chapare area). Coca cultivation has also been reported in other isolated regions but at very low to negligible levels. The project was implemented in cooperation with the National Direction of Agricultural Re- conversion (DIRECO), Vice-Ministry of Alternative Development (VDA), and Ministry of Agriculture. DIRECO provided logistical support during the implementation of ground activities, including the collection of a large number of ground control points, mainly in the Chapare area.

DIRECO is the primary end-user of the results generated by the project. The Bolivian National Government, through the National Council of Fight against Illicit Traffic of Drugs (CONALTID) is also relying on the information provided by this project for planning, policy design and decision making. Bolivian Law 1008 (“Law on the Regime Applicable to Coca and Controlled Substances”, 1988) permits up to 12,000 ha of traditional coca cultivation for traditional consumption and other legal uses.

The National Government is also planning to develop a study to determine the national demand for coca leaf and to establish a proper geographical definition of the traditional area of cultivation of coca, which could eventually modify the current figure of 12,000.

8 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

9 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Cochabamba Tropics Landscape

Chapare River

Different stages and techniques of coca cultivation in Yungas of La Paz

10 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 3 Findings

3.1 Coca cultivation

In 2003, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia was estimated to be 23,600 ha. Coca cultivation in Bolivia is not a widespread phenomenon (see Map 1). It is concentrated in the tropical areas of the departments of La Paz and Cochabamba.

The Bolivian law 1008 of 1988 regulates the status and extend of coca cultivation in the country. It allows for the cultivation of up 12,000 ha of coca bush in the traditional coca growing areas of the country. The traditional growing areas are: the Apolo area in the northern part of La Paz department, the western part of the Yungas of La Paz in the La Paz department and the Yungas of Vandiola, a small isolated region in Cochabamba department.

Law No 1008 does not provide a precise definition of the geographic limits for the traditional coca growing areas.

As this was the first national survey organized jointly by the Government of Bolivia and UNODC, it is presently not possible to establish a trend at the national level. However, in the Yungas of La Paz, an area on the north-eastern part of the La Paz department surveyed by the project in 2002, a significant increase has been noted (+18%).

In contrast, reports from DIRECO, supported by anecdotal information collected during field missions, indicate that coca cultivation was decreasing in the Chapare area of the Cochabamba department following the eradication campaign that started in 1998.

Six years of sustained eradication efforts in Chapare, could explain the increase in coca cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz, where no eradication took place. There have been reports of people from Chapare and other parts of the country, moving to the Yungas of La Paz, particularly in the Municipalities of Caranavi and La Asunta. The analysis of the data revealed that these two municipalities experienced the largest growth in coca cultivation between 2002 and 2003.

11 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Table 2: Distribution of Coca Cultivation in Bolivia in 2003 Area 2003 Coca Cultivation % of 2003 total Yungas of La Paz 16,200 69% Chapare area 7,300 31% Apolo 50 0.2% Rounded total 23,600 100%

Graph 1: Distribution of Coca Cultivation in Bolivia in 2003

Yungas of La Paz Chapare area Apolo

12

13 Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

14

Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

3.1.1 Coca Cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz

In 2003, the survey found about 16,200 ha of coca cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz. This represented an 18% increase compared to the 2002 estimate of 13,800 ha.

Like in 2002, the distribution of coca cultivation within the five provinces2 remained the same, with most of the coca cultivation taking place in the provinces of South Yungas and North Yungas.

Table 3: Coca Cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz for 2002 and 2003 (in ha), by province change 2002/2003 Province 2002 2003 % of 2003 total in % South Yungas 7,182 8,356 + 16% 52% North Yungas 5,187 5,914 + 14% 37% Caranavi 491 889 + 81% 5% Inquisivi 741 801 + 8% 5% Murillo 151 210 + 39% 1% Rounded Total 13,800 16,200 +18% 100%

Graph 2: Coca Cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz for 2003 (in ha), by province

South Yungas North Yungas Caranavi Inquisivi Murillo

Within the ten municipalities of the five provinces making the Yungas of La Paz, 85% of the coca cultivation in 2003 took place in just five of them: Coripata, Chulumani, Irupana, La Asunta and Coroico municipalities.

2 The Bolivian administrative organization breaks down in departments, then provinces, then municipalities. 15 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Table 4: Coca cultivation by municipality of the Yungas of La Paz in 2002 and 2003 (in ha) % change % of 2003 Province Municipality 2002 2003 2002/2003 total North Yungas Coripata 4,032 4,456 +11% 28% South Yungas Chulumani 2,678 3,020 +13% 19% South Yungas Irupana 2,253 2,481 + 10% 15% South Yungas La Asunta 1,771 2,314 + 31% 14% North Yungas Coroico 1,155 1,458 +26% 9% Caranavi Caranavi 491 889 +81% 5% Inquisivi Cajuata 741* 801 + 8% 5% South Yungas Yanacachi 421 483 +15% 3% Murillo La Paz 151 210 +39% 1% South Yungas Palos Blancos 59 58 -2% 0.4% TOTAL 13,800 16,200 +18% 100% * includes coca cultivation estimated for Loayza province in 2002.

Compared to 2002, coca cultivation increased in all the municipalities of the five provinces of the Yungas of La Paz, except in Palos Blancos where a small decrease (-2%) was noted.

The largest increase was observed in the municipalities of Caranavi (Caranavi Province) and La Asunta (South Yungas Province). There were reports of people from Chapare region and other parts of the country, establishing new coca fields in these two municipalities. Some farmers from the neighboring municipalities of Coroico, Coripata, Chulumani and Irupana where coca cultivation is dense are also reportedly looking for new land for coca cultivation in the municipalities of Caranavi and La Asunta. The interpretation of the satellite images revealed that most of the new coca fields were established to the detriment of the primary forest.

Coca cultivation expanding at the detriment of the primary forest, Municipality of Caranavi

16 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

The following map shows the change in coca cultivation between 2002 and 2003 at the municipality level for the Yungas of La Paz. It should be noted that the small amount of coca cultivation mapped in Inquisivi municipality and just outside the edge of Irupana municipality (a total of less than 10 ha), have been accounted for under Cajuata municipality.

The coca cultivation density, expressed in hectare of coca cultivation per square kilometer, is presented on page 28. It revealed that the highest coca density in 2003 was found along a hilly stretch of land, running along the municipalities of Coroico, Coripata, Chulumani, Irupana and Cajuata, and corresponding to elevations of between 1,000 and 1,500 meters, the most suitable for coca cultivation.

The analysis of the Non-satisfied Basic Index (NBI) obtained from the National Statistics Institute and the coca cultivation density map, revealed that coca cultivation is denser in the relatively better-off municipalities of Chulumani and Irupana, Coripata and Coroico, while the largest increase in 2003 was noted in the extremely poor municipality of La Asunta (see annex)

17 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

18 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

The Yungas of La Paz is a diverse region with a complex topography that includes very steep slopes, turbulent rivers and elevations varying from 300 to 4000 meters. Significant climatic variations are observed even over short distances. Coca bush is planted on narrow terraces built on high gradient hills.

Table 5: Coca cultivation by elevation in the Yungas of La Paz

Coca cultivation % of 2003 Elevation (m) (ha) total 220 – 900 900 6 900 – 1,200 2,900 18 1,200 – 1,500 6,000 37 1,500 – 1,800 4,000 25 1,800 – 2,100 1,700 10 2,100 – 2,700 700 4 Above 2,700 0 0 Rouded Total 16,200 100

Example of coca cultivation by elevation map in Yungas, Chulumani and Coripata areas

19 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Coca cultivation near the Boopi River, the Yungas of La Paz

New terraces for coca cultivation built on high gradient slope, the Yungas of La Paz

20 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

The width of the terraces varies from forty-five centimeters to one meter, depending on the slope. Coca bushes cultivated on terraces can be harvested for as long as twenty years, at an average of three crops per year. In the flatter areas located outside the traditional coca growing area coca is cultivated on non-terraced fields.

To rejuvenate the plants, every six years farmers cut them off at about 20 centimetres above the soil and let new shoots grow out.

Fertilizers and pesticides have been widely used for coca cultivation in the Yungas of La Paz for many years, but it is only in 2003 that irrigation of coca fields became common.

To establish new coca fields, farmers usually start by burning the land (“chaqueo”). The most favourable period for this activity is during the dry season, from May to August, but it has been observed throughout the year. The first crop is usually maize. Coca is planted in the field just after the maize harvest.

Coca seeds are obtained from four or five year old coca plants. Seedlings are protected from the sun for about four weeks. The coca plants are then transplanted in the fields and are given generous amounts of water. The most favourable period for seeding and transplanting of coca plants is during the rainy season, from December to February. The first harvest can take place after eight to twelve months.

The best harvest is usually from plants which are three to five years old. This normally takes place in March-April right after the rainy season.

After the harvest, farmers in the Yungas dry the coca leaves in the sun (no other method is used). Only the dry leaves are traded.

Coca and “Chaqueo”, maize Young coca field surrounded by corn

21 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Coca plants producing seed, Sun protected Seedling

New terraces, the Yungas of La Paz Building of terraces, the Yungas of La Paz

22 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Recently planted and irrigated coca New coca field at the centre of the picture, seedling is also visible

Rustic pipes for irrigation of coca fields On the right of the picture, coca fields irrigated by aspersion

23 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Coca harvest Old Coca cut off, new shots are appearing

Coca Leaf sun Drying Packing and transport of dry coca leaf

24 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Coca field description

Channel for irrigation New Terraces

Older coca fields Building of Terraces

Irrigation is clearly visible on the pan-sharpened IKONOS imagery

Irrigation corn plantation

coca crops Prepared soil for coca irrigation “chaqueo”

25 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Examples of the increase of coca cultivation in Yungas of La Paz

May 2002, IKONOS pan-merged image) August 2003, IKONOS pan-merged image)

2002, IKONOS pan-merged image) August 2003, IKONOS pan-merged image)

The images on the left side show the potential areas for expansion in white circles (2002). The images on the right side show the enlargements that took place in 2003 marked in white circles as well

26 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

3.1.2 Coca Cultivation in Apolo Municipality

In the area covered by satellite images in the municipality of Apolo (in Franz Tamayo Province, La Paz department), the survey found about 50 ha of coca cultivation in 2003. The survey area will be extended in the future to include other areas of the municipality where low levels of coca cultivation have recently been reported by DIRECO.

Map 4 shows the density map of the interpreted coca fields from the high-resolution satellite images.

In Apolo, coca cultivation is considered traditional according to law 1008. No eradication is undertaken in this area.

Table 6: Coca Cultivation in Apolo municipality for 2003 (in ha)

Province Municipality Coca Cultivation

Franz Tamayo Apolo 50

Apolo is located at the northern part of the department of La Paz, on the eastern edge of the Andean mountain range.

Coca cultivation in Apolo is traditionally associated with cassava to take advantage of the same furrow for two different crops. The coca fields in Apolo are scattered and relatively small (about 200 m2) compared to coca field found elsewhere in the country. Terraces are not used. The coca cultivation techniques and coca leaf sun drying are similar to techniques used in the Yungas area of La Paz.

The weather is comparatively dry, except in the rainy season from December to February, and the soil is poor. For these reasons, coca fields are cultivated for only about three years.

The northern part of Apolo is part of the Madidi National Park, the largest biosphere reserve in Bolivia. Only a few dispersed and small coca fields were found on the western side of the Madidi Park.

27 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

28 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Graphics from ground control in Apolo

Coca bushes interspersed with cassava in Apolo

Recently planted coca and Yucca Small seedlings

29 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

3.1.3 Coca Cultivation in the Chapare Area

The survey identified about 7,300 ha of land under coca cultivation in the Chapare area of the Cochabamba department in 2003. 3,100 ha have been identified directly from the high resolution satellite images and 4,200 were estimated to be hidden under canopy or mixed with other crops.

As this was the first year the survey was conducted in this area, comparison with an earlier year is not possible. However reports from DIRECO, supported by anecdotal information collected during field missions, indicated that coca cultivation was on the decrease following the sustained eradication campaign in the area.

According to US Government estimates, Chapare was the main centre of coca cultivation in Bolivia in the nineties. Since 1999 however, levels of coca cultivation in the Chapare area fell behind those of the Yungas of La Paz.

Table 7: Coca Cultivation in Chapare area for 2003 (in ha), by province Coca Cultivation Province in % of 2003 total (in ha) Chapare 4,250 58% Carrasco 2,864 39% Tiraque 214 3% Rounded Total 7,300 100%

Table 8: Coca Cultivation in Chapare area for 2003 (in ha), by municipality Open coca Interspersed Total Coca Province Municipality % of Total Cultivation Coca Cultivation Cultivation Chapare Villa Tunari 1,550 2,700 4,250 58% Carrasco Puerto Villarroel 500 606 1,394 19% Carrasco Pojo 453 653 1,106 15% Carrasco Chimore 101 149 250 3% Tiraque Tiraque 104 110 214 3% Carrasco Totora 114 0 114 2% Rounded Total 3,100 4,200 7,300 100%

30 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Graph 3: Coca Cultivation in Chapare area for 2003 (in ha), by municipality

Villa Tunari Puerto Villarroel Pojo Chimore Tiraque Totora

Villa Tunari is, by far, the municipality containing the largest percentage of coca cultivation (58%), followed by Puerto Villarroel (19 %) and Pojo (15%). The other municipalities show much lower levels of coca cultivation.

It is worth noting that 33% of the coca cultivation in Chapare area took place within the two National Parks of Isiboro Secure (22%) and Carrasco (11%). See map 6

Table 9: Coca Cultivation in the National Parks of Chapare area. Open Coca Hidden Coca Total Coca Area % of Total Cultivation Cultivation Cultivation Isiboro Secure Nacional Park 753 852 1,605 22% Carrasco National Park 446 332 778 11% Rest of Chapare 1,901 3,016 4,917 67% Rounded Total 3,100 4,200 7,300 100%

The main characteristic of the coca crops currently found in Chapare is that they are commonly hidden or interspersed with other crops. Farmers use this technique to avoid detection and subsequent eradication of the coca field. Common associations include almost any other licit crop, for example coca and rice, coca and cassava (yucca), or coca and pineapple. Coca is sometimes hidden using trees, like citrus, or mixed with weed. Farmers carefully time adding the coca crop to the licit crop field. Normally this is done when the other crop is at half of its maturity. Then, when the associated crop is harvested, coca is consolidated, and continues to grow for several weeks before the first harvest.

The coca cultivation density map, expressed in hectares of coca cultivation per square kilometer is presented on map 5. It shows that coca cultivation in Chapare is more scattered and less dense than in the Yungas of La Paz.

31 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

The Chapare area is a region of moderate slopes and huge rivers. Elevations vary from 300 to 2500 meters; nevertheless, the coca cultivation is cropped between the ranges of 300 – 1000 meters. The highest mountains are located in the southern region and the country’s large tropical savannas begin in the North. Temperatures are tropical and the area records the highest precipitation levels in Bolivia.

Coca cultivation is scattered with the exception of a few isolated areas where it is more intense. Coca cultivation occurs mainly on flat land and rarely on terraces. Techniques for cultivation are similar to the ones found in the Yungas of La Paz.

In a small and isolated area known as the Yungas de Vandiola, coca cultivation is considered traditional under the provisions of Law No 1008. No eradication is undertaken in this area.

Coca in Chapare is also sun dried before commercialization. According FELCN, part of the production is marketed outside the region, but it is believed that most of the coca leaves are used locally for cocaine manufacturing.

Political boundaries are not properly defined between the departments of Cochabamba and Beni, for this reason, although some coca cultivation might occur in Beni Department, all the coca fields identified during the survey along the departmental border were counted as part of the municipality of Villa Tunari, in the Department of Cochabamba.

32

33

34 Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

Examples of coca association and covering in the Chapare

Coca mixed with weed Coca associated with pineapples

Cassava (yucca)

Recently planted coca

An open coca field (left) bordering a coca field under cassava (right)

35 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Mature open coca field Coca bushes mixed with citrus trees

Coca Cassava and coca

Open coca field in the middle of a cassava plantation. Coca bushes covered by cassava

36 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

COCA Scattered plots of coca visible from air reconnaissance

Denser, larger coca fields in the Carrasco National Park Area

37 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Harvested coca

Mature coca Coca sun drying Coca under Cassava

Different aspects of coca cultivation in the Carrasco National Park area

Marketing dry coca leaves in a market at Shinaota, Chapare

38 Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

3.2 Coca Production

The present survey did not collect any data on coca leaf yield or cocaine production in Bolivia. The most comprehensive data currently available on the subject was collected by the US Government, through the Breakthrough study, that started in Bolivia in the early 1990s.

The 1993 US survey revealed that coca was harvested three times in the traditional growing area, but four to five times in the non-traditional area. The coca leaf yield per harvest was found to be lower in the traditional area than in the non-traditional area. On an annual basis, twice as many coca leaves were harvested in the non-traditional area (1,798 kg/ha) than in the traditional area (936 kg/ha)

Table 10: US Government dry coca leaf yield (kg/ha) (Operation Breakthrough) Harvest Period In Traditional Area Outside Traditional Area Feb - Apr 380 549 May - Jun - 336 Aug - Oct 216 436 Nov - Jan 340 477 Yield Kg/Ha/year 936 1,798

No data are available on coca yield production in the hidden coca fields of Chapare but it is generally agreed that the coca yields from hidden fields are substantially lower than from open coca fields. As an approximation, the yield estimates from the traditional area were applied to the hidden coca cultivation of Chapare.

Based on these data, the total coca leaf production amounted to 28,300 metric tons, of which 17,100 metric tons were estimated to be available for cocaine production.

Table 11: Production of dry coca leaf in 2003 Coca Cultivation Yield Production Area (ha) (kg/ha/year) (metric tons) Chapare (open coca cultivation) 3,100 1,798 5,574 Chapare (hidden coca cultivation) 4,200 936 3,913 Yungas outside the 12, 000 ha 7,552 4,200 1,798 permitted by law 1008 Apolo 50 936 47 Rounded sub-total: dry coca leaf for cocaine production 17,100 Yungas 12, 000 ha permitted by law 936 11,200 12,000 1008 Rounded total dry coca leaf production 28,300

Applying a conversion rate of 3.5 kg cocaine for one metric ton of dry coca leaf, as established by US Government studies, the potential cocaine production in Bolivia is estimated to have amounted to 60 metric tons in 2003.

39 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 3.3 Coca Price

Prices of dry coca leaf are collected on a monthly basis by DIRECO. They remained largely stable throughout 2003, at an average of US$ 5.4 per kilogram.

Graph 4: Monthly coca dry leaf price for 2003 (US$/kg)

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0 US$/kg

2.0

1.0

- Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Table 12: Monthly coca dry leaf price for 1990 – 2003 (US$/kg) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 January 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.1 1.5 0.9 1.3 2.1 1.5 6.0 5.4 6.1 5.4 February 0.3 1.2 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.7 1.4 1.2 2.0 1.5 5.1 5.3 5.8 5.3 March 0.3 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.6 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.7 5.4 5.3 5.7 5.2 April 0.2 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.4 2.0 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.2 May 0.4 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.3 2.0 5.9 5.4 5.6 5.3 June 0.6 1.2 1.0 1.4 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.5 2.4 6.0 5.5 5.6 5.4 July 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.8 0.7 1.3 0.8 1.4 1.5 2.4 6.0 5.6 5.7 5.5 August 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.5 0.8 1.4 1.1 1.9 1.4 3.7 6.0 5.6 5.7 5.5 September 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.2 1.5 4.8 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 October 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.4 2.2 1.4 4.9 4.8 5.6 5.4 5.4 November 0.5 1.1 0.9 1.2 1.8 1.4 1.3 2.3 1.4 4.9 5.3 5.6 5.4 5.4 December 0.3 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.7 1.4 1.2 2.1 1.4 5.0 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.5 Annual Average 0.5 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.1 1.6 1.5 3.1 5.6 5.5 5.6 5.4 US$/kg

40 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Graph 5: Monthly coca dry leaf price for 1990 – 2003 (US$/kg)

7 100,000

90,000 6 80,000

5 70,000

4 60,000 50,000

3 40,000 2 30,000 Dry coca leaf price (US$ kg)

20,000 Dry coca leaf production (mt) 1 10,000

0 - 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04

Bolivia Dry coca leaf production

It is interesting to note that the prices for dry coca leaf in Bolivia remained relatively high compared to the prices obtained in Peru (US$ 2.2 / kg). Prices for dry coca leaf in Bolivia rose sharply in 1999 following a strong decrease in dry coca leaf production, in line with the eradication activities that peaked at 17,000 ha that year (see section on eradication).

3.4 Coca Value

Assuming that farmers sell their entire production as dry coca leaf, and based on an annual average price of 5.4 US$/kg and a total production of 28,300 metric tons, the total gross potential farmgate value of coca leaf production in Bolivia in 2003 was estimated to be US$ 153 million. This would be equivalent to 2% of GDP3 or 13.4% of the GDP of the (licit) agricultural sector.

The average gross income from coca leaf production amounted to US$ 500 per capita (coca growers and non-growers) in the coca producing regions (Chapare, Yungas and Apolo) in 2003.

These figures suggest that, coca production still has an impact on the Bolivian economy, and continues to play an important role within the coca producing regions. About 300,000 people live in the (rural) coca producing areas of the country, equivalent to 3.8% of the country’s total population (8.8 million in 2003)

3 GDP in 2002 was calculated at Bs 55.9 billions or US$ 7.8 billions. Given an inflation rate of 3.9%, a GDP growth rate of 2.65% (according to preliminary calculation), and a decline in the exchange rate to 7.67, GDP in US$ appears to have remained almost unchanged in 2003 as compared to 2002.

41 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

3.5 Eradication

The eradication of coca crops takes place mainly in Chapare, and it is done manually. No sprayed chemicals are used.

In 2003, the Bolivia Government reported the eradication of 10,100 ha of coca fields, a comparable level to what has been reported since 1998, and more than was reported before 1998.

Table 13: Reported Eradication of Coca Cultivation 1986-2003 (in ha)

Year Eradication Year Eradication 1986 227 1997 7,026 1987 1,115 1998 11,621 1988 1,475 1999 16,999 1989 2,607 2000 7,953 1990 8,087 2001 9,435 1991 5,488 2002 11,853 1992 5,149 2003 10,087 1993 2,400 1994 1,064 1995 5,498 1996 7,512

Source: DIRECO

Graph 6: Reported Eradication of Coca Cultivation 1986-2003 (in ha)

18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000

ha 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 - 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

42 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Table 14: Monthly eradication data at the national level for 2003 (in ha)

Coca Seedling Coca Field Eradicated Month eradicated (m2) (Ha) January 1,460 331 February 1,415 419 March 4,520 823 April 4,013 920 May 2,352 797 June 2,972 834 July 5,962 925 August 10,140 941 September 6,438 948 October 9,978 1,381 November 7,280 1,117 December 3,294 648 T O T A L 59,823 10,084

Graph 7: Monthly eradication data at the national level for 2003 (in ha)

1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000

ha 800 600 400 200 - Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Manual eradication in Chapare

43 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

4 Land Use Map of the Yungas of La Paz

To facilitate the progress of alternative development activities, the project, using the 2002 satellite imagery for the monitoring of coca cultivation, developed a land use map over the Yungas of La Paz. In addition to coca cultivation, the land use map includes the other crops cultivated in the Yungas of La Paz. This land use map is now use by the Vice-Ministry of Alternative Development as the main source of information in the planning of alternative development.

The land use map was based on the methodology developed by the European Union CORINE project (Coordination of Information on Environment). It produced a detailed map at the 1/25,000 scale and will be used as a reference to monitor land use changes in the future.

Land use maps examples

3-D view of the land use

44 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

5 Methodology

The UNODC survey team is composed of a Chief Technical Advisor, two Remote Sensing Specialists and two GIS Specialists.

All information and data are shared with DIRECO, the government counterpart for the project. DIRECO also provided personnel to set up the fieldwork and to participate in the processing of the satellite images used to detect coca fields. Their knowledge of the field and their experience with coca farmers were invaluable to the project.

The US NAS provided the IKONOS imagery and the helicopters for air reconnaissance in order to perform the fieldwork in the Tropics of Cochabamba.

5.1 Coca Cultivation

The methodology to estimate coca cultivation relied on the interpretation of satellite imagery, supported by extensive field verification and GIS tools.

For the 2003 survey, IKONOS multispectral and panchromatic imagery were used. The multispectral images provided data at a four-meter spatial resolution in four spectral channels: the visible red, green and blue bands, plus one near infrared band. The pan-chromatic images have a spatial resolution of one-meter to facilitate the visual interpretation of the images.

Both images were acquired in the ortho-kit mode, and were ortho-rectified based on DEM with a vertical resolution of 20 meters, except in Apolo for which no DEM was available.

In 2003, the total area covered with satellite images amounted to 33,351 km2, an area equivalent to the size of Belgium, and covering all the main coca growing areas of Bolivia. The following map shows the coverage of the satellite imagery for the 2003 survey.

Table 15: Distribution of the IKONOS coverage in 2003

Area sq. Area Km Yungas 11,989 Chapare 20,010 Apolo 1,352 Total 33,351

Most of the IKONOS images were acquired in August 2003.

The detailed coverage by area and the acquisition dates are presented in the following map

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46

Graph 8: General workflow for processing Ikonos Imagery

1. Ortho-rectification DEM 20m 2. Composition, Enhancement to 1m and checking

3. Pre-classification – spectral signature

Field verification

4. Re-classification and visual interpretation Polygon generation

Field verification

47 Bolivia Coca Survey 2003

The steps for processing the satellite images are as follows:

1. Ortho-rectification, using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with 20m vertical accuracy and ground control points.

2. Composition and spectral enhancement to 1 meter with Bovey and Kernel filters using the pan- chromatic band, checking.

3. Pre-classification (supervised) for the determination of spectral signatures, application of Fuzzy and Fourier algorithms.

4. Field verification

5. Re-classification (supervised) and visual coca crop identification, with polygon generation and coca quantification

6. Field verification for accuracy assessment

In the Yungas, in the traditional and densest area of coca cultivation, coca is the dominant crop, grown on terraced slopes. The large size of parcels and the relative absence of other crops that could create confusion, make the identification of coca fields by visual interpretation of enhanced and ortho-rectified imagery relatively easy.

Outside the traditional coca growing areas, coca cultivation is usually separated from other agricultural crops. This makes its interpretation also relatively easy.

In Chapare visible coca fields were interpreted the same way as in the Yungas of La Paz. Additional steps were devised to account for hidden or mixed coca cultivation that could not be directly interpreted from the satellite images.

Field work in the Chapare revealed that most of the hidden or interspersed coca fields were bordering clearly visible coca fields. These border areas were clearly different from the surrounding primary forest canopy, and gave a particular spectral signature on the satellite images. This spectral information combined with the knowledge obtained from the ground verification permitted the establishment of an estimate for hidden coca cultivation.

Additional ground information received from DIRECO also indicated there were more hidden coca fields than visible coca fields in Chapare area.

In Apolo the same procedure as in the Yungas of La Paz was used.

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Examples of 3D views – Yungas of La Paz, Municipality of Chulumani Area

3D Views of draped satellite imagery over a DEM, before the interpretation (above) and showing coca cultivation in orange (below)

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Satellite 3D view and field picture, Tajma Village, Chulumani – Yungas of La Paz

Tajma Village Picture area (red)

Tajma Village

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Picture and satellite image showing visible and mixed crop – Municipality of Villa Tunari, Chapare

Visible coca hidden coca boundary Different spectral signature, Ikonos imagery (Picture taken on December 2003) dated August 2003 Visible coca border (yellow) Hidden coca boundary in red

51 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Examples of interpreted coca fields in Chapare, the Yungas of La Paz and Apolo, from IKONOS pan- sharpened imagery.

Chapare, imagery taken on august 2003 the Yungas of La Paz, imagery taken on July 2003

Apolo, imagery taken on June 2003

52 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

5.2 Field Work

The project obtained a large number of Ground Control Points, starting in 2002 in the Yungas of La Paz and, as of 2003, extending to Apolo and Chapare. Since 2002, about 2,400 Ground Control Points were collected, of which, about 1,200 in 2002 and 1,000 in 2003 were in the Yungas of La Paz, and about 200 in 2003 were in Apolo. The points have been obtained directly from the ground, using regular GPS techniques.

In the Chapare area about 1,500 control points were obtained by the project during helicopter flights in 2003. Twelve flights, organised by the project in conjunction with NAS and DIRECO, were set up. The helicopter flew about 450 meters above the ground, either describing circles around pre-defined area of interest, or following straight lanes oriented North-South.

The project tested a methodology to download GPS data in real time on a note book and overlay these data directly on the satellite images.

In addition, in the Chapare area, DIRECO also provided the project with direct ground data.

The ground control points supported the interpretation of the satellite images in the following ways:

- Delineation of the survey area; - Prior to the image classification, enabling the determination of the spectral signatures of coca fields and other crops; and, - correcting the confusion between crops after the initial classification.

The form used for the ground control is presented in annex 3.

53 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003

Taking a Ground Control Point (GCP) using conventional GPS

A GPS track showing South – North lines of flight in Tracking Circles over interest areas White, GCPs in green over the Chapare area

54 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 5.3 Accuracy Assessment

In addition to the ground control points, more ground data were collected during field missions in order to establish the accuracy of the final classification of the satellite images. The accuracy assessment is established by comparing a sample of reference data obtained from the ground and the image classification as described by Russel and Congalton in”Accuracy assessment for the remote sensing”.

In the Yungas area, the analysis of the 1,720 points collected on the ground revealed that the accuracy of the image classification for coca cultivation was 86%.

The following table showed the detailed error matrix for different land use in the Yungas of La Paz in 2003:

Table 16: Error Matrix for the Yungas of La Paz Field checked classes (crop fields)

Error Total Total % matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 correct samples correct 1 302 5 6 4 13 11 9 302 350 86 2 6 100 4 3 11 4 2 100 130 77 3 4 9 98 6 2 6 3 2 98 130 75 4 120 7 46 6 7 120 150 80 5 129 4 6 7 2 2 129 150 86 6 2 6 63 8 4 10 7 63 100 63 7 17 60 8 15 60 100 60 8 12 65 8 15 65 100 65 9 12 55 12 3 3 55 85 65 10 8 7 5 57 6 2 57 85 67 11 12 5 2 4 55 7 55 85 65

Interpreted classes(crop fields) 12 13 11 3 58 58 85 68 13 3 3 2 77 77 85 91 14 2 4 3 76 76 85 89 TOTAL 331 123 116 157 148 88 82 90 61 113 93 113 116 89 1315 1720 74

The classes are coded as follows:

1 coca 2 rice 3 corn 4 citrus 5 banana 6 Coffee 7 Cacao 8 Mango 9 Papaya 10 mixed crops 11 Other crops. 12 Forest 13 Mixed weed, including herbaceous vegetation and grass 14 Prepared soil

55 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 5.4 Coca Yield

To establish its annual estimate of coca leaf and cocaine production, UNODC relies on information available from other sources. The most comprehensive work on the subject was done by the US Government during the operation Breakthrough that started in Bolivia in 1993. UNODC plans to undertake a yield study in the future.

5.5 Coca Price

Prices of coca dry leaf were collected by DIRECO on a monthly basis throughout 2003.

56 Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey 2003 6 Annexes

Annex 1: Map of 2003 satellite coverage in the Yungas of La Paz Annex 2: Map of 2003 satellite coverage in Chapare Annex 3: Ground control form Annex 4: Coca density map and the Non-Satisfied Basic Needs Index (NBI)

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: 58

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Annex 3: GROUND CONTROL Form

Mission AD/BOL/F Date HOJA DE 57

Responsable

ID Point East North Elev Crop Boundaries Notes Desc. North East South west

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Annex 4: Coca density map and the Non-Satisfied Basic Needs Index (NBI)\

Note about the Unsatisfied Basic Needs Index (NBI)

The NBI is an aggregated indicator used to measure the satisfaction of basic human needs. The composite index includes the adequacy of dwelling space, quality of housing material, sanitary conditions, and the school attendance of children 6-12 years old. NBI has been used widely in Latin- American countries as a measurement of poverty at regional levels. Since NBI is an expression of a percentage of unsatisfied needs, high values of NBI represent high levels of poverty.

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