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Biological Control of Salmon Lice

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Biological Control of Salmon Lice Master’s Thesis 2020 30 ECTS Faculty of Landscape and Society (LANDSAM) Biological Control of Salmon Lice: A Critical Analysis of Knowledge Production and Development in the Norwegian Cleaner Fish Industry Patrick John Bolliger Master of Science in International Environment Studies BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS Abstract The lumpfish and four species of wrasse have become important resources for cleaning salmonids of sea lice in Norwegian aquaculture. Cleaner fish’s delousing effectiveness and mortality rates in salmon cages vary dramatically due to environmental conditions, disease, and husbandry practices. While cleaner fish are portrayed as an environmentally friendly product, no post-cleaning use is made of their body parts. Thus, researchers and animal rights organisations have questioned whether the wrasse fishery and large-scale lumpfish aquaculture is justified and ethical. This case study analyses themes derived from qualitative interviews focussing on the history, knowledge production, and contestation of cleaner fish practices using a critical political ecology approach. The results suggest that despite rapid growth in their use, cleaner fish are an impermanent delousing solution. Perceptions of cleaner fish use are changing from optimism to scepticism and their use is characterised by uncertainty due to efficacy and welfare challenges. I argue that producing and using cleaner fish in Norway is contradictory in nature and constitutes a ‘socioecological fix’ of capitalism. This helps explain how salmon aquaculture’s inherent vulnerability to lice creates an opportunity for behaviour in cleaner fish to be produced, exploited, and profited on. At the same time, this process both produces and ‘fixes’ social, economic, and environmental externalities. This provides grounds to critique the legal and regulatory context in Norwegian aquaculture, which I argue amplifies profitability goals while underemphasizing fish welfare. i ii BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Biological Control and Salmon Lice Treatments ............................................................ 3 1.2 Scale and Use of Cleaner fish ......................................................................................... 5 1.3 Cleaner fish Efficacy and Contestation........................................................................... 7 1.4 Objective and Research Questions................................................................................ 10 2 Methods................................................................................................................................. 11 2.1 Research Design............................................................................................................ 11 2.2 Sampling Approach ...................................................................................................... 12 2.3 Field Work .................................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1 Interview Descriptions and Respondents ................................................................ 13 2.3.2 Questioning ............................................................................................................. 15 2.4 Data Management and Analysis ................................................................................... 15 2.5 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................ 17 3 Theory ................................................................................................................................... 18 3.1 Political Ecology ........................................................................................................... 18 3.2 Political Ecology and Marxist Theory .......................................................................... 20 3.3 'Socioecological' Fix ..................................................................................................... 23 3.4 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 25 4 Results ................................................................................................................................... 26 4.1 Origins, Uncertainty and Impermanence ...................................................................... 26 4.1.1 Cleaner fish Use in Salmon Aquaculture ................................................................ 32 4.1.2 Uncertainty in Cleaner fish Aquaculture ................................................................ 36 4.1.3 Wrasse Fishery ........................................................................................................ 41 4.1.4 Cleaner fish Transport............................................................................................. 44 iii BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS 5 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 47 5.1 Section 1 – History, Externalities and Change in Cleaner fish Use.............................. 47 5.1.1 From Optimism to Scepticism ................................................................................ 48 5.1.1.1 Social and environmental externalities ............................................................ 50 5.1.1.2 Contestation ..................................................................................................... 54 5.1.1.3 Response from Regulators ............................................................................... 55 5.1.2 Section 2 - Cleaner fish as a Socioecological Fix ................................................... 57 5.1.2.1 Spatial Fix ........................................................................................................ 58 5.1.2.2 Value, Costs, and the ‘Production of Nature’ .................................................. 59 5.1.2.3 Predominance .................................................................................................. 63 6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 69 7 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 72 8 Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 85 iv BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS List of Figures Figure 1. Increase in number of cleaner fish used (number in 1000 individuals). ........................ 4 Figure 2. Scanned letter from the Directorate of Fisheries to salmon farmer requesting more information regarding their use of wrasse for delousing salmon. ..................................... 27 Figure 3. Article from ‘Fiskaren’, 27 September, 1976 with heading ‘Salmon farmer uses small ballan wrasse to clean the fish of lice’.. ............................................................................ 28 Figure 4. Estimated weight of cleaner fish used in Norwegian salmon farms (2015-2018). ....... 53 List of Tables Table 1. Semantically ‘less loaded’ words ................................................................................... 65 Table 2. Comparison of welfare rules for farmed chickens and farmed salmon (Original) ......... 85 v BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS vi BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SALMON LICE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS 1 Introduction Aquaculture is Norway’s second most important industry after petroleum in terms of revenue, and a key focus of the country’s research and development. Production of salmonids (Atlantic salmon [Salmo salar] and rainbow trout [Oncorhynchus mykiss] – referred to collectively as salmon hereafter unless specified) comprises 99.8% of total production weight (FishStatJ, 2020), but several other species are also farmed. Norway is now the world’s largest exporter of farmed salmon and thus, the industry is important for generating regional employment and revenue (Johansen et al., 2019; Norwegian Government, 2019). Nevertheless, ownership of salmon production and its value chain has been consolidated into the hands of fewer and larger companies (NOU, 2018: 18). In 1996 the ten largest companies sold 19% of total sales, while in 2018, the ten largest companies sold 67% (Directorate of Fisheries, 2020d). The industry has indeed changed character from being small-scale in its ‘pioneer days’ in the late 1960s and 1970s to now being an industrial farming system dominated by publicly traded companies (Hovland & Møller, 2010; NOU, 2018: 18). Salmon farming’s reputation has also been tarnished by various environmental problems often criticized in Norwegian media (Olsen & Osmundsen, 2017). For example, excess waste emitted from farms negatively influences surrounding marine ecology (Norwegian Environment Agency, 2017). Additionally, the expansion of salmon aquaculture has correlated with a large decline in wild salmon populations (Torrissen et al., 2013). Studies have found that escaped farmed salmon hybridize and negatively affect the genetic uniqueness of wild salmon populations (Skaala et al., 2019). Sea lice infestation in farm cages is also
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