Texas Navy Association Historical Article
The Cruise of a Forgotten Flotilla: An Historiographical Survey of the Texas Navy
Jerry C. Drake
The seacoast is the threshold of American prehistory and history, of American culture, and like most well-passed thresholds, it is hal- lowed and worn. And historians routinely ignore it. --John Stilgore, Alongshore
n 1994 historian Stephen L. Hardin has been largely ignored by American 19th century so heavily dependent upon the Ipublished Texian Iliad: A Military History historians. Richard V. Francaviglia, in his coast, sea power played a pivotal role in the of the Texas Revolution, 1835-1836 in which introduction to From Sail to Steam: Four outcome of the Texas Revolution. he attempted to provide a concise overview Centuries of Texas Maritime History, 1500- of the war from a military standpoint. The 1900, outlined a number of reasons why Historian Peter J. Kastor has argued that careful student of the revolution, however, historians have neglected the Texas coast. the model so often employed by military will find something lacking in Hardin’s Although he diligently follows the argument historians to analyze warfare is inadequate work. While he paints a masterful portrait of Ellis W. Shuler, that the coast of Texas is when one attempts to use it to understand of the war on the ground, he fails entirely really “a barrier to rather than an invitation naval operations. Military historians and at his aforementioned purpose: a military to settlement,” he ultimately chalks the biographers return, ultimately, to a kind history of the conflict. Nowhere in this cause of neglect up to “simple bias” on the of “great man/great battles” history that volume does the word “navy” appear. While part of historians.1 In terms of the Texas emphasizes personal heroism without it is one thing to write about the revolution Revolution, simply put, historians have bringing warfare into its broader context.2 from a landlubber’s perspective it is quite always preferred to write about land battles When considering such a tightly focused another to proclaim this a “military history” and, as a result, their significance has been model one is reminded of General George when such a gigantic portion of what makes over amplified. While the vainglory of the Smith Patton’s remark when he cynically up the military has been omitted in total. Alamo and the desperate vengeance of San sniffed “History is replete with accounts Jacinto are certainly more romantic than of military inventions, each heralded by Hardin is not entirely to blame for his shipping tonnage and materiel lines, it is its disciples as the ‘Dernier Cri,’ the ‘Key’ error, for historians of Texas have been the presence--or lack thereof--of munitions, to victory.”3 Military historians seem to repeating this same mistake for generations. food supplies, clothes, and capital that engage in this fallacy when they focus in on The history of the “Third Coast” of the ultimately determines the outcome of wars. an individual battle or person that becomes United States, in general, is one that In an economy such as that of Texas in the a metaphor for the war. Napoleon and Hitler did not fight their wars alone, nor did they do Cussler, himself a popular writer of best- what is called for is a true military history so in a vacuum. Thus the Texas Revolution selling adventure novels and the discoverer of the Texas Revolution that intersects the must become something more than just of the wreck of the Texas Navy Ship Zavala, roles of both the army and navy within an a series of skirmishes highlighted by the echoed this lament best when he wrote overarching social, political, and economic overarching personalities of its leaders. “Regretfully, the day may never come when context. Texas naval heroes such as Moore, Hurd, Kastor has stated that most modern and Hawkins are as familiar as Travis, Although it is not the purpose of this essay historians who write on naval affairs do Bowie, and Fannin.”6 to provide an in-depth historical analysis so under the powerful influence of Alfred of the Texas Navy, it will be worthwhile to Thayer Mahan. As an historian he did much All-in-all it will take a new model of draft a thumbnail sketch of the highlights to bring about the idea that the traditional understanding in order to adequately of its career. Some historians, including model of military history as propounded by evaluate the role of the Texas Navy in the most recently Douglas V. Meed, have the scholar of action on the ground could broader history of the Texas Revolution. argued that the “navy” was actually born in be applied to war afloat. Consequently, What is most earnestly needed is a synthesis 1832, some three years before the General historians of naval activity have failed to of not only the Texas military at sea, but Council formally created a navy for Texas. place it into its proper context. Modern of the entire maritime operation, both It is true that ships played a major role in historians have neglected more recent merchant marine and ship-of-war alike, the tariff revolts that took place in the cities historiographical developments and, as a into the broader history of the revolution. of Galveston and Anahuac in that year. In result, the writing of naval history--and by Until this is done it will be impossible to fact, a small flotilla of three schooners was extrapolation military history as a whole-- fully understand why the ground war played organized that did a remarkable job of has suffered. Kastor has written: “Like their out the way it did and, in the long run, how patrolling the sea lanes. The commander intellectual ancestors, they [naval historians the Republic of Texas was able to play a role of one of these little vessels, the Red River, and biographers] have celebrated individual in commerce on the high seas. Historians named Captain David L. Kokernot, would skill and heroism without trying to integrate can ill afford to pretend that Texas is a write years later, “We were the first Texas naval personnel into a broader social, landlocked place. Navy.”7 cultural, or institutional context.”4 The aim of this paper is, in some small Several skirmishes involving naval As early as 1963 James M. Merrill attempted way, to begin that task. What is performed activity took place before there was an open to warn us away from this trend with an herein is an historiographical survey of the declaration of hostilities between Texas and evaluation of post-Mahan historiography. literature of the Texas Navy with an eye Mexico. It can be argued, although with He dedicated an entire article to what he toward the encouragement of synthesis. considerable trepidation, that the first shots believed was an emerging trend towards Thus this paper should function as a tool that of naval ordinance at Anahuac represent placing naval and military history into a places bibliographic resources in the hands the opening volley of the Texas Revolution. much broader context.5 Sadly this trend of scholars and serves to guide the direction Although Meed and others have made this failed to develop. Perhaps nowhere is this of subsequent research toward a broader case, this, once again, removes “military” stunted growth more clearly exhibited than understanding of the maritime role in the activity from its broader context and unduly in the writing of Texas history. Author Clive War for Texas. What is needed and, indeed, highlights it. Although these skirmishes were, in a very real since, open conflicts they Diplomacy to the navy’s influence on the navy with resolve. Texas was fortunate that were not viewed at the time as a pretext to outcome of the battle of San Jacinto. Many Mexico never attempted to launch a major war. That was to come later. So, perhaps, of Santa Anna’s actions, according to Hill, naval sortie, for what had been brokered then, the first munitions spent at Gonzales were dictated by lack of supplies. The in Velasco was not so much a treaty as a deserve to hold the distinction of being the Mexican military never opened a marine simple armistice built on somewhat shaky first shots fired “in war”. But subsequent front and proponents of the Texas Navy legal ground. Texas had never received the research may reveal a deeper importance often argue that they were kept from doing recognition it desired from its parent nation of those beginning skirmishes at Anahuac. so by the presence of the roving Texan “fleet”. and by 1840 it was clear that this would not Needless to say, these early altercations However, it is more likely that the Mexicans happen without further military conflict.10 taught the Texans the importance of even simply never concerned themselves with Most scholars of the Texas Revolution the most rudimentary sea power. trying. have long abandoned their narratives by this point, but a truly thick description of By late in 1835 the provisional government It must be remembered that General the fight must include the work of the navy of Texas had begun to see the importance Santa Anna considered himself to be Le during the intervening years of the Republic. of a formal naval force. On November Petit Napoleon. Napoleon, himself a For during this time period the Texas Navy 25 the General Council passed a bill land general, never fully understood the was to be the young nation’s major line of establishing a navy of four schooners. This importance of sea power and deeded it defense against her neighbor to the south. bill also allowed for the issuance of letters of quickly to the British. His Mexican protégé marque.8 Privateers took almost immediate was equally unconcerned with the war afloat In this defense, Texas was often aided by advantage of this authorization, helping in Texas. The maintenance of open ports events taking place on the international to protect the coast and preventing crucial may ultimately be proven to be the deciding stage. Mexico’s conflict with France, during supplies from reaching the Mexican forces. factor in the Texas Revolution. A further which the port of Vera Cruz was subjected However, no in-depth study of privateering and more detailed analysis of commercial to naval blockade, cost Mexico significant during the Texas Revolution has yet been interaction between Texas, New Orleans, naval resources. France annexed a part written. Historians such as Meed and Jim and Mexico will have to be undertaken in of the Mexican navy into her own fleet, Dan Hill give us hints that something with order to more fully explore this hypothesis. once again taking much of the pressure far-reaching consequences may have been However, a cursory examination seems to off of Texas.11 This only further serves to going on, but strong research on this topic indicate that this relationship was quite highlight the need for a careful analysis of simply does not exist. complex indeed. external forces on the military outcome of the Texas Revolution. By January of 1836 the four schooners that By September of 1837 the first Texas had been authorized were purchased and Navy was no more, as all of the fledgling Despite this lucky turn of events, Texas the official navy of Texas came into being. Republic’s ships had been lost.9 Although was forced on various occasions to engage Its significance in the war largely had to do the Treaty of Velasco was signed on May 14, Mexican ships. A list of those engagements with the maintenance of sea power. Jim Dan 1836, the battles with Mexico did not end for is too numerous to be given here and it is not Hill dedicated chapter four of his The Texas the Texas Navy until the eve of the Mexican my purpose to “fight the war” in these pages. Navy in Forgotten Battles and Shirtsleeve War. In 1839 Texas began to rebuild its Of more importance is the dynamic of Texas naval power. For instance, whether or not, forced into a duel with both the people of are adequate for the creation of some rather as Jim Dan Hill puts it, one believes that the Galveston, the homeport of the navy, and detailed analysis of the naval enterprise. The Texas Navy was affective, the government the navy’s able commander, Commodore repositories for information relating to the of the early Republic certainly did.12 In the Edwin Ward Moore. Moore, who had put Texas Navy are the Texas State Library and beginning Texan leaders fully supported the to sea in 1841, refused to return to Texas. Archives, The Center for American History navy and were willing to fund it. However, Rather, Moore entered into negotiations at the University of Texas at Austin, and complacency and an attempt to withdraw with Yucatan for defense and succeeded the Rosenberg Library in Galveston. The from the international scene during Sam in engaging the Mexican fleet on various Texas State Library’s collection contains the Houston’s second administration led to a occasions. However, when, in March of surviving records of the Texas Navy as well crucial change in this dynamic that tells us 1843 the Commodore received word that as the diplomatic papers of the Republic much about the role of Texas in political Houston had declared Moore and his navy as of Texas. In addition, this collection affairs within the hemisphere during the pirates he promptly returned to Galveston. has a “Miscellaneous File” dedicated to Republic. Initially, Texas had been willing It was not until 1844 that Moore would Commodore Edwin Ward Moore, the Navy’s to engage in bold international intrigues, receive trial and subsequent acquittal by most influential commander. Moore wrote including a brief attempt at imperialism Congress on this charge.15 Moore’s return two pamphlets explaining his role as high within Mexico. to port in 1843 ended the active career of the commander of the navy, chiefly as his defense Texas Navy. In 1846 the navy and her crews against the charge of piracy. In addition, the On September 18, 1841 Texas entered into were incorporated into the United States TSL collection also contains the journal and an agreement with the rebellious Mexican Navy and promptly decommissioned. Texas logbook of Midshipman Alfred Walke. province of Yucatan by which Yucatan agreed Navy sailors would not have their claims for to pay Texas $8,000 a month for naval payment by the U.S. settled until 1857, the The Center for American History’s protection.13 This move was coordinated date when the Texas Navy officially came to collection is notable for the number of during the Lamar presidency, characterized an end.16 journals and correspondence papers it by attempts to affirm the independence of contains relating to the Texas Navy. These Texas. Although the fleet left for Yucatan in A number of historians have argued the journals have yet to be adequately plumbed December of 1841, upon the inauguration of veracity and importance of the career of the by scholars and are of particular interest. Houston into his second term, the navy was Texas Navy. Suffice it to say a Texan victory They include the writings of Midshipman subjected to a recall.14 It is well known that during the revolution against Mexico could Edward Johns, Lieutenant William A. Houston, unlike Lamar, was a supporter of not have been coordinated without adequate Tennison, and Midshipman James L. Mabry. the move to make Texas a part of the United sea power. While the above historical sketch In addition, a number of important letters States. A roving navy, actively engaging hardly does justice to the complex history of written by key players in the naval action are ships (often U.S. ships, as in the case of the the Texas Navy, its only purpose is to give also contained within this collection. brig Pocket) would not make Texas an easy the reader sufficient background for the friend of the United States. following historiographical survey. Finally, the Rosenberg Library is home to the Colonel James Morgan papers. Morgan However, Houston in his fight to recall, The primary source materials relating to was an early Texas settler, businessman, decommission, and sell the navy was the Texas Navy are not voluminous but they and military commander at Galveston. Two ships under his control were often questionable. These materials offer the James M. Denham and Douglas V. Meed utilized by the Texas Navy.17 Any study of reader nothing new. With extensive have made good use of newspaper sources. the interaction of the Galveston commercial contemporary journals available, these two Many of the activities and controversies in interest and the navy must include a look at recollections drafted some decades after which the Texas Navy was involved were the work of Morgan during this time period. events, do not really serve to augment the reported and debated in newsprint. As earlier diary-type manuscripts. Careful well, in analyzing the navy’s activities and Only a few primary source materials have scholars may wish to keep a running mental interactions in U.S. ports such as New found their way into print. This is surprising list of discrepancies and anachronisms that Orleans and New York it would be wise to considering the dearth of material available. appear in these documents before claiming look to newspapers as a possible source for Both Alexander Dienst with his early work them as sources for published findings. material. Papers that typically show up in “The Navy of the Republic of Texas” and citations in works on the Texas Navy are Linda Ericson Devereaux with The Texas In addition to the aforementioned material as follows: Galveston Civilian, Galveston Navy have attempted to bring to light some in print related directly to the navy, one News, Houston Morning Star, New Orleans of these source materials. Dienst’s work, should also be referred to the published Courier, New Orleans Picayune, Telegraph itself, is mostly chronologically arranged journal of Francis C. Sheridan. Adequately & Texas Register, Texas Gazette, and Texas excerpts from source materials. Deveraux edited by Willis W. Pratt, the journal was Republican. provides us with a strong research tool, published in 1954 under the title Galveston having compiled muster rolls of those who Island Or, a Few Months off the Coast of The majority of the histories composed served, details about the navy’s ships, and a Texas, The Journal of Francis C. Sheridan, on the subject of the Texas Navy can best be strong bibliography. Although Dienst’s work 1839-1840. Sheridan was an Irishman in described as broad surveys. Each successive has appeared both in a scholarly journal and the British diplomatic service that spent generation of historians, beginning most as a privately published book, Deveraux’s some time in Galveston. This work provides prominently with Alexander Dienst at the book was printed to limited circulation and strong insight into the life of the port city of turn of the last century, has discovered the may be difficult to come by. Galveston, told from an educated outsider’s navy it seems, on its own. Sadly, as new point of view, during a time when the Texas writers come and go they rarely contribute Two further source documents to which Navy was active. anything new on the subject. A broad researchers should be referred were synthesis culled from the literature is published in the Quarterly of the Texas State It is interesting to point out that only impossible. Any new history of the navy Historical Association (now Southwestern recently have scholars begun to plumb must be written as just that--a new history. Historical Quarterly) in 1902 and 1904. newspapers as a resource for studying the However, there is a body of literature These are, respectively, the reminiscences Texas Navy. Obviously, this is due to the available with which to work and much of of C.C. Cox and George F. Fuller. Both difficulty in locating materials in a medium it, mostly in the form of articles in scholarly men served in the Texas Navy and, at the that is typically dispersed and largely un- journals, should be taken into consideration. end of very busy lives, drafted these brief indexed. However, recent innovations memoirs relating to their service. While in collection management and computer In a four part series that appeared in 1909 these documents are interesting and should technology are making this resource more in the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical be looked at, their reliability is certainly available to the scholar. Authors such as Association Dienst traced the history of the navy from early skirmishes in 1835 until the as well as lengthier “survey” works directed to have been of little use to writers of broad official end of the navy with the settlement of at a general audience. Douglas has nothing surveys or popular pieces on the navy, but his her surviving crewmembers’ claims. Dienst to expand on the “Dienst paradigm,” simply perspective is more closely in line with the relied heavily on source material, often mimicking the senior author’s timeline and proposal being made by this paper. In 1927 reprinting it in its entirety. This work, later deleting almost all references to primary Winston published “New Orleans and the privately republished by the author, deserves sources. No doubt, Douglas helped to Texas Revolution,” an article that expanded careful study by anyone undertaking a solidify the Dienst model for writing on the the war for Texas beyond the boarders of study of the Texas Navy. Within this work Texas Navy into the popular mindset. the would-be republic. Few students of the Dienst creates the “formula” by which Texas Revolution have successfully grasped most subsequent naval histories have While this paper is not intended as a survey the international nature of the conflict. been written. He establishes the primary of the popular literature composed on the While writers such as Stephen Hardin, even timeline, earmarks the crucial events, and, subject of the Texas Navy, scholars will want today, continue to only hint at a relationship most significantly, creates the dichotomy to become aware of the typical pitfalls that lay between Texas and the United States, between the land war and events at sea. in wait for the less than thorough researcher. Winston was willing to acknowledge and Dienst was writing at a time when historians An especially disturbing problem is modern explore this symbiosis three quarters of a were only just seriously beginning to look at authors’ crutch-like reliance on extremely century ago. Texas maritime commerce primary materials and, at times, he becomes early predecessors, even when composing was the engine of early Texan capitalism. A bogged down in them. The Texas Navy in relatively late works. For example, both strong tie with the United States, through her this work largely operates in a vacuum. Bess Scott’s “Texians on the High Seas” port at New Orleans, was a reliable source At the time that Dienst was writing, naval (1983) and Jonathan W. Jordan’s “Lone of capital and merchandise. The Texan power, thanks in large part to Mahan, was Star Republic’s Navy” (1999) fail to consider merchant marine was the leading financial seen as a determinant of a nation’s strength. personages and event timelines outside of vehicle of the day and the military flotilla No doubt this refined philosophical stance the model established by Dienst. Scott’s was designed to be her protector. Knowing led Dienst to resurrect the forgotten Texas article is a work of popular writing, published this, one is able to see the ports of Anahuac, Navy. However, Mahan’s influence is in Texas Highways Magazine and Jordan’s Copano, and Galveston as the true “interior” perhaps too great here, as we are provided is a work of historical research published in of Texas--places of high concentration of with a completely one-sided narrative. a scholarly journal, The Quarterly Journal Anglo population, capital, and interest, While Dienst’s work was groundbreaking of Military History, but both pieces are of while the sundry sites of Goliad and Bexar it established a faulty paradigm on which a almost equal stature in their usefulness to become the extreme frontier. century of historians have based their work. revisionist historians. Winston expanded his premise in In 1936 Claude L. Douglas published the Although Dienst, clearly influenced by 1930 with the publication of “Notes on first major “popular” work on the Texas Mahan, created the contextual paradigm Commercial Relations and the Texas Navy, Thunder on the Gulf, or The Story that most historians of the Texas navy Revolution”. Published only six years before of the Texas Navy. While this slim volume have pursued, an entirely different track of the Texas Centennial, it is hard to think of offers little to the scholar, it is oft cited in a research was created in the late 1920’s by this work as being of great influence at the myriad of magazine and newspaper articles James E. Winston. Winston’s work seems time. In a day when Texas was attempting to create a “Western personality”, that is high ranking officers in the Mexican army. were able to maintain the upper hand. distance itself from its Southern roots of Neu argued that Invincible was within her cotton, slavery, and Yankee colonialism rights to capture Pocket and claim her as a To return to our primary track, the year through the accentuation of ranching, oil, prize or war. Texas was, after all, attempting 1937 saw the publication of arguably the best and the rugged, individualistic frontier to blockade the port of Matamoros and both piece of scholarship on the Texas Navy yet ideal, Winston’s work placed early Texas custom and maritime law of the day put produced. Written, once again, around the directly within its Southern context. Cotton Pocket legally in the hands of the Texan Centennial year at a time when Texans were is brought to the fore as the “white gold” of crew. However, this event proved to be near rediscovering many aspects of their history, Texas and a colonial connection with the disaster for the diplomatic struggle between Jim Dan Hill’s The Texas Navy in Forgotten United States is shown to have been the Texas and the United States. Battles and Shirtsleeve Diplomacy is the life blood of Texas material and materiel closest thing we have to a true synthesis of success. After carefully studying Winston Neu, who is perhaps a little too easy on naval and ground action during the war for and his intellectual heirs one can only puzzle the Texans, is one of the very first authors Texas. As was previously mentioned, Hill at military historians such as Hardin. While to place the war for Texas into its proper dedicates an entire chapter to the naval he carefully pointed out that Anglo Texans international context within the overarching contribution to the victory at San Jacinto. often achieved the upper hand through politics of the hemisphere. As well, the To accomplish this task, Hill brought to their possession of superior munitions United State is seen at the birth of a role it has bear a fully battery of sources and ideas such as accurate rifles and Delaware gun repeated throughout most of the 19th and not normally seen in a history of the Texas powder he then never proceeded to explain 20th centuries: that of disinterested profit Revolution. Trade relations, international the all important factors that created this taker. Although U.S. sympathies clearly political connections, and supply lines are situation.18 lied with the Anglos of Texas, American all discussed. capitalists were more than happy to supply In tracing the early historiography of the Mexico in order to earn profits. The case Arguably, Hill’s most important Texas Navy at this point we must take one of Pocket serves to illustrate the diplomatic contribution is the attention given to the brief step backward to 1909 in order to position Texas was in as conflict between Texas Navy as a tool of diplomacy. This analyze an almost anomalous article written military and diplomatic strategy came to tool was often deployed inconsistently, by C.T. Neu. Too early to have been strongly a head. In addition, Neu ably illustrates with varying degrees of success, but Hill influenced by Dienst, this work, entitled the importance of Texan sea power during does an admirable job of removing the war “The Case of the Brig Pocket” looks, in some the conflict. For the first time, the U.S., for Texas from its vacuum by highlighting considerable detail, at an incident that normally seen as a monolithic neutral party the fact that, for better or worse, the navy occurred early in the Texas Revolution. In in the fight, takes an active role. This serves was often the fledgling republic’s most March of 1836 the brig Pocket, sailing under to illustrate the necessity--and the danger- visible international representative. Early the colors of the United States, was captured -of the Texan maritime strategy. At times, on, Hill acknowledges his indebtedness by the Texas Navy Ship Invincible. Pocket, the Texas Navy and the privateers sailing to Dienst, but points out that Dienst was sailing from New Orleans to Matamoros, under Texas colors were forced into a duel primarily an “antiquarian” and his research contained contraband cargo, was sailing with their Anglo brethren from the United “made no effort to integrate the maritime under false papers, and had as passengers States and, more often than not, the Texans activities and naval operations with the complexities of the foreign and domestic back into its Southern context. Subsequent, study of the company founded by these two affairs of the turbulent Mexican and Texan detailed studies of the Texas Revolution men in the role of the Texas Revolution Republics...”.19 Hill begins this project with should take a serious accounting of what is greatly needed. As slave owning The Texas Navy in Forgotten Battles and influence slavery and the cotton industry businessmen largely backed by interests in Shirtsleeve Diplomacy, but, sadly, the thesis as a whole had on the need for maritime the U.S. a study of their relationship with has never been fully expanded upon--either supremacy. Texas would, no doubt, further expand our by students of the navy itself, or of the Texas understanding of the Texas Revolution and Revolution as a whole. The 1960’s proved to be the “Golden Age” the role Yankee capital played in it. for scholarship on the Texas Navy. The The greatest criticism that can be lodged majority of the literature produced on the Haugh followed up this little sketch against Hill is that he was, if fact, using subject was created during this time period. in 1961 with “The Texas Navy at New his book to make an apology for the Texas Much of it was written by the intellectual York”. Haugh, for the first time, delved practice of slavery. He states at the outset heirs of Winston who sought to use the navy into new primary source material for an that he is attempting to revise historians as a means of expanding the context of early understanding of the Texas Navy and its who had previously concocted the theory Texas during the Revolutionary period. relationship with the United States. He that an independent Texas was encouraged Diplomatic relations and trade become the introduced into the equation, articles from by Southern “slaveocrats” as a means of primary focus of writings by historians who New York newspapers and material from the expanding their peculiar institution into were, once again, revising Texas’ historical Diplomatic Correspondence of the United the North American Southwest. Hill, it context. States. We see the Texas Navy in port at must be remembered, was publishing at a New York stirring up trouble--racking up time when Texans were attempting to shake In 1960, Tom H. Wells began the decade debt, attempting to encourage New Yorkers off the “tyranny of cotton” and establish with his very short, but poignant “An into service aboard Texas ships, and finally, themselves as a Western state. Hill uses Evaluation of the Texas Navy”. This little of actually attempting to “impress” men, The Texas Navy in Forgotten Battles and survey, with Commodore Moore featured including a Briton, into the navy. Any Shirtsleeve Diplomacy to advance that newly as the primary player, serves as a short lengthy survey of the Texas Navy should emerged paradigm. He wrote “It [the Texas reminder to historians that the Texas Navy build upon Haugh’s article and further Revolution] was rather a phenomenon of did, indeed, exist and was waiting, once again plumb the sources that he discovered. The a rapidly increasing population expanding nearly forgotten, for inquiry. Published activities of the navy in New York only into a great geographical semi-vacuum- alongside Wells’ piece was another short further serve to underscore the often-shaky -the West, of which Texas was merely a article by George F. Haugh entitled “History relationship Texas had with its neighbor to part.”20 The trouble with this statement of the Texas Navy”. This thumbnail sketch the north. is that evidence later presented by Hill provided a timeline somewhat different from himself largely serves to contradict this that established in the “Dienst paradigm”. In 1960 Tom Wells followed up his brief theory. The ports of Texas are seen as being For the first time the role of merchants article with the publication of a full-length very intimately tied with the U.S. South, Thomas F. McKinney and Samuel M. book on the Texas Navy. This work, especially through New Orleans. Modern Williams in the birth and financing of the Commodore Moore and the Texas Navy, revisionists are once again placing Texas Texas Navy was touched upon. A detailed was the first book length publication to appear on the navy since Jim Dan Hill’s Another navy man, retired Admiral Samuel number of illustrations and photographs piece almost three decades prior. While Murray Robinson, under the auspices of the featured throughout. Written apparently Wells’ work is good, it is sadly lacking in Sons of the Republic of Texas, published a as a popular work designed, ultimately, many respects. The “main character” in the slim little pamphlet entitled A Brief History to highlight Texas’ modern contribution drama is Commodore Edwin Ward Moore of the Texas Navies in 1961. Robinson’s to the U.S. Navy (chiefly through the work who did not come to command the Texas tiny work is a true gem for the historian of Admirable Chester Nimitz) this book is Navy until 1839. Wells offers no background of the revolutionary maritime experience. mentioned only to serve as a benchmark. material on the navy up to this point. As a With this work the retired Admiral turned While revisionist scholars were, at last, result, the uninitiated reader is no doubt left his considerable understanding of military taking a closer look at the Texas Navy and, puzzled by many of the events that quickly strategy to the Texas Revolution. Robinson consequently, the Texas Revolution, in a unfold. The navy’s diplomatic intrigues and drafted a strategic assessment from the broader context, the popular audience was its interactions on an international scene perspective of, as he called it, the “jaundiced being exposed to a recycled paradigm that are represented. In addition, Wells focused eye” of General Sam Houston. He pointed by this time was half a century old. Sadly, on many of the commercial and financial out that, although Houston owed the Texas as the 1960’s closed, this paradigm would maneuverings that not only brought the navy a debt of gratitude for its contribution continue to hold fast. Texas Navy into existence but also made it to the victory at San Jacinto, his ultimate a necessity. betrayal of the navy was based on strategic The quality of scholarly materials ignorance and pecuniary expediency. produced on the Texas Navy since the close Wells, himself a navy man, however, was Robinson’s little volume features perhaps of the 1960’s has been strong, although the clearly far too enamored with his subject. the most succinct appraisal of the Texas quantity has been lacking. In 1970 K. Jack Moore was a young man, seasoned but not Navy’s strategic value found anywhere in Bauer published “The United States Navy and always wise, who often acted rashly and print. He clearly outlined the role sea power Texas Independence: A Study in Jacksonian without taking into account his position played in both war and “peace”, highlighting Integrity”. At last, one is taken directly to within the government of Texas. His successes that lead to the Texans holding the heart of the relationship between the loyalties, eternally, were to the navy and not the sea-lanes in the face of superior tactical United States and Texas. Bauer’s in-depth to his adopted nation. Wells, at times, simply might. Any military assessment of the Texas analysis posited that although the United apologizes for the Commodore’s behavior Navy must begin with Robinson’s book. States clearly had sympathies, both financial rather than attempting to explain it. On and philosophical, in line with the Texan occasion he falls into the trap laid by Mahan The1960’s, however, did not close cause, her navy attempted to maintain the in his pursuit of “great man/great battles” without the publication of a heavily Dienst- strictest neutrality even to the detriment of naval history. Clearly, Wells was attempting influenced work on the Texas Navy. her Anglo brethren. Although there are holes to provide Moore with a place at the table Somewhat ironically this brief softbound in Bauer’s argument, he firmly accepted the of Crockett, Bowie, Travis, and Houston. book was printed by the Naval History navy as the representative vehicle of Texas’ Nevertheless, his book is an important step Division of the United States Navy in 1968. relationship with the outside world. Naval forward toward a more expanded context Entitled The Texas Navy this book is really conflict, both military and diplomatic, is into which to place the Texas Navy. nothing more than an expansion of the given its proper due. We see the war for Dienst timeline, notable mostly for a great Texas as a conflict of broader proportions and we begin to understand more deeply 1836-1845”, by coming through the “back and Ernest G. Fischer’s Robert Potter: the international pressures placed upon the door” of the debate, so to speak, accomplished Founder of the Texas Navy. While the naval would-be republic. many important tasks. The length of the materials found within these works can While Bauer’s work looked at the external conflict, from the Mexican perspective, is certainly be gleaned from other sources, it pressures endured by the Republic of Texas thus increased from that typically viewed by is interesting to view the Texas Navy from and her navy, Margaret Hatton, in 1973, modern Anglo historians. The action, after the perspective of this one man. It can only examined one of its chief internal conflicts. San Jacinto, simply moved from the land be hoped that future biographers of other “The Houston-Fisher Controversy” explored to the sea. Mexican politics, indeed, was persons involved in the activities of the the fight between President Sam Houston shaped by the controversy over Texas. The Texas Navy, especially Messrs. McKinney and his naval secretary, Samuel Rhoads Texas Navy and its attempts to control and and Williams, Samuel May Williams, and Fisher. Almost from the beginning the two regulate trade and foreign naval maneuvers Sam Houston will include more in-depth men locked horns. Fisher was a firebrand on the Gulf proved to be a leading factor in discussion of the role of the navy in these with a stubborn temper to match Houston’s the internal machinations that played out people’s lives. equally aggressive disposition. He often saw within Mexico. A good deal more research fit to “trash” the Chief Executive in the press should be undertaken in this area. Within the past ten years writing on the in order to defend his own agenda. Despite subject of the Texas Navy has fallen off this, Fisher had an understanding of the Before beginning an evaluation of the quite drastically. By and large, scholars need for a navy, in the face of a Mexican current state of affairs attention should be of the Texas Revolution as a whole, as threat, that Houston did not grasp. Fisher drawn to one aspect of literature that has typified by Stephen Hardin’s Texian Illiad, managed to hold the navy together, often by been excepted from the above survey: naval continue to follow an outmoded dichotomy crook, and even accompanied it on a cruise biogrpahy. Almost every major player in the that separates the land and naval wars into that Houston had officially disallowed. Texas Revolution has been biographied in two distinct realms, all the while demoting For his trouble, Houston, in spite of a lack some form or another. However, with only maritime activity in its importance. Sadly, of constitutional authority, eliminated a few notable exceptions, few of these are writers attempting to compose new works the position of Naval Secretary putting worthy of comment. The reader’s attention on the Revolution have made little if any Fisher out of a job. Houston here is seen should be drawn especially to two books use of the scholarly works produced over as an imperial figure bent on bending the written on Robert Potter, the hot-headed the past half century that expand the role government to his will. A further exploration North Carolinian known as the “founder” of the navy and place the Revolution into a of his motives, especially in regard to his of the Texas Navy. Potter was a notorious broader international context. There have, desire to withdraw from the international troublemaker and a controversial figure however, been two notable exceptions to scene, is warranted. throughout his life, having been killed in this standard. the Regulator-Moderator War. Thus this To once again return to the international somewhat “lesser light” has been made In 1994 a direct intellectual descendent of stage, in 1985 Josefina Zoraida Vazquez the subject of two fine books that feature Winston published a long overdue revision introduced the Mexican perspective to the the Texas Navy prominently. These works of that elder author’s original thesis. In story of the Texas Revolution. Her article, are Ernest C. Shearer’s Robert Potter: “New Orleans, Maritime Commerce, and “The Texas Question in Mexican Politics, Remarkable North Carolinian and Texan the Texas War for Independence, 1836”, James M. Denham once again looked at The merchant marine is given fair treatment on the subject of the Texas Navy has been the connection between the United States and the trade relationship and diplomatic utterly ignored. Sadly this work, intended and Texas through the port city of New harangues with other nations are explored. for the popular audience, clearly represents Orleans. The nature of this shaky balance No book on the history of Texas--especially the gross lack of impact serious scholars of between commercial interest and military on the subject of the Revolution--should the Texas Navy have had on the study of the necessity was once again brought to the be undertaken without thoughtful study subject. fore. Texas was both a facilitator and an of Francaviglia’s work. He has, however, inhibitor of trade. By keeping the sea lanes taken up a heavy gauntlet, indeed, for in Arguably the Texas Navy is one of the most open Texas-New Orleans commerce was attempting to return Texas to a maritime influential aspects of the Texas Revolution allowed to take place, however the Texas context he is forced to smash many idols and the subsequent Republican Period Navy’s practice of seizing both Mexican and and disrupt many accepted paradigms. One to have been almost utterly ignored by American ships engaged in trade with New can only hope that this trend in scholarly scholars. Even historians such as Stephen Orleans infuriated that city’s business elite. revision continues. Hardin, attempting to revise many of our Denham argued that New Orleans, as the misconceptions of the revolution, fail to embarkation point for volunteers from the Standing as an almost polar opposite to grasp the significance of sea power during United States bound for the fight in Texas, Francaviglia’s work is Douglas V. Meed’s The the struggle. Further, popularizers of the became the center of Texan revolutionary Fighting Texas Navy, 1832-1843. Published navy’s “cause” such a Douglas V. Meed often activity within the United States. The in 2001, this work represents only the labor under an outmoded paradigm created Texans’ tumultuous relationship with New fourth major book published on the Texas almost a century ago. In attempting to revise Orleans, it can be argued, was one of the Navy. Although the work offers a few useful our understanding of the Texas Revolution deciding factors in the outcome of the war. arguments (stated above) in regard to the one must step beyond the shadows of Alfred Denham’s expansion of Winston’s original employment of naval power during the tariff Mahan and Alexander Dienst. New models work now sits awaiting its inclusion into a revolts at Anahuac and Galveston, sadly this for our understanding of naval operations, broader synthesis of the war. work is nothing more than a slightly revised as proposed by Kastor, must be taken into version of the “Dienst model”. Following account. The work of James Winston and In 1998 a seminal work on the Texas the elder author’s established timeline those who have followed in his footsteps such maritime experience was published by Meed expanded upon certain events only as Denham and Francaviglia are in need of Richard V. Francaviglia. With From Sail to marginally. No part of this book dealt with synthesis and expansion. Ultimately what Steam: Four Centuries of Texas Maritime the Texas Navy in its broader context either is called for is nothing short of a complete History, 1500-1900, Francaviglia firmly on the international scene or within the history of the Texas Revolution, tracing placed Texas within its maritime context. confines of the Revolution itself. The Dienst its origins from the beginnings of Anglo The chapters dealing with the Texas Navy dichotomy, once again, was fully reinforced. settlement through the tariff revolts of 1832 included arguable the best materials Further, a perusal of Meed’s bibliography and beyond the Battle of San Jacinto on to produced on the subject to date. The navy is indicates absolutely no recognition of the the closure of the Mexican War. placed not only into its proper context within work of Winston and many of his intellectual the war for Texas, but also in the overarching heirs. In short the most promising body of What scholars have provided us with up portrait of Texas maritime history as a whole. research to be produced over the last century to this point is an incomplete picture. The importance of the land battles in the Texas partment, “Report Relative to My Cruise in _____. E.W. Moore, “A Brief Synopsis of Revolution have become divorced from the Command of the Texas Fleet”, August 29, the Doings of the Texas Navy, Under Com- truly important commercial and political 1837. Austin, Texas. mand of Commodore E.W. Moore”. Austin, pressures that ultimately led to the outcome Texas. of the war and the incorporation of Texas _____. James Mabry journal, Texas Navy. into the United States. The Texas maritime Austin, Texas. _____. E.W. Moore, miscellaneous file. experience is the unexplored vehicle for our Austin, Texas. understanding of these events. Texas must _____. Lieutenant Tennison’s Journal, be seen as a player on the international Texas Navy. Austin, Texas. _____. E.W. Moore, “To the People of scene and as the dominant force in the Gulf Texas”. Austin, Texas. of Mexico throughout this time period in _____. Logbook of Midshipman Edward order for a true understanding of the broad Johns, Texas Navy. Austin, Texas. _____. Midshipman’s journal and log book significance of the Texas Revolution to be of Alfred Walk, Texas Navy. Austin, Texas. reached. Not merely a regional conflict, _____. Report of the cruise and transac- the Texas Revolution both directly and tion of the Texian schooner of war Brutus. _____. Navy Papers. Austin, Texas.Books indirectly involved a number of nations, Austin, Texas. commercial and political interests, and a Cussler, Clive and Craig Dirgo. The Sea myriad of intrigues rarely touched upon Cox, C. C.. “Reminiscences of C. C. Cox,” Hunters: True Adventures with Famous by most scholars. The incorporation of the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical As- Shipwrecks. New York: Simon and Schus- maritime context into the war for Texas will sociation, 6 (October 1902): 128. ter, 1996. radically alter how we perceive those events and, in the end, perhaps a more accurate Fuller, George F. “Sketch of the Texas Devereaux, Linda Ericson. The Texas Navy. portrayal of them can be created. Navy,” Quarterly of the Texas State Histori- Nacogdoches: Ericson Books, 1983. cal Association, 7 (January 1904): 223- 234. Dienst, Alexander. The Navy of the Repub- Selected Bibliography21 lic of Texas, 1835-1845. Temple: privately Pratt, Willis W., ed. Galveston Island or printed, 1909. Primary Source Material a Few Months off the Coast of Texas: The Journal of Francis Sheridan, 1839-1840. Douglas, Claude L. Thunder on the Gulf, or, Center for American History, University of Austin: University of Texas Press, 1954. The Story of the Texas Navy. n.p.: Turner Texas at Austin. Captain James D. Boylan, Company, 1936; Reprint, Fort Collins: Old Rosenberg Library. James Morgan Papers. Army Press, 1973. Commander of Schooner of War Brutus to Galveston, Texas. Honorable Secretary of the Navy, August 31, Fischer, Ernest G. Robert Potter: Founder 1837. Austin, Texas. Texas State Archives, Texas State Library. of the Texas Navy. Gretna: Pelican Publish- _____. Henry L. Thompson, command- Diplomatic correspondence of the Republic ing Company, 1976. ing Texas Navy to the Honorable Naval De- of Texas. Vol. 2, Part 1, Part 3. Austin, Texas. Francaviglia, Richard V. From Sail to Denham, James M..”New Orleans, Mari- Quarterly of the Texas State Historical As- Steam: Four Centuries of Texas Maritime time Commerce, and the Texas War for In- sociation, (April 1909): 276-295. History, 1500-1900. Austin: University of dependence, 1836,” Southwestern Histori- Texas Press, 1998. cal Quarterly, (January 1994), 97-. Scott, Bess, “Texians on the High Seas,” Tex- as Highways Magazine, (February, 1983): Hill, Jim Dan. The Texas Navy, in Forgotten Dienst, Alexander. “The Navy of the Repub- 14-19. Battles and Shirtsleeve Diplomacy. Chicago: lic of Texas, Part I,” Quarterly of the Texas University of Chicago Press, 1937; Reprint, State Historical Association, 12 (January Vazquez, Josefina Zoraida, “The Texas Austin: State House Press, 1987. 1909): 165-203. Question in Mexican Politics, 1836-1845,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 89 Meed, Douglas V. The Fighting Texas Navy: ____, “The Navy of the Republic of Texas, (1985): 309-. 1832-1843. Plano: Republic of Texas Press, Part II,” Quarterly of the Texas State Histor- 2001. ical Association, 12 (April 1909): 247-275. Wells, Tom H., “An Evaluation of the Texas Naval History Department, Department of Navy,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, the Navy. The Texas Navy. Washington, ____, Alexander, “The Navy of the Repub- 63 (April, 1960): 567-571. D.C.:Naval History Division, Department of lic of Texas, Part III,” Quarterly of the Texas the Navy, 1968. State Historical Association, 13 (July 1909): Winston, James E. “New Orleans and the 1-43. Texas Revolution,” Louisiana Historical Robinson, Samuel Murray. A Brief History Quarterly, 10 (July 1927): 317-354. of the Texas Navies. Houston: Sons of the ____, Alexander, “The Navy of the Repub- Republic of Texas,1961. lic of Texas, Part IV,” Quarterly of the Texas Winston, James E. “Notes on Commercial State Historical Association, 13 (October Relations Between New Orleans and Texas Shearer, Ernest C. Robert Potter: Remark- 1909): 85-127. Ports, 1838-1839,” Southwestern Historical able North Carolinian and Texan. Houston: Quarterly, 34 (October 1930): 91-105. University of Houston Press, 1951. Haugh, George F., Editor, “History of the Texas Navy,” Southwestern Historical Quar- Websites Wells, Commander Tom Henderson, USN, terly, 63 (April 1960): 572-579. retired. Commodore Moore & The Texas Brunson, B.R. and Andrew Forrest Muir, Navy, 2d ed. Austin: University of Texas ____, “The Texas Navy at New York”, 64 “James Morgan”, in The Handbook of Tex- Press, 1988. Southwestern Historical Quarterly (January as Online n.d.,
6Clive Cussler and Craig Dirgo, The Sea 14 ibid. Hunters: True Adventures with Famous Shipwrecks (New York: Simon and Schuster 15 ibid. , 1996), 75. 16 ibid. 7 D.L. Kokernot, “Battle of Anahuac,” South- western Historical Quarterly XLII (1939); 17 B.R. Brunson and Andrew Forrest Muir,
© Texas Navy Association