Domination, Development, and Drought: A Study of Two Chikunda Settlements in Dande, Zambesi Valley, Zimbabwe Fernanda Maria Claudio Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology The London School of Economics and Political Science 2005 UMI Number: U51B449 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U513449 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Libraryy SrKtoh Lfcrary <* Pwmw* and Economic SSBW9» I 1 2 , ^ ^ Abstract The principle theme of this study is an examination of the relationship between political and economic domination, and development and drought in the Dande area of the Zambesi Valley, Zimbabwe. To this end, two settlements, a centralised polity and an area of shallow and dispersed lineages, were researched and compared. While the populations of these areas comprised different clans and lineages, particular attention is paid to the Chikunda group whose dominant clan in Dande, the marunga rosario andrade , controlled a longstanding centralised chieftaincy. Political process in Dande was until the 1990s viewed as the performance of two forms of chieftaincy, autochthonous and conquering. Autochthonous chiefs were believed to be supported by the people and to act in benevolent ways, while conquering chiefs were expected to act in the interests of their own clan and lineage. Particular attention is paid to the issue of chieftaincy through an examination of the formation of centralised Chikunda polities which derived from a Portuguese land tenure system. Accounts of marunga conquest of Dande and the Chapoto chieftaincy of the 1990s are examined with regard to domination. In comparison, the importance of land spirits in the discourse of chieftaincy is highlighted in terms of centralised and decentralised polities. While the significance of chieftaincy as a political discourse in Dande was high, during the 1990s the introduction of state policies of structural adjustment and development altered political and economic practices. Serious drought in 1991-92 exacerbated longstanding inter-generational conflict which led to a split of outlook on issues of kinship, political organisation, and livelihood practices. The occurrence of serious drought and associated hunger and illness, coupled with social pressures brought by development, caused local populations to express the belief that the Zimbabwean state, which had been installed through the will of the people, was no longer for the people. The trajectory of the Zimbabwean state from its role as autochthonous ruler to that of conqueror in little over a decade after Independence is examined through discussion of land spirit ceremonies performed during and after drought. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 6 Illustrative Materials 8 List of Appendices 9 Abbreviations 10 Maps 11 Figures 15 Illustrations 25 Introduction 29 Chapter 1: 34 Domination, Development, and Drought i. Centralised and Acephalous Societies: The Meanings of Affiliation 34 ii. Domination 37 iii. Rain-Making and Drought 41 iv. Development 42 v. Who are the Chikunda? 44 vi. An Historian’s Perspective 45 vii. An Anthropologist’s Perspective 49 viii. Summary 51 Chapter 2: 53 Methodology i. Chikafa and Kanyemba: Fieldsites and First Encounters 53 ii. Methods 55 iii. Oral Histories 61 iv. Fieldnotes 65 v. The Issue of Ethnographic Authority 67 vi. Working in Disaster 68 Chapter 3: 71 The Roots of Chikunda Domination: The Making of Kanyemba’s House in Dande i. An Introduction to the Marunga Rosario Andrade Clan 71 ii. Portuguese Colonisation of the Zambesi: The Prazo System and 74 Slavery iii. Chikunda Migration to Dande: The Cultural Logic of Conquest 84 iv. Chikunda Migration to Dande: The View from Chapoto’s Opposition 93 v. Marunga Settlement of Chikafa 95 vi. Chihumbe, Kanyemba, and Nyanderu as Symbols of Marunga 97 Domination vii. The “Giving of Boundaries” in Dande 98 viii. The Chapoto Chieftaincy 103 3 Chapter 4: 107 Autochthony and Conquest: The Ethnographic Present of the 1990s i. The Multiple Meanings of Dande 107 ii. Kinship in Dande: The Importance of Clans and Lineages 110 iii. The People of Kanyemba 121 iv. The People of Chikafa 131 v. Summary 135 Chapter 5: 136 Spirits and Chiefs: The Cult of the Mpondoro i. Mpondoro: An Introduction 136 ii. The Knowledge of Mpondoro 141 iii. The Structure of the Chief-Mpondoro Relationship 146 iv. Mediums 153 v. Assistants 158 vi. Possession ceremonies 163 vii. Summary 167 Chapter 6: 169 The State in Zimbabwe in the 1990s: Some Influences on Dande i. The Autochthonous State Becomes Conqueror: An Introduction 169 ii. Political Process in Dande: Local Structures During the 1990s 174 iii. Chiefs and Headmen 176 iv. The Independence War and Changing Allegiances 182 v. District, Ward, and Village Councils 186 vi. Structural Adjustment: Some Effects on Dande 193 vii. The Zimbabwean State and Domination in Dande 201 Chapter 7: 206 Development Schemes in the Zambesi Valley during the 1990s Empowerment and Control i. Critique of Development 206 ii. Development and Intentions 213 iii. Developing the Zambesi 215 iv. CAMPFIRE: Design 221 v. Social Organisation and CAMPFIRE in Kanyemba 228 vi. The Mid Zambesi Valley Rural Development Project (MZP): Design 233 vii. The MZP, Land Use and Livelihood in Chikafa 237 viii. Development in the Zambesi Valley: Resistance and Acquiescence 245 4 Chapter 8: 248 The Impact of the Serious Drought of 1991-92 in the Zambesi Valley i. The Serious Drought of 1991-92: An Introduction 248 ii. Local Response to the Drought: Practical Strategies 254 iii.The Impact of the Drought on Body, Mind, and Community 262 iv. A Rain-Making Ceremony in Chikafa: A Case Study of 269 Spirit Possession v. The Role of the State During Drought 276 Chapter 9: 280 “They Fix Each Other with Crocodiles”: Resurgence of Witchcraft in Chikafa in 1993 i. Introduction: A Crisis of Social Reproduction in Chikafa 280 ii. Witchcraft and the State in Africa and Zimbabwe 287 iii. The Meanings of Witchcraft in Dande: Kanyemba and Chikafa 292 Compared iv. A Witchcraft Accusation in Chikafa Area 300 v. Summary: Social Disruption and Justice 308 Conclusion 312 Appendix 1 326 Appendix 2 332 Archival Sources 341 References 344 5 Acknowledgements It is to the Chikunda people of the Zambesi that I am most indebted for generously sharing their time and experience with me in the harsh and demoralising context of a drought. In Chikafa and Kanyemba my greatest debt is to September Shereni, my field assistant and translator. This project benefited immeasurably from his education, skill, endless goodwill and patience. Through him I saw something of the dilemma of being young and hopeful in the Zambesi. In Chikafa, I was welcomed by the late Lazarus Zhuwao and his wife Stella. Others who enabled my work were: Sabhuku Chikafa and the Village Chairman; Ward Councillor Mutsvairo; Noel and Eva Kambure who built my house; and, Pleasure Jani who taught me about the local environment. The late Chief Chapoto welcomed me to Kanyemba and shared stories of his long life. I would also like to thank Ward Councillor Zakias Kanyemba, Antonio Chipesi and his wives, Alick Chimata, Mirion Rovera and his son, Weston Vhadiyu, and Sabhuku Chiyambo. In Harare, I would like to thank the late David Beach for facilitating a Research Associateship in the Department of History, University of Zimbabwe. Also, Professor Ngwabi Bhebe and Marshall Murphree. In Darwendale, George, Margaret, and William Kluckow offered hospitality and taught me much about commercial farming in Zimbabwe. From Lee and Phil Vermaak I learned of the tragic impact of the War of Independence on young whites and the terrible dilemmas they encountered. In London, I was inspired by David Lan who shared some of his fieldwork experience. Henrietta Moore provided invaluable guidance in the early stages of research, particularly during fieldwork. Peter Loizos believed in my abilities and in the value of this study and saw the thesis through to completion. I am grateful to friends at LSE: Cecilia Busby, Mark Harris, Mark Jameson, Leonie Kindness, Kepa F. de Larrinoa, Andrew Long, Margaret Taylor, Alison Tiemey, and Yasushi Uchiyamada. This thesis was supported by the “Fonds des Chercheurs et pour l’aide a la Recherche” of the Government of Quebec, the Leverhulme Trust, a University of London Travel Grant, and the London School of Economics. I am grateful to staff members of: The National Archives of Zimbabwe; The 6 National Archives of Zambia; and the Arquivo Historico de Mocambique. Gratitude is owed to: the Anthropology Programme at University of Waikato, New Zealand who offered a Research Associateship; Professor Deirdre Meintel at Universite de Montreal who also arranged a Research Associateship; Terence Ranger; Kingsley Garbett; and Bill Derman. David Straton helped me to understand that the lessons of working in disaster, when the self becomes contingent, can enrich a life and a thesis. Mark Duncan offered moral support and generously taught me bushcraft. My husband Peter Montgomery has given unfailing financial, technical and emotional support. My parents, Laura and Fernando Claudio, followed the winding path of this study with love. 7 Illustrative Materials Maps: 1. Sacred areas in Chikafa (drawn by A. Zhuwao) 11 2. The Mhondoro of Southern Dande, from David Lan (1985) 12 3. Mpondoro in vicinity of Chikafa 13 4. Mpondoro in vicinity of Kanyemba 14 Figures: 1.