Postcolonial Pacific Writing

In this major new interdisciplinary study, Michelle Keown examines representations of the body in the work of eight of Polynesia’s most significant contemporary writers. Exploring inter-connections between postcolonial studies and disciplines including anthropology, psychoanaly- sis, history and medicine, Postcolonial Pacific Writing develops an innovative framework specific to the literatures and cultures of the Pacific. An introductory chapter outlining trends and developments in Pacific literature since the 1970s is followed by chapters on individual writers. These include Albert Wendt and Sia Figiel (Samoa), Epeli Hau’ofa (Tonga), Alistair Campbell (Cook Islands), and Keri Hulme, Witi Ihi- maera, Patricia Grace and Alan Duff (Aotearoa New Zealand). The book examines the cultural and literary affiliations between these writers, while also demonstrating the very different results of their ongoing relationships with colonial forces in their representations of the corporeal. Drawing on examples and contexts as wide-ranging as Judith Butler, Frantz Fanon and contemporary gang culture, Postcolonial Pacific Writing is a thoroughly researched and rigorous exploration of an intrigu- ing field of study.

Michelle Keown is Lecturer in Colonial and Postcolonial Literatures at the University of Stirling. She has published widely on Maori and Pacific writing. Postcolonial literatures Edited in collaboration with the Centre for Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, University of Kent at Canterbury, this series presents a wide range of research into postcolonial literatures by specialists in the field. Volumes will concentrate on writers and writing originating in previously (or presently) colonized areas, and will include material from non-anglophone as well as anglophone colonies and literatures. The series will also include collections of important essays from older journals, and re-issues of classic texts on postcolonial subjects. Routledge is pleased to invite proposals for new books in the series. Interested authors should contact Lyn Innes or Rod Edmond at the Centre for Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, Univer- sity of Kent at Canterbury, or Routledge’s Commissioning Editor for Liter- ature.

The series comprises three strands.

Routledge Research in Postcolonial Literatures is a forum for innovative new research intended for a specialist readership. Published in hardback, titles include:

1 Magical Realism in West African Fiction Seeing with a third eye Brenda Cooper

2 The Postcolonial Jane Austen Edited by You-Me Park and Rajeswari Sunder Rajan

3 Contemporary Caribbean Women’s Poetry Making style Denise deCaires Narain

4 African Literature, Animism and Politics Caroline Rooney

5 Caribbean-English Passages Intertextuality in a postcolonial tradition Tabias Döring

6 Islands in History and Representation Edited by Rod Edmond and Vanessa Smith

7 Civility and Empire Literature and culture in British India, 1821–1921 Anindyo Roy 8 Women Writing the West Indies, 1804–1939 ‘A Hot Place, Belonging to Us’ Evelyn O’Callaghan

9 Postcolonial Pacific Writing Representations of the body Michelle Keown

10 Writing Woman, Writing Place Contemporary Australian and South African Fiction Sue Kossew

Postcolonial Literatures makes available in paperback important work in the field. Hardback editions of these titles are also available, some published earlier in the Routledge Research strand of the series. Titles in paperback include:

Postcolonial Studies A materialist critique Benita Parry

Magical Realism in West African Fiction Seeing with a third eye Brenda Cooper

The Postcolonial Jane Austen Edited by You-Me Park and Rajeswari Sunder Rajan

Contemporary Caribbean Women’s Poetry Making style Denise deCaires Narain

Readings in Postcolonial Literatures offers collections of important essays from journals or classic texts in the field. Titles include:

Selected Essays of Wilson Harris Edited by Andrew Bundy

Postcolonial Pacific Writing Representations of the body

Michelle Keown First published 2005 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

© 2005 Michelle Keown All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or herafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Keown, Michelle, 1972– Postcolonial Pacific writing : representations of the body / Michelle Keown. p. cm. – (Routledge research in postcolonial literatures) Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. 1. Pacific Island literature (English)–History and criticism. 2. Islands of the Pacific–Intellectual life–20th century. 3. Polynesia–Intellectual life–20th century. 4. Oceania–Intellectual life–20th century. 5. Postcolonialism–Islands of the Pacific. 6. Postcolonialism in literature. 7. Postcolonialism–Polynesia. 8. Postcolonialism–Oceania. 9. Body, Human, in literature. I. Title. II. Series. PR9645.K46 2005 820.9Ј99Ј0904–dc22 20040111958

ISBN 0-203-50679-0 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-57250-5 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-29957-8 (Print Edition) This book is dedicated to my parents, Paul and Robin Keown

Contents

List of figures xi Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction 1 1 Postcolonial dystopias: race, allegory and the Polynesian body in the writing of Albert Wendt 16 2 ‘Gauguin is dead’: Sia Figiel and the Polynesian female body 38 3 Purifying the abject body: satire and scatology in Epeli Hau’ofa’s Kisses in the Nederends 61 4 Alistair Te Ariki Campbell: mental illness and postcoloniality 84 5 Remoulding the body politic: Keri Hulme’s The Bone People 102 6 Disease, colonialism and the national ‘body’: Witi Ihimaera’s The Dream Swimmer 127 7 Language and the corporeal: Patricia Grace’s Baby No-Eyes 149 8 The narcissistic body: Alan Duff’s Once Were Warriors 170 Conclusion: reinscribing the Polynesian body 191

Notes 199 Bibliography 213 Index 229

Figures

Map of the Pacific Islands xv 2.1 The Malu (Samoan female tattoo) 59 5.1 Carved wooden panels of Te Arawa workmanship 124 6.1 Photograph of Rua Kenana 140 8.1 Nig Heke (still image from Once Were Warriors) 183 8.2 Photograph of Noah (showing Maori male tattoo) 187

Acknowledgements

This book has emerged from the experience, in Michael King’s words, of ‘being Pakeha’ during the Maori Renaissance of the 1970s. During my childhood, my parents were both secondary school teachers, and I was privileged to accompany them on a number of live-in marae trips during the 1970s and 1980s. My early experiences triggered a lifelong interest in, and respect for, Maori language and culture, and I was fortunate enough to study the Maori language throughout my school years and my under- graduate years at Waikato University. Many thanks to Pari Kana, Kingi Turner and Aroha Yates-Smith for their teaching and support. Heartfelt thanks also to Ralph Crane, who supervised my Master’s thesis on Maori literature, and to Rod Edmond, who supervised my PhD on indigenous Pacific writing, after my initial focus on Maori literature broad- ened to encompass other Polynesian writers of the Pacific. Rod Edmond and Lyn Innes at the University of Kent (UK) both offered invaluable advice on earlier drafts of chapters included in this book, and Rod Edmond has also offered vital assistance in the final editing stages. Thanks also to my editors at Routledge, Liz Thompson, Kate Parker and Amrit Bangard. I also wish to express my immense gratitude to Joe Bray and Mark Houlahan, who read the manuscript in its entirety, and to Ken Arvidson, Emma Bainbridge, David Callahan, Fiona Chalamanda, Rana Dayoub, Brian Dillon, Felicity Dunworth, Corinne Fowler, Eugene McNulty, Kirstine Moffat, Lindsey Moore, Stuart Murray, Stephen Penn, James Procter, Catherine Richardson and Catherine Silverstone, who offered helpful advice on particular chapters. I’m grateful to various friends and colleagues at the University of Stirling (Bethan Benwell, John Drakakis, Adrian Hunter, Robert Miles, Mark Nixon, Angela Smith, Rory Watson) for advice and support during the editing process. Thanks also to graduate students John Masterton and Upala Sen, as well as undergradu- ate students at Stirling, who have offered thought-provoking perspectives on Pacific texts I have taught during the last three years. I’m very grateful to University of Waikato English Department and IT staff for vital space and support during the final stages of preparing the manuscript, and to the William Georgetti Scholarship Trust and the Commonwealth xiv Acknowledgements Scholarship Commission in the UK for funding during the early stages of this project. Earlier versions of material included in the Patricia Grace chapter were published previously in New Literatures Review 38 (2002): 87–100 and in Christian Mair (ed.) (2003) The Politics of English as a World Language, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 419–29; and sections of the chapter on Sia Figiel were previously published in an article in SPAN 48/49 (1999): 91–107. Many thanks to Paul Sharrad (NLR), Christian Mair and Margriet Goldie (Rodopi), and Ralph Crane (SPAN) for permission to include the revised material here. Thanks also to Robin Scholes for permission to include still images from Once Were Warriors (1994); to the Alexander Turnbull Library for permission to include images from their ‘Timeframes’ database; and to Paul Chamberlain at Southern Reprints for permission to reproduce an illustration from Carl Marquardt’s The Tattooing of Both Sexes in Samoa (1899; distributed by [email protected]). Many thanks to cartographer Max Oulton for permission to reproduce his map of the Pacific Islands. I wish to acknowledge those writers, featured in this book, whom I was fortunate enough to meet (and, in most cases, to interview) during the course of my research. These include Patricia Grace, Alistair Campbell, Epeli Hau’ofa, Albert Wendt, Witi Ihimaera and Sia Figiel. Kia ora koutou katoa. Heartfelt thanks also to Red Haua (Ngati Porou) for advice on Maori carving and moko, and to Paul Sharrad for help with bibliographi- cal research on Albert Wendt. Finally, thanks most of all to my partner Jonathan Wild, and to my parents (Paul and Robin Keown), grandparents (Clem and Mona Randall), and siblings (Dallas, Hayley, Natasha) for their love and support over the years, and for their assistance with the arduous task of proofreading. Figure 1 Map of the Pacific Islands, by Max Oulton, Geography Department, University of Waikato, New Zealand.

Introduction

This book offers an introduction to the contemporary postcolonial litera- tures of the Pacific through a focus on eight of its most renowned writers, examining the various ways in which these writers negotiate a central pre- occupation in Pacific indigenous literature in English: the representation of the indigenous body. Rather than attempting to undertake a survey of the entire corpus of indigenous Pacific literatures, which have emerged from a large and diverse range of cultures spread across the vast Pacific Ocean, I have chosen to focus upon the South Pacific region, and more specifically upon a group of Maori and Pacific Island writers sit- uated within the geographical and conceptual category of Polynesia. These include Samoan writers Albert Wendt and Sia Figiel; Tongan writer Epeli Hau’ofa;1 Cook Island writer Alistair Te Ariki Campbell; and New Zealand Maori writers Keri Hulme, Witi Ihimaera, Patricia Grace and Alan Duff. From a geographical point of view, Polynesia comprises a vast area – known as the ‘Polynesian Triangle’ – extending from Hawai‘i in the north, to New Zealand in the south-west, and Easter Island in the east. As a con- ceptual category ‘Polynesia’ did not yet exist when European explorers such as Captain James Cook and Louis-Antoine de Bougainville first visited the Pacific region. It was French navigator Jules-Sebastien-César Dumont d’Urville who, in 1832, introduced a systematized distinction between Polynesian and Melanesian races on the basis of skin colour (B. Douglas 1999: 65).2 Such divisions ranked Polynesians (and Micronesians) as ‘racially, morally and politically superior’ to Melanesians and Australian Aborigines (ibid.: 65), and in European literature which appeared in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Polynesian cultures (and bodies) were persistently stereotyped as ‘paradisiacal’, ‘gorgeous’, ‘fertile’ and ‘idyllic’, while Melanesian islands were represented as ‘fetid’, ‘decay- ing’, and ‘hellish’ (Kjellgren 1993: 99; see also Hau’ofa 1975: 286; Hereniko 1999a; Teaiwa and Kabutaulaka 2000: 30). Since the late 1760s, when European explorers first brought reports of Tahiti and other Pacific Islands back to the metropolitan centres, Polynesia – above other regions within the Pacific – has proved to be of particular fascination to European 2 Introduction travellers and writers (B. Smith 1985: 1; Edmond 1997a: 16). The putative physical beauty of Polynesians – and in particular Tahitians – led eight- eenth-century explorers such as Bougainville and Joseph Banks to draw parallels between Tahitian culture and classical Greek culture, and the region became figured, in romantic terms, as a South Seas Eden inhabited by noble savages untouched by the corruptions of the ‘civilized’ European world (B. Smith 1985: 42).3 Described by Bougainville as ‘la Nouvelle Cythère’, Tahiti was also accorded a reputation as a sexual paradise, and as Bernard Smith points out, the island ‘became notorious throughout Europe in the popular mind as a land of free-love’ (ibid.: 47). Such stereo- types have fired the imaginations of generations of European artists and writers,4 and these idealized constructions have persisted into the contemporary era, fuelled (as Rob Wilson notes) by media and tourist- industry representations of the Pacific as a timeless paradise within which Western desires and fantasies may be played out:

[The] New Pacific . . . threatens to remain . . . a strategic and commer- cial space where European, American, and Asian desires – to use these tourist sites for pleasure zones, for journeys of regression and redemp- tion, for phallocratic bodily bliss, for temporary release into excess and leisure, for landscapes of Edenic wilderness and ecological purity – are still being played out at the expense of a globally worked-over and troped-upon native culture. (1999: 10)

The writings of European missionaries, who came to the Pacific in increas- ing numbers following the establishment of the London Missionary Society in Tahiti in 1795, were to generate a second set of stereotypes focusing upon the Polynesian body. Nineteenth-century European mis- sionary accounts of the South Pacific perpetuated the sexualization of Polynesian cultures, but they also represented Polynesian peoples as ignoble, savage heathens – who indulged in ‘abhorrent social practices such as cannibalism, infanticide and tattooing’ – in order to justify native conversion to Christianity (Edmond 1997a: 9; I.C. Campbell 1980: 57; Pearson 1984: 27). New Zealand Maori, in particular, were represented as hostile and aggressive in spite of their putative beauty and nobility. This reputation had its origins in a series of misunderstandings and violent conflicts between Maori tribes and European explorers,5 as well as eye- witness reports of inter-tribal warfare and cannibalism from European mis- sionaries and travellers.6 Such ideologies were to influence early colonial policy in New Zealand, although, as increasing numbers of Maori perished during the nineteenth century,7 the popular currency of neo-Darwinist ‘fatal impact’ theory8 prompted a refiguration of the Maori people as ‘noble savages’ facing certain extinction (Sinclair 1986: 203). Further, in spite of the continuing circulation of representations of the Maori as a Introduction 3 fierce warrior culture9 – consolidated when Maori inflicted a series of humiliating defeats upon their European opponents during a series of land wars in the 1860s – the Maori physique was frequently described as sensuous and neo-Grecian,10 spawning a tradition of idealized literary con- structions of the Maori body (particularly the Maori female body).11 In recent decades, changes brought about by large-scale post-war urbaniza- tion of Maori – who, until the 1950s, had remained largely within rural and coastal village communities – have triggered new variants of the estab- lished ‘noble/ignoble savage’ stereotypes. On the one hand, recent government statistics, which indicate that Maori are disproportionately represented among the unemployed, criminal and socio-economically deprived sectors of New Zealand society, have precipitated negative con- structions of Maori as a violent, benefit-dependent underclass. On the other hand, Pakeha 12 anxieties about colonial injustices against Maori – and the inimical socio-economic consequences of these injustices – have fostered defensively idealistic representations of New Zealand race- relations in which Maori and Pakeha dwell harmoniously in an antipodean utopian ‘godzone’.13 The Maori writers described in this book, like their Pacific Island counterparts, set out to challenge these estab- lished stereotypes. The differing political and cross-cultural circumstances which distinguish New Zealand from its Pacific Island neighbours, however, have ensured that the two groups of writers discussed in this book address the issue of representing the Polynesian body in discrete and distinctive ways. While most Pacific Island cultures, for example, have been subject to European colonial or neo-colonial incursion in some form, the process of post-war decolonization, which saw a variety of Pacific island cultures gain independence from the European imperialist centres, has left countries such as Western Samoa, the Cook Islands and Fiji (all of which feature in the work of the writers discussed in this book) free of the direct European hegemony which characterizes the current political situation in New Zealand. Nevertheless, evidence of a continuing neo-colonialism in the Pacific Island region is manifest in the work of the Pacific Island writers featured in this book. New Zealand, like Australia and the United States, has itself operated as a colonialist force within its sphere of influence, and the legacy of Western colonial incursion into the Pacific is evident in the heavy dependence of certain Pacific Island cultures upon foreign aid from their Western neighbours. In addition, a high proportion of Pacific Islanders currently emigrate to these countries in order to find work and to send remittances back, primarily in order to support relatives in the islands, but also to maintain oversized local bureaucracies originally estab- lished by colonial administrations. The acronym ‘MIRAB’ – conflating ‘migration, remittances, aid and bureaucracy’ – was coined as a label for Pacific Island cultures characterized by these conditions.14 The socio- political dynamics of MIRAB societies are explored in some detail in the 4 Introduction writing of Epeli Hau’ofa, who has lived and worked within a variety of Poly- nesian and Melanesian cultures. Hau’ofa examines, within a pan-Pacific framework, the problems attendant upon foreign aid and continuing neo- colonial activity in the Pacific region. Wendt and Figiel explore similar issues with specific reference to Western Samoa, over which New Zealand maintained colonial jurisdiction from 1914 to 1962. A sense of a shared experience of colonialism and neo-colonialism among Pacific Island cultures has intensified in recent decades, particu- larly since the founding of the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Suva, Fiji, in 1968, and the subsequent establishment of satellite campuses in various Pacific Island countries (Va’ai 1999a: 24–7). The late 1960s and early 1970s also saw the emergence of an indigenous Pacific creative writing tradition. This was headed by Albert Wendt – a senior and found- ing figure in Pacific literature and literary criticism15 – and fostered through the establishment of the South Pacific Creative Arts Society (SPCAS) at USP in 1972, as well as through the activities of other local organizations within various Pacific Island cultures (Arvidson 1975; Simms 1986; Sharrad 1993, 2003; Tawake 2000; Subramani 2001).16 The SPCAS founded the journal MANA (edited by Cook Islander Marjorie Crocombe) in 1973: the title was selected because the word ‘mana’ – a multivalent term which carries connotations of power, psychic force and socio- political influence – existed in almost all Polynesian and many Melanesian languages, and therefore encapsulated the SPCAS’s intention to bring together writers from throughout the Pacific region (Va’ai 1999a: 27–8). The early 1970s also saw the emergence of the philosophy of the ‘Pacific Way’, a movement which – as Sina Va’ai points out – recognized ‘the commonality in developmental problems that required a unity in co- operation’ in order to combat ‘a common foe, the colonial powers’ (1999a: 32–3). As Va’ai suggests, the movement also assumed a Pacific Island ‘ideological brotherhood’ and a set of ‘cultural principles and prac- tices’ which united Pacific Island nations (1999a: 33, 35). These senti- ments were critiqued by Albert Wendt17 and by Epeli Hau’ofa,18 who identified the ‘Pacific Way’ movement as a ‘shallow ideology that was swept away by the rising tide of regional disunity of the 1980s’ (Hau’ofa 1998: 394). During this period, the regionalist ideologies of the ‘Pacific Way’ movement were opposed and eroded by the nationalist and ethnic fundamentalist ideologies which ultimately helped to precipitate the 1987 Fijian coup. As Ton Otto and Nicholas Thomas suggest, when champi- oned by indigenous elites, ‘tradition can function as a political instrument for both liberation and repression’ (1997: 7, my italics; see also Lawson 1997). In spite of these socio-political schisms, however, the concept of a regional Pacific identity has persisted – albeit in a modified form – in recent Pacific cultural theory. In a series of seminal essays published throughout the 1990s, Hau’ofa himself has advocated the notion of an Introduction 5 ‘Oceanic’ identity which recognizes and protects unique local forms and traditions, as well as fostering a dynamic regional ethic in response to the pressures of global capitalism and cultural imperialism (Hau’ofa 1993, 1994, 1998: 392–3). His arguments have been taken up (and in some cases, critiqued) by a number of Pacific writers and scholars, and as Direc- tor of the Oceania Centre for Arts and Culture at the University of the South Pacific, Hau’ofa has been able to put his regionalist theories into practice by fostering links between writers and artists from across the Pacific region (Keown 2001; Sinivaiana-Gabbard 2001; Subramani 2001; see also Edmond and Smith 2003). The dawning of the ‘Pacific Way’ movement coincided with the advent of the ‘Maori Renaissance’, a New Zealand-based movement which developed in response to widespread concern about the effects of post-war developments in Maori society, as well as the inimical socio-economic effects of more than a century of Pakeha hegemony. In the 1950s and 1960s increasing numbers of Maori began to leave their rural tribal communities in order to seek employment and other opportunities in the Pakeha-dominated urban centres. By the 1970s, concern over the atten- dant loss of traditional values and cultural practices, documented evid- ence of a huge reduction in the numbers of indigenes speaking Maori as a first language,19 and general dissatisfaction over political and socio- economic disparities between Maori and Pakeha, precipitated a pan-Maori objective mounted in order to address these issues. Urban Maori began to establish supra-tribal Maori organizations in order to replace the tradi- tional infrastructures of the dwindling rural communities, while political activists petitioned parliament for the establishment of courses in Maori language and culture in schools. Activist groups also advocated the concept of biculturalism in New Zealand society as an alternative to integration, which many Maori viewed as a thinly disguised contemporary version of the colonialist policy of assimilation (King 1985: 104). From this cultural milieu emerged writers such as Witi Ihimaera and Patricia Grace, the first Maori fiction writers to have their books published in English.20 While Ihimaera and Grace’s early writing was dominated by a nostalgic affection for a rapidly disappearing rural communalism, their later writing (like the work of other Maori writers published since the mid-1980s) has become more overtly politicized and anticolonialist, focusing more closely on the urban environments and attendant socio-economic problems which have become a reality for many contemporary Maori. While the political issues addressed by Maori (as an indigenous minority culture living within a settler colony) set them apart from many of their Pacific Island counterparts,21 since the 1970s there has been a constant exchange of ideas between Maori and Pacific Islander writers, who have met periodi- cally at conferences and other literary events in addition to reading one another’s work.22 The dialogical relationship between Maori and other Pacific Island writers is also reflected in university syllabi in the South 6 Introduction Pacific region. Albert Wendt, for example, has spent the past fifteen years as Professor of English Literature at the University of Auckland, New Zealand, where Pacific texts are taught alongside works by Maori writers. Undergraduate courses featuring New Zealand and Pacific literatures are also offered at the University of Otago, the University of Canterbury and Victoria University of Wellington, while the School of Maori and Pacific Development at the University of Waikato offers courses featuring Maori and Pacific literature and performing arts. Further afield, the Pacific Writing Forum at the University of the South Pacific has established strong links with Pacific Island and Maori writers, and the University of Guam offers undergraduate courses featuring the work of Maori and Pacific Island writers.23 Indeed, there are documented historical, linguistic and cultural affini- ties between Maori and other Polynesian cultures which justify the group- ing together of writers from this region. Various academic studies and fieldwork projects have established linguistic and archaeological links between Maori and other Polynesian cultures in countries such as Samoa, Tonga, Hawai‘i and the Cook Islands (Krupa 1982; Crowley 1992; Edmond 1997a). It is widely held that Polynesian culture originated in the central Pacific islands of Tonga, Samoa, Uvea and Futuna, and that during the last two millennia there were a series of migrations eastwards to the Cook, Society and Marquesas Islands, followed by a second wave of migra- tions to Hawai‘i in the north, Easter Island in the east, and New Zealand in the south-west (King 1997: 14). Carbon dating has proved that the New Zealand landfall was made by the thirteenth century AD (King 2003: 18), and some Maori historians date the arrival as early as AD 800 (Walker 1990: 24).24 Demographic developments in New Zealand in the post-war period have consolidated links between Maori and other Polynesians. The New Zealand economy was rapidly industrialized in the period following the Second World War, and thousands of Pacific Islanders, particularly Poly- nesians, were invited into the country to offset an industrial labour short- age, and were channelled mainly into semi-skilled and unskilled employment in the manufacturing sector (Macpherson 1992; 1997). Many of these migrants applied for permanent residency in New Zealand, pre- cipitating chain migration patterns. Although New Zealand’s immigrant policy has subsequently tightened25 and socio-economic conditions for Pacific Island immigrants have worsened,26 at the time of the 2001 Census 1 in 16 (or 231,801) people in New Zealand were of Pacific Island ethni- city, with Polynesians making up the vast majority of those numbers.27 As a consequence of these developments, intersections between Maori and other Polynesian cultural traditions are increasingly evident in the work of New Zealand-based Polynesian artists, writers and musicians (Thomas 1996). In a publication accompanying a 1990 exhibition of Poly- nesian migrant art which toured New Zealand (curated by Maori New Introduction 7 Zealander Rangihiroa Panoho), for example, several artists featured in the exhibition made reference to shared Polynesian ‘motifs’ and a community of New Zealand-based Polynesian artists (Panoho 1990; Thomas 1996). References to a pan-Polynesian community also appear in the lyrics of hip- hop artists such as King Kapisi (born in Samoa and raised in New Zealand) and Sheelahroc (a New Zealand female rap group which origin- ally comprised eight members of various ethnicities: Maori, Samoan, Niuean and Japanese). In the literary arena, Auckland University Press has recently released Whetu Moana: An Anthology of Polynesian Poetry (2003), edited by Albert Wendt, Robert Sullivan and Reina Whaitiri. The anthol- ogy includes the work of poets from Aotearoa/New Zealand, Hawai‘i, Tonga, Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue and Rotuma, but the editors have deliberately arranged the poets by alphabetical order of surname rather than by country. This was in order to ‘juxtapose the poetries of the Pacific to generate views of culture that are both common and strange, to see Poly- nesian poetry through a prism creating many coloured bands’ (2003: 3). This sense of a common ancestral heritage among Polynesian cultures is elsewhere evident in shared linguistic and mythological references which appear in the work of writers such as Albert Wendt and Patricia Grace, both of whom invoke the pan-Polynesian myth-cycle focusing upon the demi-god Maui. Wendt’s 1992 novel Black Rainbow explores racial and historical affinities between Maori and Pacific Islander Polynesians within a futuristic dystopian framework in which New Zealand-based Polynesians are ‘reordinarinized’ or reprogrammed with Europeanized identities. In a recent interview, Patricia Grace has expressed an awareness of the rela- tionship between Maori and other Polynesian cultures in terms of shared historical and mythological narratives:

The link between us is always there: the link we have with Pacific Island Polynesian people. . . . [We] . . . refer to them as our older brothers and sisters. Our stories all say that we came from Hawaiki. So we have this history that links us. We call them our older brothers and sisters to honour the fact that we came from them. Languages are similar. The stories are all similar. (DeLoughery and Hall 1999: 14)28

In view of these affiliations and associations, the publication of a book- length study of contemporary Polynesian writers seems timely, particularly given that many of these writers are attracting increasing international attention and acclaim. Keri Hulme’s novel The Bone People (1983; discussed in Chapter 5) won the Booker Prize in 1985, and more recently, Sia Figiel’s novel Where We Once Belonged (1996a; discussed in Chapter 2) won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize for best first book in the South- East Asia and South Pacific Region. Her compatriot Albert Wendt’s novel Ola (1991) was chosen as best book for the Asia-Pacific region in 1992. 8 Introduction Patricia Grace’s latest novel, Dogside Story (2001), won the Kiriyama Pacific Rim Fiction Prize for 2001. The script for Lee Tamahori’s internationally acclaimed film Once Were Warriors (1994) was adapted from Alan Duff’s novel of the same name (published in 1990), while the film version of Witi Ihimaera’s The Whale Rider (1987), released internationally in 2003, has received several audience awards at film festivals in North America and Europe. Several texts by Grace have recently been relaunched by the Women’s Press, while the University of Hawai‘i Press relaunched texts by Patricia Grace, Alan Duff, Albert Wendt and Epeli Hau’ofa in their 1994 Talanoa: Pacific Writers series, and Witi Ihimaera’s novel The Uncle’s Story (2000a) has recently been added to the series. In spite of these achievements, however, within the field of postcolonial studies – and particularly within the realm of academic publishing – Pacific literatures have received far less critical attention to date than the literatures (and diasporas) of other designated ‘postcolonial’ regions such as Africa, Asia and the Caribbean (and, to a lesser degree, Australia and Canada). To take a recent example, Robert Young’s attempt, in his latest monograph, to redefine postcolonialism as ‘tricontinentalism’ – encom- passing Latin America (including the Caribbean), Africa and Asia – appears to exclude the Pacific Islands, as well as Australia and New Zealand, entirely from the equation (2001: 4).29 This omission seems more puzzling when it becomes clear that Young is positing tricontinentalism as an alternative to terms such as ‘Third World’ or ‘the non-Western’, sug- gesting that postcolonial discourse ‘as a political discourse’ has emerged predominantly from these three southern continents in response to the political and economic hegemony of countries located in the northern hemisphere (ibid.: 4–6). Young goes some way towards justifying his omis- sion of the Pacific region by drawing attention to the problematic status of Australia and New Zealand as settler colonies (with indigenous popula- tions) which are simultaneously colonial and postcolonial (ibid.: 20), but with the exception of French Polynesia and Hawai‘i, this paradigm does not extend to the Pacific Islands region which – like the ‘three continents’ that Young identifies – has its own strong tradition of anti-colonial writing (some of which will be discussed in this book). Young is not alone in neglecting the Pacific Islands and New Zealand; a survey of recent books on postcolonial literature, theory and criticism by Bart Moore-Gilbert et al. (1997); Ania Loomba (1998); Dennis Walder (1998); Ato Quayson (2000) and Jahan Ramazani (2001) reveals few (if any) references to New Zealand, and almost no references to the Pacific Islands. As Graham Huggan notes, academic publishing corporations in the United Kingdom and the United States have created a ‘postcolonial industry’ which seems to privilege ‘a handful of famous writers (Achebe, Naipaul, Rushdie)’ and which has devoted considerable ‘time and atten- tion to its three celebrity critics (Bhabha, Said, Spivak)’ (2001: 4; see also Krishnaswamy 1995: 143; Sharrad 2003). In discussing this ‘apparent hier- Introduction 9 archy of postcolonial writers/thinkers’, Huggan invokes Pierre Bourdieu’s notion of cultural capital, arguing that postcolonial writers and theorists ‘operate within an overarching, if historically shifting, field of cultural pro- duction’ in which various ‘agents of legitimation’ such as writers, book- sellers, publishers, reviewers and individual readers contend ‘in the struggle to validate particular writers’. As particular writers and thinkers are ‘consecrated’ by these legitimating forces, they and their work become highly marketable commodities, inevitably creating an imbalance in the level of critical and commercial attention given to those writers and thinkers who have not gained an equivalent level of endorsement and exposure (2001: 5). Such inequalities have affected Maori and Pacific Islander writers who, until recently, have had to rely mainly upon local or regional publishing and distribution bases. The neglect of Maori and Pacific Island writing within the international postcolonial publishing industry is, no doubt, the product of a variety of factors. The geographical isolation of New Zealand and the Pacific Islands from the major inter- national publishing houses and markets; and the fact that among Britain’s post-colonial post-war immigrant populations there is no significant Poly- nesian representation (although there is a growing Polynesian diaspora in the USA), have arguably played a role here.30 The relative marginalization of New Zealand and the Pacific Islands within the global political arena has also had some impact. As Epeli Hau’ofa argues, recent terminology used by international organizations (such as the United Nations) vis-à-vis the so-called ‘Asia-Pacific region’ signals the way in which the Pacific Islands have effectively become subsumed by Asia, which has proved of increasing strategic importance to its Western neighbours in the post-war period (1998: 396–7). As indicated above, however, Maori and Pacific Island writers have received an increasing amount of international attention in the past fifteen years in spite of these handicaps, and publishers like the University of Hawai‘i Press and The Women’s Press, as well as online distributors such as Amazon.com, have made the work of these writers available to a wider global readership. Further, the publication in 1999 of the path- breaking anthology Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, edited by Vilsoni Hereniko and Rob Wilson (and released by the North American publisher Rowman and Littlefield), signalled a bur- geoning interest in indigenous Pacific literary theory and criticism in North America in particular. Hereniko and Wilson’s collection of articles and interviews anthologizes a variety of Maori and Pacific Island writers and theorists, responding to a growing interest, among indigenous acad- emics and writers of the Pacific region, in theorizing indigenous Pacific writing with reference to local and regional models and traditions, rather than relying upon external frameworks and terminologies. In his essay ‘Representations of Cultural Identities’, for example, co-editor Vilsoni Hereniko theorizes Pacific cultures and creative art forms with reference 10 Introduction to Pacific philosophies and cosmogonies, invoking the Rotuman phrase ‘ao to-ou ta’ – the new time – as an alternative to the term ‘postcolonial’ (1999a: 148). Selina Tusitala Marsh, also anthologized in the collection, similarly looks to develop a ‘specifically Polynesian feminist critique’ by invoking the conceptual framework of ‘mana tama‘ita‘i’, a phrase which combines ‘mana’, a term used across the Pacific ‘to refer to issues of power and respect’ (as noted above), and ‘tama‘ita‘i’, a ‘nonexclusive31 Samoan word used to refer to a woman’ (1999: 338). Within New Zealand, Maori writer Witi Ihimaera has discussed his intention to foster a new gen- eration of Maori and Pacific Islander writers, students and critics who will develop literary theories based upon local indigenous precepts rather than imported theoretical models (Ihimaera et al. 1996: 17). In writing this book, I have taken a dialogical approach to the analysis of my chosen texts, taking account of indigenous theories and forms developed by Pacific writers and intellectuals, as well as the work of a range of other postcolonial theorists (including, in particular, Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, Frantz Fanon, Abdul R. JanMohamed, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, bell hooks and Robert Young). Further, in exploring theories relevant to an analysis of the body, my arguments take account of interdisciplinary links between postcolonial studies and other fields such as anthropology, psychoanalysis, philosophy, history, and medicine. Various postcolonial critics have debated the ethics of bringing so-called ‘Western’ or ‘Eurocentric’ theoretical models to bear upon indigenous lit- eratures and cultures (see, for example, Hutcheon 1989; Slemon and Tiffin 1989; Hall 1996: 255; Nkosi 1998; Sharrad 1999; Young 2001). However, it is worth noting that many of the writers discussed in this book respond directly to European discourses within their work, and while indi- viduals such as Witi Ihimaera (1998a) and Patricia Grace (Keown 2000a: 61) have expressed some resistance to European theory, other Pacific intellectuals such as Albert Wendt and Selina Tusitala Marsh take a differ- ent view. Marsh, for example, argues that it is possible to ‘indigenize’ European theory, and that it is ‘senseless’ to completely reject European theoretical models simply because of their cultural origins (1999: 341).32 In a similar vein, Wendt has indicated that the Western education experi- enced by many Pacific Islanders, coupled with the high level of emigration to Western metropolitan centres, problematizes notions of indigenous cul- tural and literary purity and authenticity (1995b: 3–4; Wendt et al. 2003: 2). He openly acknowledges and celebrates European literary and theo- retical influences upon his own work (1998), but also suggests that certain literary styles and techniques (such as postmodern pastiche and meta- fiction) in indigenous Pacific literatures are not, as some critics might suggest, simply appropriated from European culture, but are also rooted in the structures of Polynesian oral history and narrative (1995b: 4–5; Ellis 1997: 83–4; see also Sharrad 2003: 29). In categorizing the texts and writers discussed in this book as ‘postcolo- Introduction 11 nial’, I am aware of the various debates regarding the validity and valency of this term which have raged within (and outside) postcolonial studies as a discipline in recent years (see, for example, Ahmad 1992; Shohat 1993; Moore-Gilbert et al. 1997; San Juan 1998; Lazarus 1999; Quayson 2000; Young 2001). I do not wish to revisit these arguments at length here; suffice to say that I am using the postcolonial as a conceptual category in order to examine the ways in which my selected writers, in Bart Moore- Gilbert et al.’s terms,

mediate, challenge or reflect upon the relations of domination and subordination – economic cultural and political – between (and often within) nations, races or cultures, which characteristically have their roots in the history of modern European colonialism and imperialism and which . . . continue to be apparent in the present era of neo- colonialism. (1997: 12)

Such a definition allows for a consideration of colonialism and its various permutations and effects in the Pacific within a diachronic framework, acknowledging that in spite of the varying political conditions within the contemporary cultures of the Pacific – some remain European or US colonies; some are settler colonies; some are independent states; some are self-governing in free association – the history of colonialism in the Pacific has, as Robert Young puts it, helped to ‘[determine] the configura- tions and power structures’ of these various cultures as they exist today (2001: 4). Throughout the book, however, I frequently use the term ‘indigen- ous’33 instead of ‘postcolonial’, particularly when referring to specific writers and cultural contexts, reserving the term ‘postcolonial’ mainly for discussions of wider theoretical issues.34 Further, the terms ‘European’ and ‘Western’ are often used synonymously, but where appropriate they are also used in order to distinguish between Europe as a geographical region, and other so-called ‘First World’ countries such as New Zealand, Australia, Canada and the United States. Notwithstanding the various cultural affinities and points of intersec- tion between the Maori and Pacific Island writers I have chosen to discuss in this book, the text naturally divides itself into two distinct parts, begin- ning with the Pacific Island writers Wendt, Figiel and Hau’ofa. Alistair Campbell is a liminal figure, identifying himself primarily as a New Zealand writer in spite of his Cook Island ancestry and birth, and the chapter focusing on his work functions as a transition to the second half of the book, which examines the work of four Maori writers: Keri Hulme, Witi Ihimaera, Patricia Grace and Alan Duff. The book will demonstrate that although my selected writers share a focus upon the indigenous body as a medium for exploring issues relating to colonialism, inter-racial 12 Introduction conflict and psycho-social malaise, the continuing cultural subordination of Maori to the Pakeha settler culture in New Zealand has produced rather different somatic inflections in the work of the Maori writers I discuss, as opposed to the work of their Pacific Islander counterparts. The four Maori writers, for example, deploy the diseased Polynesian body as an allegory for the ravages of (neo)colonialism, exploring ways in which Maori may alter their often circumscribed status within New Zealand society. Conversely, Wendt and Figiel in particular – as citizens of a decol- onized Pacific nation now facing a new wave of cultural imperialism through global media and capitalist networks – have engaged more specif- ically with European representations of the Polynesian body, and with the displaced bodies of members of the Samoan diaspora. Hau’ofa’s fiction similarly investigates colonialism in the contemporary Pacific as a largely external force, in spite of its local permutations. His work – like Wendt’s and Figiel’s – also offers a critical response to the failures and corruptions of the post-independence era which is not evident in the work of the four Maori writers, who are more concerned with the continuing material and psychological hardships faced by Maori since colonization. Alistair Camp- bell shares with his Maori compatriots a more specific engagement with the psycho-social problems faced by Polynesians living within a European- dominated society, yet his writing is largely devoid of the political energies which motivate Hulme, Ihimaera, Grace and Duff, all of whom investigate and project ways in which to overcome inter-racial inequalities within New Zealand society. These four writers’ explorations of the indigenous body are therefore informed by an underlying ‘wounding’ and ‘healing’ struc- ture which explores the pathology of the damaged colonized body while simultaneously seeking to cure the social ills which have reduced it to this debilitated condition. The book begins with a discussion of a variety of fictional and non-fic- tional material by Albert Wendt, whose writing directly addresses the rela- tionship between Maori and other Polynesian cultures as described above. Chapter 1 opens with an analysis of Wendt’s exploration of the fetishiza- tion of the Polynesian body in various European discourses, before moving on to examine his critique of various social pathologies through the figure of the diseased or degraded human body. Much of his early writing represents bodily corruption or dysfunction as a symbol of political corruption, in a manner reminiscent of the work of a number of West African post-independence writers of the 1960s and 1970s. The chapter concludes with a discussion of Wendt’s 1992 novel Black Rainbow, a futuris- tic dystopian narrative in which claims of indigeneity and awareness of New Zealand’s colonial history are denied and repressed through enforced State psychological reprogramming. The narrator of the novel resists these dehumanizing processes by ‘rediscovering’ his Polynesian ancestry and defiantly asserting the materiality of his own body, reinflect- ing issues of race and identity explored in Wendt’s earlier fiction. Introduction 13 Chapter 2 examines the work of Wendt’s compatriot Sia Figiel, who takes up Wendt’s commitment to debunking Western myths centred upon the Polynesian body – in this case, the Polynesian female body – as well as exploring the ways in which domestic violence, global media networks and Western education affect the psychological (and physical) health of Western Samoan girls and women. Chapter 3 focuses upon Epeli Hau’ofa’s comi-satiric novel Kisses in the Nederends (1987), examining the way in which Hau’ofa deploys the diseased body as a medium for explor- ing questions of class, race, and gender, both within the Pacific and within a wider global framework. By making a fistulated anus the subject of his novel, Hau’ofa sets out to liberate the body from the limitations of various discourses and social taboos, and his sustained critique of Western theo- ries on indigenous bodies and cultures aligns him with Wendt and Figiel. The chapter considers Hau’ofa’s earthy, ribald humour alongside the work of other European and postcolonial scatologists, suggesting, through an application of Julia Kristeva’s theory of abjection as catharsis, that Hau’ofa challenges and transforms linguistically and socially enforced exclusionist dialectics. Chapter 4, which examines the work of Cook Islands-born but New Zealand-based writer Alistair Te Ariki Campbell, marks the transition from Pacific Islander to New Zealand Polynesian writers. Campbell’s novel The Frigate Bird (1989), a semi-autobiographical exploration of the cortico- visceral problems faced by a child of mixed race, is examined alongside a variety of postmodernist and psychoanalytic theories focusing upon psy- chosis and ego-fragmentation. The chapter considers Campbell’s subject- ive response to the problem of psychosis within a wider cross-cultural framework, exploring mental illness as a by-product of the colonial process. Campbell’s association between psycho-social and corporeal disease as a consequence of continuing neo-colonial pressures is consistent with the work of the Maori writers who are discussed in the four remaining chap- ters in the book. Chapter 5, for example, analyses Keri Hulme’s The Bone People (1983) in terms of Frantz Fanon’s theorization of the relationship between violence and nationalism, suggesting that the domestic abuse and somatic dysfunction at the centre of Hulme’s narrative may be read as an allegory for wider cross-cultural conflicts which the narrative attempts to resolve through interpreting violence as a necessary step in the move towards a new post-imperial nationalist vision. Ihimaera’s novel The Dream Swimmer (1997), analysed in Chapter 6, is also considered in terms of Fanon’s paradigm; however, while Hulme projects cross-cultural harmony and co-operation as a solution to New Zealand’s inter-racial disharmony, Ihimaera appears to advocate a separatist Maori nationalism which is to rival – or even to supersede – Pakeha nationalism. Ihimaera’s novel also represents the diseased Maori body as an index of the socio-economic subordination of Maori culture to Pakeha culture since colonization, 14 Introduction examining various Maori religious and political leaders who have attempted to salvage and restore the damaged Maori ‘body’ since colo- nization. Patricia Grace’s Baby No-Eyes (1998), analysed in Chapter 7, also makes connections between corporeal and inter-racial disharmony, exploring in particular the cortico-visceral effects of grief and violent trauma. The novel’s projective energies, however, are located in its narrat- ive and linguistic strategies, which challenge phallogocentric models of race and gender through invoking Maori approaches to artistic construc- tion and oral expression. The novel’s juxtaposition of various interpreta- tive codes is analysed with reference to the psychoanalytic and linguistic theories of Julia Kristeva, Judith Butler, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. Chapter 8 focuses upon Alan Duff, a writer whose racial politics appear to be far removed from those of the other Maori writers discussed in this book. Through a psychoanalytic reading of his controversial first novel Once Were Warriors (1990), however, I will suggest that Duff’s narrative, like the work of his Maori compatriots, deploys corporeal symbolism as a means by which to sketch out solutions to Maori socio-economic prob- lems. Duff’s uncompromising representation of Maori as a violent, benefit-dependent underclass is accompanied by a projective optimism, advocating a future in which Maori become stronger, healthier, more ‘suc- cessful’ New Zealand citizens. His idealism therefore aligns his work with the writing of Hulme and Ihimaera in particular, who also project solu- tions to the psycho-social malaise which afflicts many contemporary Maori. The final chapter returns to the theme of socio-somatic regeneration which informs the work of many of the writers discussed in this book, exploring the resurgence of traditional tattooing practices across certain parts of Polynesia as a metaphor for the rise of indigenous Pacific litera- tures in English. The process of tattooing itself ‘narrativizes’ the body by inscribing it with a culturally specific graphic code, documenting the tat- tooed individual’s commitment to his or her culture. In addition, as Albert Wendt has pointed out, the survival and perpetuation of traditional tattooing practices in contemporary Oceania serve as a visual record of indigenous resistance to cultural imperialism, given that European mis- sionaries across Polynesia attempted to eradicate the practice. As Wendt notes, the Samoan tattoo, the tatau, has survived ‘over a century’ of attempts to ‘erase it’ (1996: 23), while within New Zealand, the recent resurgence of the moko (Maori tattoo) represents one aspect of the cul- tural efflorescence which has developed out of the Maori Renaissance of the 1970s. In this sense, I argue, the moko revival approximates the process of colonial impact and concomitant cultural attrition, followed by decolonization and/or cultural resurgence, which is inscribed ‘indelibly’ in the work of the Maori and other Pacific writers described in this book. There is a Maori pepeha (saying or proverb) that runs as follows: ‘Ahakoa whati te manga, e takoto ana ano te kohiwi’. Literally, this trans- Introduction 15 lates as ‘although the branch is broken off, the trunk remains’, indicating that the loss of a branch will not destroy a tree whose trunk consists of solid heartwood. Metaphorically, the proverb implies that ‘[m]isfortunes will not ruin an individual or group if the foundations are strong’ (Mead and Grove 2003: 14). While the indigenous literatures of the Pacific should not be viewed merely as a reaction to (or against) the experience of colonization or cultural imperialism, this pepeha, in its focus on resilience and new growth emerging from structural or corporeal damage, seems an appropriate metaphor for the socio-political dynamics which inform the work of those writers discussed in this book, as well as the work of the many other indigenous writers and artists spread across Te-Moana- Nui-a¯-Kiwa: the great Ocean of the Pacific. Bibliography

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