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A Review of the Biophysical Properties of Salmonid Faeces: Implications for Aquaculture Waste Dispersal Models and Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture

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A Review of the Biophysical Properties of Salmonid Faeces: Implications for Aquaculture Waste Dispersal Models and Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture AquacultureResearch,2008,1^17 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02065.x REVIEW ARTICLE A review of the biophysical properties of salmonid faeces: implications for aquaculture waste dispersal models and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture GKReid1,2, M Liutkus1,2,SMCRobinson2,T R Chopin1,T Blair2,T Lander1,2,JMullen1,2, F Page2 & R D Moccia3 1Centre for Coastal Studies & Aquaculture, Centre for Environmental & Molecular Algal Research, University of New Brunswick, St John, NB, Canada 2Department of Fisheries & Oceans, St Andrews Biological Station, St. Andrews, NB, Canada 3Department of Animal and Poultry Science, Aquaculture Centre, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada Correspondence: G K Reid, Centre for Coastal Studies & Aquaculture, Centre for Environmental & Molecular Algal Research, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB, Canada E2L 4L5. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Keywords: nutrition, ¢sh farming, faeces, envir- onmental impact assessment, nutrient loading, Knowledge of the quantitative and qualitative proper- Atlantic salmon ties of salmonid faeces is necessary for aquaculture waste dispersal models, and the design of integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) systems. The Introduction amount and proximate composition of salmonid faeces can be estimated using a mass-balance, nutri- The global culture of salmonids (i.e. trout, salmon, tional approach. Indigestible components of salmonid charr) has doubled in the past decade from 0.94 mil- diets have the potential to a¡ect faecal‘cohesiveness’or lion MT in1995 to 1.99 million MT in 2005 (FAO ‘stability’. Nutrient content and density of faeces can 2007). The intensive cage culture nature of salmo- vary depending on diet and submersion time. Faecal nids, accompanied by a rapid expansion in produc- density has a greater in£uence on settling velocity tion has lead to several environmental concerns than faecal size. Published settling velocity data on (Naylor, Goldburg, Primavera, Kautsky, Beveridge, salmonid faeces are highly variable due to di¡erences Clay, Folke, Lubchenco, Mooney & Troell 2000; Read in ¢sh size, rearing systems, collection time, water & Fernandes 2003; Mente, Pierce, Santos & Neo¢tou density, methodology, the mass fraction tested and 2006). The fate of solid (organic) and soluble (inor- diet. Most faecal settling data used in published salmo- ganic) nutrients has been one of these concerns, due nid waste dispersal models are rudimentary and re- to the potential for eutrophication. cent information suggests that such models are Two approaches that aim to prevent eutrophica- highly sensitive to this input.The design of open-water tion from cage-based salmonid aquaculture are the IMTA systems and estimation of nutrient capture and use of dispersal/deposition models and the co- recovery from co-cultured ¢lter feeders is di⁄cult due culture of extractive species. Each approach requires to limited information on particle size, digestibility, information on the biophysical properties of salmon settleable and non-settleable mass fractions of salmo- faeces. Information on the physical properties of nid faeces at cage environments. Implications of faecal salmonid (and other ¢n¢sh) faeces, in particular, is properties on the accountability for the e¡ects of aqua- highly variable and disparate in the scienti¢c litera- culture nutrient loading are discussed. ture (Magill,Thetmeyer & Cromey 2006). A thorough r 2008 Blackwell Munksgaard No claim to original US government works 1 A review of the biophysical properties of salmonid faeces GKReidet al. Aquaculture Research, 2008, 1^17 review is therefore warranted to identify knowledge it is assumed that quantifying solid waste dispersal is a gaps and juxtapose physical properties with compo- prerequisite for quantifying deposition per unit area. sitional data, as a means to assist in the development of these approaches. In£uences on the biophysical properties of salmonid faeces, associated empirical Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) data and resultant implications, will therefore be the focus of this review. Information on the properties of Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture advocates nu- feed pellets and faeces from other cultured species trient recovery to achieve sustainability. Integrated may be included where comparisons are necessary multi-trophic aquaculture involves the co-culture of or salmonid-based information is lacking. Informa- species from multiple trophic levels where nutrient tion on the fate of soluble (inorganic) nutrients, losses from one species are nutritional inputs for an- generated directly by excretion or through reminera- other (Chopin, Buschmann, Halling,Troell, Kautsky, lization of settled particulates, is also required for a Neori, Kraemer, Zertuche-Gonzalez,Yarish & Neefus full understanding of the nutrient e¡ects of aquacul- 2001; Troell, Halling, Neori, Chopin, Buschmann, ture systems; it is, however, not the subject of this Kautsky & Yarish 2003; Neori, Chopin,Troell, Busch- review. mann, Kraemer, Halling, Shpigel & Yarish 2004; Neori,Troell, Chopin,Yarish, Critchley & Buschmann 2007). Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is the modern o¡spring of traditional aquatic polyculture Aquaculture waste dispersal models (Neori et al. 2007). In polyculture, production is ex- Avarietyof aquaculture models have been developed as tensive (low production and low management) and predictive or explanative tools that seek to demonstrate may, in some cases, include only di¡erent organisms sustainable thresholds of nutrient assimilative capacity. from the same trophic level. Integrated aquaculture In response to the potential for excessive deposition of allows intensive management of several monocul- organics to the sea£oor, as well as transport within the tures from di¡erent trophic levels within the same pelagic ecosystem, several models incorporate dispersal system, all connected by nutrient transfer through components of waste aquaculture solids (Gowen, water (Chopin et al. 2001; Neori et al. 2004). Ideally, Brown, Bradley & McLusky 1988; Gowen, Bradbury & co-cultured species in an IMTA system will be har- Brown 1989; Panchang, Cheng & Newell 1993, 1997; vestable‘crops’; hence, they represent another source Silvert 1993; Findlay & Watling 1994; Kishi, Uchiyama of revenue for the farmer and thus are more than just & Iwata 1994; Sowles, Churchill & Silvert 1994; Hevia, bio-¢lters. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture sys- Rosenthal & Gowen1996; Silvert & Sowles1996;Dudley, tems can include co-cultured inorganic extractive Panchang & Newell 2000; Cromey, Nickell & Black species such as seaweeds and co-cultured organic ex- 2002; Gillibrand, Gubbins, Greathead & Davies 2002; tractive species (COES) such as ¢lter and deposit fee- Carroll, Cromey, Karakassis, Pearson, Thetmeyer & ders. While there have likely been many incidental White 2004; Doglioli, Magaldi, Vezzulli & Tucci 2004; IMTA sites in Asia for centuries, IMTA sites in the Stigebrandt, Aure, Ervik & Hansen 2004; Corner, West have only recently been developed. For example, Brooker, Telfer & Ross 2006; Chamberlain & Stucchi blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)andkelps(Saccharina 2007;Jusup,Gec› ek & LegovicŁ 2007; Moccia, Bevan & latissima and Alaria esculenta) grown adjacent to Reid 2007). The amount, settling velocity and often Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)cagesintheBayof composition of waste solids are model inputs.The deter- Fundy, Canada, have shown markedly increased mination of faecal composition and the amount gener- growth rates and are now being sold commercially ated is relatively straightforward as detailed in this (Reid, Robinson, Chopin, Mullen, Lander, Sawhney, review. However, knowledge of the physical properties MacDonald, Haya, Burridge, Page, Ridler, Boyne- of salmonid faeces and the associated in£uences under Travis, Sewester, Marvin, Szmerda & Powell 2008). cage culture conditions is rudimentary.Speci¢cally,de- Optimizing the design of IMTA sites and modelling tails on salmonid faecal density, settling velocity,‘stabi- the nutrient recovery e⁄ciency of such a system ne- lity’,settleable vs. non-settleable solids, and size range is cessitates qualitative, quantitative, spatial and tem- either diverse or limited in the published scienti¢c lit- poral data on the nutrients loaded from the upper erature. Because most of these models aim to determine trophic levels. In the case of COES at ¢sh cages, the where solid organic waste will go, the term ‘dispersal’ biophysical properties of the ¢sh faeces such as nutri- will be used to describe such models in this review, as ent content, digestibility, particle size and factors af- r 2008 Blackwell Munksgaard 2 No claim to original US government works, Aquaculture Research, 1^17 Aquaculture Research, 2008, 1^17 A review of the biophysical properties of salmonid faeces GKReidet al. fecting settling location (i.e. density, mass fractions poor economic FCR. This reduction in the loss of and settling rate) can have signi¢cant implications waste feed is in part due to improved waste pellet de- for augmented growth and nutrient recovery. tection mechanisms such as machine vision (Ang & The maximum nutrient recovery achievable for Petrell 1997; Parsonage & Petrell 2003) that prompts open-water IMTA is unknown. This will likely re- cessation of feed delivery upon detection of waste pel- main same until co-cultured species are grown at lets. It is estimated that due to such technologies, feed scales complementary to site salmon production, wastage is routinely
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