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International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Advance Publication Archive

9-1-2019

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic

Nikos Yiangou Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society, Mill Valley, CA, USA

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Recommended Citation Yiangou, N. (2019). Transpersonal dimensions in Islamic spirituality. International Journal of Transpersonal Sudies, 38(2). Advance online publication.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ CIIS. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Advance Publication Archive by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ CIIS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality Nikos Yiangou Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society Mill Valley, CA, USA The Sufi tradition that arose within describes a compelling and varied map of the self and its transformations. Over the span of a millennium of practice and discourse, Sufis have explored and detailed the stages of the journey of self- transformation towards their ultimate aim of union with the One. Their models of the spiritual journey and of the emergent transpersonal self, extensively contextualized in phenomenology, epistemology, theology and ontology, offer singular insights into a richly detailed holistic psychology of self-realization and the making of the complete human. Keywords: Islamic , Ibn ‘Arabi, , , Islam, Sufi transformation, , transpersonal psychology

slam literally means “submission” and is mystical dimension of Islam. While the teachings understood as the conscious surrender of the of the Qur’an and of the contain Iindividual to ’s will, and to be in harmony many direct allusions to a transpersonal dimension with God by aligning the individual will to the in Islam, the Sufis in particular have spent over a will of God (Fadiman & Frager, 1997, p. 3). The thousand years both applying and recording their concept of submission is inherently transpersonal as investigations of this immensely deep and diverse it points to the interior experiential transformation tradition, and their hermeneutics have resulted of the self through a process of abandonment of in a nuanced and refined understanding of the self-interest, and of coming closer to God by an transpersonal and existential dimension of Islam. increasing awareness of the divine presence. The Referring thus to the teachings and practices of act of submitting means ultimately to submit or align Sufism immensely assists a dialog between Islam oneself to one’s original nature (fitra), which is the and transpersonal psychology, and indeed such a essential nature given to each individual by God in dialog would be impoverished without it. pre-. Religion is never monolithic in its expression The Prophet , as the carrier of and institutions, and Islam is no exception. Cultural this wisdom, is the archetype of human perfection differences have shaped the way it is practiced, and aspire to emulate his personage by their and even among the Sufi orders many significant actions, morality and even personal character traits. differences are found in orientation, practice, and The Qur’an is the of Islam, and Muhammad tolerance for interpretation of the religion. This is its embodiment; the Qur’anic event thus serves as not surprising, given Islam’s long history and the the matrix of mystical experience (Ernst, 2011, p. 32). immense variety of cultures that adopted it. For Just as can be said to be embodied in some in mainstream orthodox Islam, for example Christ, Islam is “embooked” in the Qur’an. Coupled the fundamentalist Wahabbis, Sufism has been with the Traditions of the Prophet (hadith), which considered inimical to Islam (Malik, 2006, p. 9; are a compilation of his sayings during his lifetime, Ernst, 2011, p. 213) and indeed even heretical. these works form the foundation for the religion of Some Sufis are known for expressive practices Islam. that involve movement, music, and song, as in The transformative process of “becoming” the practice of many Sufi orders known as a fully individuated human being is richly illustrated (remembrance), of which the most recognizably in the teachings of Sufism, often described as the famous expression in the West is the Turning of the

TranspersonalInternational JournalDimensions of Transpersonal in Islamic Spirituality Studies, Advance38(1), pp. Online 1–30publicationInternational Publication Journal of Transpersonal Studies 1 https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2019.38.1.https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2019.38.1.1 “whirling ” of the Mevlevi Sufi order. Some and his son Vilayat Khan were conservative cultures have branded their form of notable proponents of this view, as are many who Islam with prohibitions against this kind of behavior hold the Perennialist position that the mystical core which is considered sinful, while other cultures have of all traditions is the same, while affirming the adopted a more accommodating form of Islam that differences between religion as necessary for people allows for such expression. The Ottoman Turkish of differing cultures and temperaments (Toussulis, culture, for example, was tolerant towards the Sufis, 2010, p. 10; Webb, 2006, p. 88). , and Sufi orders such as the Mevlevi and Bektashi a contemporary interpreter of Rumi and largely flourished under their rule. Several Sultans even had responsible for the immense popularity of Rumi’s famous Sufis as their personal teachers and advisors teaching on love, is a prime example of someone (Toussulis, 2010). The great 13th century Sufi Ibn continuing in the tradition of drawing attention ‘Arabi acted as advisor to various kings and rulers to the universal message of Sufism outside of its in several different countries during his extensive cultural and religious context (Hermansen, 2006, p. travels (Addas, 1993). 46, n. 30). Sufism and the West Other influential transmitters of the Sufi hile acknowledging that not all of Islam wisdom include G. I. Gurdjieff and , Waccepts Sufism as a legitimate way within who suggested an occult or hidden wisdom that the religion, Sufism was nevertheless a significant derived from a common source, and who attempted development within the Islamic tradition starting in to bring the practices of the Sufis to a Western the 9th century, and by any measure can be called audience. While Shah’s work and lineage has a mystical or transpersonal dimension within Islam. come under much scrutiny (Schimmel, 1975, p. 9; It flourished in every part of the Islamic civilization Toussulis, 2010, pp. 44–69) and is considered by and continues to be a force in the present day, both some to have created an occultation of the way by in the Islamic world as well as in the West where appealing to a “hidden hierarchy” and of reducing it has taken on several forms, some of which have Sufism to a psychological training system, he is elicited controversy following inevitable adaptations nevertheless responsible for bringing to the West as the formal institutions of Sufism have encountered the stories that are popular learning tools for a more secular Western mindset. transformation (Hermansen, 2006, p. 28, Toussulis, Sufis are diverse in their approaches. One 2010). group, the Traditionalists, hold that Sufism emerged Yet another movement within Sufism is that within the context of Islam, and to de-contextualize of the Malamiyya, or “the People of Blame,” who it from its origins is therefore misleading and stood somewhat outside the hierarchy of Islam and impermissible. In other words, one cannot be a Sufi even the Sufi orders, forming as it were a kind of without first being a practicing Muslim, in the same “supra-order,” and who offered a more nuanced view way that the kernel cannot be taken separately from of Islam (Holbrook, 1991; Toussulis, 2010). These are the husk since the husk provides structure and support the Sufis who hide their spiritual accomplishments for the kernel. No legitimate Sufi can call themselves and are indistinguishable from ordinary people, yet as such without being a Muslim and living an ethical “they are free and devoted servants of their Lord, life according to the teachings of Islam and following seeing Him always in their eating and drinking, their all its precepts. Several prominent scholars such as waking and sleeping, and their speaking with Him S. H. , , and Rene Guenon held among the people.” These are the people of blame, this position. the highest of men “who have achieved the station On the other side of the argument are the of chivalry and good character with God, and not Universalists, who hold that Sufism represents the with any other” (Chittick, 1989, pp. 373–375). universal message found in all the religions of the The Law and the Way world, and thus in a certain manner transcends s already noted, the Sufis themselves disagree Islam, while having sprung from within it. Hazrat Aon the prerequisites for being a Sufi; the 2 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou discourse is not limited to a perceived clash with a Sufi has realized his or her oneness with God, Western civilization. For most Sufis, however, the which is not to say that a Sufi ignores the Law, but overarching framework for understanding human interiorizes and integrates the Qur’an completely development lies in a holistic formulation of the way in their interior by verification tahqiq( ) and not by to union with God as a tripartite way consisting of imitation (Toussulis, 2010, p. 187, Ballanfat, 2005, shari’ah (law), (way) and (truth). Some p. 24). As the Sufi Uftade said, “To act in true later commentators added a fourth stage, that of conformity to the exterior sciences is only possible ma’rifah (gnosis) to express the experiential aspect after having reached the knowledge of the four of becoming a verifier of truth muhaqiq ( ) on the degrees (law, path, knowledge, )” (Ballanfat, spiritual path. Some place ma’rifah before haqiqa 2005, p. 24). Ibn ‘Arabi’s view is decidedly non- and others, such as Ibn ‘Arabi, put ma’rifah after dualistic, and his non-linear approach offers a broad haqiqa; the key point in any case is to emphasize understanding of personal transformation on the the direct knowledge or gnosis that arises from the spiritual path that is the same time rigorous, open, unitive state, rather than an objective epistemology flexible, and tolerant towards diversity. which is more akin to knowledge of the sciences. Muslim theologians speak of two Traditional interpretations consider progress as commands, one that cannot be disobeyed, and one linear steps through these stages: adherence to the that can. The order that cannot be disobeyed is the law of Islam as a foundational prerequisite, followed Existentiating Command (al-amr al-takwini) “Be” by traveling the way of inner transformational work (), the creative act of the Real that brings into in which the wayfarer traverses the various being (wujud) all existent things: “His only command (stages) of development, until reaching the goal of when He desires a thing is to say to it ‘Be!’ and it union in truth () (Fadiman & Frager, 1997, pp. is” (Qur’an 36:82). This act is the bestowal of being 9–13). (wujud) of each individual’s original nature (fitra), According to a hadith the Prophet said that brought into the manifest world. The order that can “the shari’a are my words, the tariqa are my actions, be disobeyed is the Prescriptive Command (al-amr and the haqiqa is my interior states” (Schimmel, al-taklifi), or the Law that is set forth by the religion. 1997, p. 99). The stages can therefore also be While submission to the Law may be advisable, and considered mutually interdependent rather than non-acceptance considered a “sin,” disobedience a linear progression, and reflect an integration of to the Prescriptive Command is ultimately the the three aspects of human life into an integral and choice of the individual and an act of free will, holistic model. while disobedience to the Existentiating Command The meaning of shari’a is literally that of the is impossible and can never be sinful. Individual “broad way,” and is meant to be inclusive rather choices will always be made in accordance to the than restrictive. Legalist interpretations of the divine uniqueness of each person’s predisposition (isti’dad) Law () may restrict the spirit of the shari’a in to receive guidance or misguidance, consequently ways that may not have been originally intended. As adherence to the Law may prevent chastisement Ibn ‘Arabi wrote, “The fuqaha (legalists) of our times and distance from God, though chastisement will have restricted and forbidden, for those who follow eventually turn sweet (Affifi, 1965, p. 162; Chittick, them, what the Sacred Law has widened for them... 1994, pp. 141–144), as all beings return ultimately that is one of the gravest calamities and one of the to their source. heaviest constraints in the matter of religion… The Sufis speak of the journey to union tawhid( ) Law has affirmed the validity of the status of him as a conscious journey to the place of Alast (“am who makes a personal effort to interpret for himself I not your Lord?”) which represents the primordial or for those who follow him” (Chodkiewicz, 1993a, of God in the pre-eternal moment where p. 56). An important, if seemingly confounding they emerge into existence after accepting their point, is found in the school of Ibn ‘Arabi that the original nature upon hearing the Existentiating Law cannot be completely understood until after Command “Be!” (Ernst, 1997, pp. 43–44).

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 3 Ibn ‘Arabi declared that even though broad series of three annihilations resulting in ever- prophecy has come to an end with Muhammad’s increasing certitude of the Real. First comes the prophethood, General Prophecy (nubuwwa amma) knowledge of certitude (ilm al-yaqin) in which the is a property associated with individuals of very seeker becomes grounded in the knowledge that all high spiritual attainment (afrad), which allows for the that is, is the One Real Being. Next comes the vision possibility of ongoing interpretation and expansion of of certitude (ayn al-yaqin) where knowledge of the the Law by these individuals who achieve such levels Real is replaced by actual vision of the Real. Finally of realization (Chodkiewicz, 1993b, pp. 51, 137). comes the reality of certitude (haqq al-yaqin), which Suffice to say that a detailed discussion of the Law is the complete mystical absorption of the Sufi in the is a complex one; the aim of this short outline is to presence of the Real (Schimmel, 1975, p. 142). The summarize some of the main points of contention metaphor of heroism is helpful in understanding this as they affect the legitimacy of the claims of progression—it is one thing to know about heroism, Traditionalists and Universalists within the Sufi but another thing to actually see a heroic act, and tradition. yet another thing to become a hero oneself (Bursevi, The Sufi path of transformation: 1981). and Baqa The Self he Sufi path of transformation can be described Fana results in profound shifts of identity, Tas a phenomenology of annihilation, wherein and the degrees of fana may also be mapped to the the seeker experiences various degrees of fana, or degre es of the evolution of self. In the Islamic tradition, “passing away,” followed by an experience of baqa, the self is very much posited as an ontological entity, or “remaining.” What passes away is illusion and in contradistinction to non-egological systems such ignorance, and what remains is the perception of as Buddhism, requiring a transformation of the the Real; the concept or belief of a separate self is understanding of the self and leading to a true non- annihilated and the seeker takes on the attributes of dual realization (Louchakova & Merlin, 2007a, p. 123). God, which is the only Self that is real. This process The (a word containing the multiple meanings of is described as a dropping away of false beliefs , self, breath) is understood to persist at different and a return to one’s original nature (fitra); it is not levels, from the gross animal self to the refined spiritual considered in any way a gaining or enlargement of self. The tendencies of the lower nafs are to be brought self, but the shedding of illusion in an experience that under control in order for increasing levels of integration is described in various ways. to be achieved, but the aim is not the annihilation or Fana is certainly a human experience, but passing away of the existence of the self in order to the individual is ultimately not the subject of the achieve a transformation of understanding, it is simply a experience—the subject is Reality itself (Schimmel, re-orientation of identity—the self now sees according 1975, p. 143). According to a common formulation to a new order of witnessing, granted by the state or of the Sufis of the “Oneness of Being” wahdat( al- station that bestows the fresh perspective. As Balyani wujud), the existence of all things is the existence said succinctly: “If you know yourself without of God in the form of that thing; therefore the existing and passing away, then you know God, and identity of the subject always refers back to a single if not, then not” (Twinch, 2011, p. 21). Subject. As the seeker sheds more and more of their In the Islamic tradition of human perfecti- separate sense of self, they become more absorbed bility, there is no elimination of the self at any level. in the divine presence, and eventually ignorance is The aim is always to bring the different parts of the replaced by knowledge of certitude. Fana and baqa self into their proper place and to achieve harmony are complementary aspects of the same experience between them, which requires the self or soul to be in in which the phenomenal world passes away, and submission (islam) to a higher order. The constituent the Real is seen to persist (Affifi, 1964, p. 146). parts of the human are brought together after the As the seeker approaches the divine final fana into an ordered collectivity called jam presence, their journey may be described as a (unification, collectedness) (Schimmel, 1975, p. 143).

4 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou The Sufi paradigm for self-knowledge is determines their uniqueness (Schimmel, 1975, pp. grounded in a Hadith of the Prophet and has formed 272–273). When a person becomes Perfect Human, the basis for many Sufi commentaries. According to he or she achieves sainthood and becomes the this hadith, “Whosoever knows their self knows their special friend of God (, a term meaning both Lord,” knowing the self is at the core of any process and friend). The wali is annihilated to their egoic of since the self is considered self, and God is present in his or her witnessing of a unique face of the divine self-disclosure—every the Real (Ernst, 2011, pp. 58–60). person and every thing in the cosmos is the Real’s This concept of the perfectibility of each diversity of faces by which it knows Itself. If the person establishes a clear context for understanding self is a facet or individuation of the Real, then by what is meant by progress in the Sufi path: perfection knowing one’s self one knows God. is the realization of union (tawhid) and identical to At the core of an understanding of the self the self-disclosure of the One in Its appearances as are the Qur’anic references to three levels of the human beings. Muhammad as logos represents the development of the self or soul. Perfecting the self cosmic order and is the template upon which all requires effort and determination to bring about humans are based, and is the ideal form to which the transformation of the self, but it is also made they aspire. very clear that any progress is a result ultimately of Stages of development grace. The first and lowest level of the soul referred The progress of the self is envisaged as a to in the Qur’an is the “self which incites to ” series of developmental stages, each one building (al-nafs al-ammara; Qur’an 12:53) also referred to as on the completion of the preceding stage, until the the base ego, the carnal self or the “commanding” final liberation of the soul with its annihilation in the self; this self dominates through animalistic and divine identity. The seeker starts at the gross level, selfish tendencies. The second level is “the blaming working their way through intermediate levels to a self” (al-nafs al-lawwama; Qur’an 75:2) in which the final level of complete identification with the One individual becomes aware of their weaknesses and Self, also known as tawhid (union). The three levels of shortcomings and they “blame” themselves as they the self found in the Qur’an serve as a basis for a variety begin to work on their deficiencies, not unlike the of models in which the path is envisioned as a ladder action of conscience. The final stage is the self at the or staircase on which the seeker ascends, climbing level of perfection, “the tranquil self” or “the self at towards higher levels of integration. The number of peace” (al-nafs al-mutma’inna; Qur’an 89:27). levels is well defined and is understood to represent Sufis have, in the figure of Muhammad, an inherent and rational internal order, although as an archetype for their model of a complete and noted there can be some variation. While the structure realized human being. As the messenger of God may follow a specified order, the sequence of each and the bringer of the Qur’an, he is an object of individual’s traversing the stages is not always clear as special for Muslims. His personal this may depend on the ability of the adept, or it may be character is considered worthy of imitation, and that God’s activity can grant a state or station without Sufis consider him a prototype of the universe as the seeker’s aspirations (Schimmel, 1975, p. 100, 105). well as of the human form. As conceived by Ibn What is clear is that each stage of development is ‘Arabi, the prototypical Perfect Human (al-insan considered a stable maqam (station), a completion al-kamil) is Muhammad who is the complete and of a level of inner work that is the actualization of a total of the cosmos through the Divine human potentiality and ultimately the result of effort Names, and is the one in whom God witnesses on the part of the aspirant (Chittick, 1989, pp. 278– His own being. This logoic principle of the Reality 280; Schimmel, 1975, p. 99). Regardless of the model of Muhammad is embedded in the cosmos and or number of classifications the developmental within each human individuation and represents structure remains the same: an ascending ladder each person’s potential to realize their perfection of spiritual perfections that a person must climb in accordance their particular lord (rabb) that (Chittick, 1983, p. 12).

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 5 A more detailed seven-stage structure can represents the fullest realization of the oneness of be outlined as follows, typically accepted in many all things, and must be the final aim of all mystical Sufi traditions. The Commanding Self, or the animal endeavor (Affifi, 1964, pp. 143–145). self or domineering self that commands to evil; These structures and their sequences the Regretful Self, where the beginnings of change are reflective of stage models described by emerge, and regret and desire for change grow; contemporary integral theorists such as Ken Wilber the Inspired Self, entailing the beginning of real as a prerequisite for psychological maturation. No practice and enjoyment of living a spiritual life, one stage can be skipped, and all stages must be while continuing to work on the desires of the ego; completed in a particular order (Wilber, 2006, p. emotionally mature and respectable; the Contented 76). Structures lower down on the ladder model Self, or the self predisposed to be liberal, grateful, must be completed and integrated before moving on trusting and adoring; the Pleased Self, pleased in to the next level, otherwise cognitive and spiritual that everything is seen as given by God, including progress is not possible. While stage models are difficulties; the Self Pleasing to God, a highly widely accepted as indices for developmental integrated level where all power to act is seen as maturity within transpersonal psychology, some coming from God, accompanied with a healing of have argued caution against strict stage models lest the multiplicity within; and finally, the Pure Self, they be judged deterministic or causal; one cannot which is complete annihilation in God, with no say that effort or practice causes a new level nor separation of self whatsoever (Fadiman & Frager, can one say that it causes internal transformation of 1997). the self, since the transpersonal self has never been A seven-stage model based on the phenome- absent (Todres, 2000, pp. 227–237). There is no nological experience of fana and described as a accumulation of states or stages of , series of annihilations is suggested in the work of Ibn nor does a transpersonal self somehow emerge from ‘Arabi. Passing away from sin, a realization that all this process (Louchakova & Lucas, 2007, p. 126; actions are right (not in a moral sense but as coming Yiangou, 2011, pp. 104–106). The transformation is from God) and that which is sin, is to regard one’s one of perception, not of being; a belief or delusion actions as coming from oneself; passing away from passes away, and what remains is the Real. The stage all actions in the realization that God is the agent of structures may have a particular order, but one may all actions; passing away from all attributes of the shift between and among them according to one’s “form” in the realization that they all belong to God; state, the effects of circumstances and the workings as Ibn ‘Arabi put it: "God sees Himself in you through of God’s grace (baraqa). your own eye and, therefore, He really sees Himself: One of the most influential of the Sufis, this is the meaning of the passing away of attributes" Ibn ‘Arabi’s teaching has been encapsulated in the (Affifi, 1964, p. 144); Passing away from one’s own expression Oneness of Being (wahdat al-wujud), an personality in the realization of the non-existence of approach that declares the already existent union the phenomenal self, and the endurance (baqa) of with one’s true nature and does not allow for the the eternal substance which is its essence; Passing possibility of a self separated from its source. Ibn away from the whole world in the realization of the ‘Arabi’s model makes different assumptions about real aspect which is the ground of the phenomenal; the ontological status of the self, therefore his starting Passing away from all that is other than God, even and ending points are different. For Ibn ‘Arabi, from the act of passing away (fana al-fana), in which real education of the self begins after union with the mystic ceases to be conscious of himself as the Real, and the aim of any path or practice is to contemplator, God being both the contemplator and reach union as quickly as possible in order for true the object of the contemplation; Passing away from individuation to take place. This is possible because all Divine attributes, in which the universe ceases to individuals are already one with their source. be the “effect of a cause” and becomes a “Reality Cognitively speaking, this is a significant concept in in appearance” (haqq fi zuhur)—this seventh stage that it defines the starting point of any journey of

6 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou transformation: “If a person, without understanding must hang on to a source of knowledge because it whence he comes and whither he is returning, joins is necessary to fly to the Complete Intellect, which the journey, he occupies himself with motion and is also called the Reality of Muhammad and the belonging, and if he finds the point of the beginning, degree of Sainthood” (Bursevi, 1981, p. 21). Return he yet remains very far from finding the Universe of is the journey of real individuation, in which the Joining-up (jam)” (Bursevi, 1981, p. 21). person separates from union and returns to the Following Wilber’s assertion that world. There is a complete annihilation (fana), and practice alone is insufficient to move the seeker up a new consciousness of remaining (baqa) begins. the developmental ladder unless the practitioner is This journey starts from Him, but at the same cognitively active in developing a wider View that time it is the station of remaining (baqa) with can accommodate multiple viewpoints (Wilber, Him. It is the journey from the Reality to the 2006, pp.105–108), one finds in Ibn ‘Arabi a similar Many. Having found the Universe of Oneness, integral approach which declares that what keeps a he passes into the state of separateness. The seeker from realizing their goal is in fact their own man on this journey is for helping others to limiting beliefs. Only when all beliefs or views can know, for clearing a way for others with a be accommodated is it possible for the goal to be spiritual descent, and he puts on the cloak of reached. Wilber has said that “cognitive development personhood and comes down from his state to is the increase in the number of others with whom be among the people. (Bursevi, 1981, p. 23) you can identify and an increase in the number of perspectives you can take” (Wilber, 2006, p. 113), Love holds a particularly important place and that this is an essential component to spiritual in Sufism, and is the ultimate transformative force, development, while Ibn ‘Arabi referred to a Station as expressed in the famous Divine Saying, “I was a of No Station which is the ultimate integration of hidden treasure; I loved to be known, so I created all views (Chittick, 1994; Yiangou, 2011). Cognitive the world that I might be known,” which exposes the transformation is therefore a key component to underpinnings of all creative activity. In a famous spiritual development, and can be tied to the kinds poem Ibn ‘Arabi declared “I follow the religion of of structural changes in consciousness arising from Love: whatever way Love’s camels take, that is my the experience of fana. religion and my faith” (Nicholson, 1978). One of the Ibn ‘Arabi described three lifecycles or most famous of the Divine Sayings of the Prophet journeys: descent, ascent, and return. Within alludes to the efficacy of love as a transformative the journeys many stages are possible but not power, clearly indicating the role of divine action elucidated here; what is suggested is a way of through love. It is also considered a charter for the journeying that explicitly avoids any subtle dualism mystical experience of union through love: by contextualizing journeying within an ontological My servant does not cease to approach Me Oneness of Being (wahdat al-wujud). Descent is the through supererogatory acts until I love him. journey from the divine essence where each person And when I love him, I become his hearing with has a real place, through the levels of being from which he hears, his sight with which he sees, his the intellective to the imaginal to the corporeal hand with which he grasps, and his foot with worlds, until he or she is lodged with humankind. which he walks. (Ernst 2011, p. 51) Difficulties may be encountered in this descent to the world and to the body. Without understanding States and Stations one’s origins, the destination will remain a distant Sufis make a clear distinction between state goal. Ascent is the journey back to the source, (hal) and station (maqam). States are experiences, which is the conscious re-integration into the which may or may not come to a seeker, and are primordial state. On this journey the person must fleeting and impermanent. Stations are degrees of lose the colors acquired on their descent, which realization, and are the necessary foundation for are distractions and useless characteristics. “One actualizing human potential. A way to distinguish

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 7 between the two is that states are divine “bestowals” 121–122), other forms of spiritual transmission and while the stations are divine “earnings” (Chittick, transformation have been extensively documented. 1989, pp. 222, 278). Knowledge acquired through The shows that initiation through tasting (), for example, is a divine bestowal. It nonliving teachers or inner spiritual guides was an is usually considered inappropriate to pursue states. accepted part of its discourse. Stations, on the other hand, are associated with more This diversity of perspectives within Sufism permanent attitudes or evolutionary developments of accommodates a variety of epistemological and the individuation’s path of transformation. experiential models. Sufis knew that various ways of The Wilber-Combs Lattice is a bold example direct knowing were possible. Jadhba (attraction) was of a contemporary attempt to map states to stations one of them, in which a single mystical experience (Wilber, 2007, pp. 88–93). States are understood could exalt the seeker into a state of ecstasy. However, to be present at virtually all stages of development, some seekers behaved with impropriety under the but will be interpreted according to the cognitive force of the spiritual compulsion exerted on them, filter of the structure-state that the seeker is at. Stage and earned themselves the name of madhjub (the development forms the cognitive basis whereby all attracted one), often meant to indicate someone experience is determined. completely lost and submerged in the divine unity Ultimately the aim of the Sufi is to complete and thrown out of the way of normal behavior their full potential as Perfect Human (al-insan al- (Bursevi, 1981, pp. 22–23; Schimmel, 1975, p. 105). kamil). The highest degree of perfection is called the The behavior displayed by the madhjub, who became Station of No Station, which is the highest station of bereft of their senses and whose actions and speech all, as this station encompasses all possible stations religious law prohibited, was considered immature (Chittick, 1994, p. 154). Some assert that none but and irresponsible (Schimmel, 1975, p. 19). Sufis were Muhammad can attain that final station, and that for encouraged to transition from their ecstatic states to us getting closer is enough; for Ibn ‘Arabi, however, more sober states, since remaining in the ecstatic this station is attainable by those special friends of state could result in muallah (mad in God), leading God known as the afrad (singular ones), who are the to speech or behavior that may be misunderstood by highest among the malamiyya (Chodkiewicz, 1993b), the uninitiated (Toussulis, 2010, pp. 171, 178). as this quote by Ibn ‘Arabi illustrates: Transpersonal psychologists may be tempted to find some correlation in the category of The People of Unveiling have been given an all- experience known as “spiritual emergency,” where a inclusive overview of all religions, creeds, sects, spiritual emergence, characterized as a spontaneous and doctrines concerning God. They are not transformative experience, can catapult a person ignorant of any of these. Adherents follow creeds, into an emergency if psychological maturation is sects conform to specific laws, and doctrines not sufficient to accommodate the experience. are held concerning God or something in the If the requisite work to integrate psychological engendered universe. Some of these contradict, issues has not been done in advance, the spiritual some diverge, and some are similar. In every case experience can result in an overwhelming and the Possessor of Unveiling knows from where the dangerous situation (Grof & Grof, 1990; Lukoff, doctrine, the creed or the sect is taken, and he Lu, & Turner, 1998). Avoiding necessary shadow ascribes it to its place. (Chittick, 1994, p. 154). work at various stages of development could result The Diverse ways of Transformation in difficulties later in life and be symptomatic of While the legitimacy of Sufi teachers is “spiritual bypassing,” a term coined in transpersonal validated by tracing their lineage through a direct chain psychology for those Western seekers who aim to of initiation () reaching back to the founder of the catapult over their personal psychological problems order and to the Prophet himself and which therefore for the transcendent experience that they perceive as makes possible mystical transmission and the entry promised by Eastern spiritual traditions (Welwood, of the individual into the spiritual life (Ernst, 1997, pp. 2002, p. 207). Whether a direct comparison can be

8 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou made to the situation of the madhjub is unclear, given is a classic study of the distinction between the that many of the madhjub were considered to have types of knowledge associated with prophecy (or achieved a high degree of spiritual realization, but law-abiding), with that of the mysterious wisdom of had become crazed and stuck in their ecstatic state. the unseen world (ilm ladunni), respectively (Austin, The effects of excessive or lack of 1971, pp. 259–260). Carl Jung (2014) described this guidance might equally explain the disorientation encounter as the ego-consciousness reacting to the and behavior of some of the madhjub described in superior guidance of the self: the literature. To the initiate who is capable of transformation The Sufi literature contains many references it is a comforting tale; to the obedient believer, to ways of knowing that do not involve formal an exhortation not to murmur against ’s initiation into a dervish order or coming under incomprehensible omnipotence. symbolizes the direction of a teacher. One of these ways is not only the higher wisdom but also a way of associated with Uways al-Qarani, a contemporary acting which is in accord with this wisdom and of the Prophet who lived in . The two transcends reason. (p. 141) never met, but one of the Sayings of the Prophet is understood to refer to Uways and to his awareness Ibn ‘Arabi himself claimed to have received initiation of Uways’ level of realization: “I find the Breath from Khidr, in the form of a mantle (), which is of the all-Merciful (nafas ar-rahman) coming to an accepted form of transmission in Sufism (Austin, me from the direction of Yemen” (Chittick, 1989, 1971, p. 39), a claim made by other Sufis as well. p. 127). Uways represents the prototype of the Spiritual transmission in all cases is the common uninitiated Sufi who has attained illumination and denominator by which a seeker receives guidance, is guided solely by divine grace outside the regular though the means can be various – through a living path of being guided by a living (Schimmel, teacher or a teacher from the imaginal world. 1975, p. 28). An Uwaysi may also be initiated by a The existence of spontaneous, non- non-visible teacher, as it was said of Kharaqani that mediated models of development within Islam he was initiated by the powerful spirit of Bayazid remains a rich and largely unexplored area for Bistami, while Attar was inspired by the spirit of transpersonal psychology. Spontaneous spiritual Hallaj (Schimmel, 1975, pp. 89, 105). emergence has been identified in modern times as a The Uwaysi way represents a non- valid psychological category of experience (Grof & traditional and non-linear way of realization, a Grof, 1990; Louchakova, 2007). Direct experience model for the possibility of immediate and direct or intuition of the Real in Sufism is well documented gnosis without any intermediary, and in a certain and understood, and categories of spiritual knowing manner sanctioned by the Prophet himself with are described in a highly nuanced and refined way: respect to his proclamations concerning Uways. dhawq (taste), (unveiling), fath (opening), A contemporary example is found in the Beshara basira (insight) and shuhud (witnessing). In Sufism School which notably downplays the importance of spiritual emergence is not typically contextualized a living teacher as less relevant for modern times, in personal trauma, whereas transpersonal and emphasizes a direct approach that could be psychology may offer new insights into underlying called Uwaysi (Taji-Farouki, 2007, pp. 164–169). psychological issues that may determine when and Khidr, who appears in the Qur’an (Sura 18) if spiritual emergence becomes spiritual emergency. as the mysterious companion of and instructs Sufi practices him in the knowledge of the unseen world but whom The Sufi Shah Wali Allah of formalized Moses is unable to comprehend due to Khidr’s a model of spiritual understanding and development seemingly unlawful actions, offers another manner that is in use by some Sufi orders. The concept of of initiation by a nonhuman master into the highest lata’if refers to the subtle spiritual centers associated sources of mystical inspiration (Schimmel, 1975, pp. with areas of the body, not unlike the Hindu concept 105–106). The encounter between Moses and Khidr of chakras, and was used to explain psychological

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 9 and spiritual progress in the context of fana and symbolic of psychospiritual states, and the reading baqa. Various Sufi orders used five-fold, seven- and investigation of the stories of the fabled fold, or ten-fold levels of lata’if (Hermansen, 1988). Nasruddin are said to provide fresh and surprising The taught the dhikr of the five lata’if insights that can shift and destabilize the student’s (Schimmel, 1975), the Kubrawiyya taught a system regular mode of consciousness, triggering and of seven lata’if as inner senses or subtle centers revealing personal issues. corresponding to the spiritual faculties of the seven Idries Shah (1970) and his American student, , , , Moses, , the psychologist Robert Ornstein, popularized the , and Muhammad (Waley, 1997), while Shah teaching of Sufi stories; the reading and re-reading Wali Allah developed a system in which the spirit of stories has been compared to the practice of dhikr operates at three different levels, roughly equivalent by some of their followers (Hermansen, 2006). The of matter/body, intelligence/rationality, and angelic/ truths embedded in the stories are seen as powerful spirit, and associated in the body with liver, heart supplements to traditional psychotherapeutic and and mind but not to be identified solely with body psychiatric practice, and provide tools for deeper parts as these centers have correspondences with individual development (Deikman, 1996). A study higher cosmological structures. of the self-perceived effects of Sufi stories and their Progress through the lata’if involves, at the developmental effects may show a mapping to the lower levels, harmonizing and balancing physical stages of the development of the nafs, as well as to components through a proper cooperation of body, Wilber’s ladder model of development (Safken, 1988). heart and mind. Beyond the initial requirements is There is perhaps no practice more associated the cultivation of the spirit (ruh) and the mystery with Sufism than that of dhikr, (or zikr) which means (sirr). Activation of the subtle centers requires both remembrance, recollection, or . The practice and contemplation: maintaining ritual practice is derived from the Qur’anic verses “and purity, Qur’anic recitation, mystical exercises such recollect God often” (Qur’an 33:40) and “in nothing as remembrance of the Divine Names (dhikr), and but the recollection of God are the hearts satisfied” contemplation of God’s attributes (Hermansen, (Qur’an 13:28). Dhikr is a practice that can be done 1988, p. 20). Differences in the original constitution at any time, in silence or aloud, and its form typically (fitra) mean that the seeker, even after activating takes the repetition of a formula or one of the Divine all the centers, will still be dominated by the same Names, e.g. la ilaha il Allah (there is no God but God), latifa in which he or she was originally strongest. Allah (God the Divinity, Godhead), Ya Hadi (O Guide), Activation of lata’if can also be understood as forms Ya Rahman ya Rahim (O Merciful, O Compassionate). of consciousness, opening up the subtle dimension The dhikr of the Divine Names is an important Sufi (Almaas, 1998, p. 143). practice, and when done authentically as a dhikr In contemporary times the system of lata’if has of the heart can result in a profound transformative been taught by Idries Shah (1978), and notably by A. experience; the action of dhikr, remembering God H. Almaas in the Diamond Approach (e.g., Almaas, through the Names, resonates or replicates in a 1998). By combining depth psychology with the certain sense the primordial dhikr of God’s pre- inner psychological discoveries of the Sufis, Almaas temporal activity of “remembering” the individual represents a modern movement to bring Islam and before he or she was manifested in time and space. Sufism into the fold of transpersonal psychology. The Subject and object are eventually indiscernible, and psychodynamic approach, fused with Sufi-inspired the goal of the dhikr is achieved in a mystical union. methods, is used to confront the personality and As the Sufi Shibli said, “True dhikr is that you forget allow for the eventual unfolding of essence. your dhikr” (Schimmel, 1975, pp. 167–178). A striking use case of the impact of Sufi Ninety-Nine most beautiful Names are teachings in the West can be found in the way enumerated in the Qur’an, although the attributes Sufi stories have been used as therapeutic vehicles of God cannot be limited and the Names are said for inner transformation. The stories are said to be to be infinite in number. The Names themselves are

10 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou divided into names of majesty and names of beauty. to receive grace, while the left faces down to pass Names of majesty include names of power, wrath, the grace to the earth (Friedlander, 1975, pp. 56– authority, and justice, and may be overwhelming for 93). The structure and unfolding of the ceremonial the novice, while names of beauty include names sema, which is regulated by strict rules, mirrors a of grace, generosity, compassion, and beauty. Both microcosm of the journey of the dervish to union are necessary for the existence of the world, thus (tawhid), and the turning becomes a re-enactment participation through dhikr reinforces the notion of the dervish’s return to their source. of God as the only actor, through expelling from Conclusion consciousness everything other than God (Ernst, he declaration of faith () for Muslims is 1997, p. 97). Tto assert that there is no god but God, and that The Naqshbandi dhikr of the five lata’if is Muhammad is his messenger. These two articles closely correlated with specific areas of the heart of faith serve equally as the foundation for the Sufi and chest and directly associated with defined path, and centuries of hermeneutics have developed levels of personal transformation (Schimmel, 1975, key formulations of great relevance to transpersonal p. 174). The Christian practice of the of the and integral studies. Heart as devised by the early Desert Fathers was The first key is the notion of the Oneness similarly applied in a systemic way as a path of of Being (wahdat al-wujud), which is one of the inner transformation, and has been shown to offer strongest articulations of non-duality found within significant insights into contemporary models of ego any of the monotheistic wisdom traditions. Progress transformation (Louchakova, 2007). on the path, as the individual self moves through One of the most recognizable forms of dhikr successive stages of increasingly refined knowledge, known in the West is that of the “Turning” of the is mapped cognitively and existentially to the Whirling Dervishes. It is related that Rumi, inspired underlying reality that in fact all progress is actually by Shams i-Tabrizi to become a poet and a lover of the One Real Being coming to know Itself through music, was walking down the street one day and its own self-disclosure in the form of the individual. heard the beating of the hammer of a goldsmith. The second key is the possibility of realization for With each beat, he started to hear Allah, Allah, until all human beings, formulated as the Perfect Human everything around him resonated with the name of (al-insan al-kamil) and embodied by Muhammad as God. He began to whirl in ecstasy in the middle of the ideal archetype. Each person is a self-disclosure the street, his arms unfurled and his head tilted back. of the One and created with an original nature (fitra) He also turned when reciting poetry, in an altered that has never separated from its source, and each state of consciousness. Thus was born the practice person is endowed with a unique predisposition of Turning, a form of dhikr that includes movement, (isti’dad) that defines the shape of how his or her music, and the repetition of the name of God progress and journeying will unfold. The deep (Allah), as the practitioner turns counter-clockwise. understanding of structures of the self, of their stages It is a form of concentrative ecstatic meditation that and transformations, and the practices to enhance reflects the larger cosmological order in every way, and promote conscious change, is the lasting legacy establishing an alignment between the macrocosmic of the Sufis. order of being and the microcosmic forms reflected The paradox of mystical transformation in the sema (whirling). The hat of the dervish turns on the fact that realization comes not as a represents the tombstone of the ego, the black outer result of pursuing a personal goal of fulfillment as garment represents the body that is shed when the an end in itself, but as a result of complete surrender dervish starts to turn, and the white inner garment (islam) to a higher or deeper order of being, and of represents their burial shroud. The sheikh turns in abandonment of any notion of personal gain which the center, symbolizing the sun while the dervishes subsequently allows one’s innate divine nature to are as planets revolving around the sun while each emerge. Context is key: individuation is a process spinning on their own axis. The right palm faces up of the One knowing Itself in and through Its own

Transpersonal Dimensions in Islamic Spirituality International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 11 image as the Perfect Human (al-insan al-kamil). Chodkiewicz, M. (1993a). An ocean without shore. Through alignment and submission to an inherent Albany, NY: State University of Press. logoic order, and a commitment to the clearing Chodkiewicz, M. (1993b). Seal of the . out of the shadows of the self through practice and Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society inner verification tahqiq ( ), the seeker continues to Deikman, A. J. (1996). Sufism and psychiatry. In S. draw nearer to the divine presence by successive Boorstein (Ed.), Transpersonal psychotherapy (2nd annihilations (fana) “until they are loved,” and they ed.; pp. 241–260). Albany, NY: State University become the journeyers who remain (baqa) forever of New York Press. in the presence of the consciousness and existence Ernst, C. (2011). Sufism. Boston, MA: Shambhala. of the One Being (wujud). Fadiman, J., & Frager, R. (1997). Essential Sufism. The emergence of the transpersonal self New York, NY: Harper arises, first, from the fragmentation of the illusory self Friedlander, I. (1975). The whirling dervishes. as the veils of ignorance and separation are lifted, London, UK: Wildwood House and, second, as a re-integration (jam) of self that is in Grof, S., & Grof, C. (1990). The stormy search for the reality the self-disclosure of the One Being. Once this self. New York, NY: Penguin. integration has occurred, progress is seen as ongoing Hermansen, M. K. (1988). Shah Wali Allah’s theory and infinite. Ibn ‘Arabi (1972) made this observation of of the subtle spiritual centers (lat. a’if): A Sufi the nature of progress: model of personhood and self-transformation. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 47(1), 1–25. The self (nafs) is an ocean without shore. Gazing Hermansen, M. K. (2006). Literary productions on it has no end in this world or the next. It is the of Western Sufi movements. In J. Malik & J. nearest guide [to reality]: the more one observes Hinnells (Eds.), Sufism in the West (pp. ). New it, the more knowledge one has of it, and the York, NY: Routledge. more self-knowledge one has, the more one has Holbrook, V. (1991). Ibn ‘Arabi and Ottoman dervish knowledge of one’s Lord.” (IV.68) traditions: The Melami supra-order (Part one). Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society, 9, References 18–39. Oxford, UK: Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society. Ibn ‘Arabi (1972). Futuhat al-Makiyyah (O. Yahya, - Addas, C. (1993). Quest for the red sulphur. Ed.; 3rd ed.). Cairo, : al-Hay'ah al-Mis. riyah - Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society al-'Ammah lil-Kita-b. (Original work published Almaas, A.H. (1998). Essence with the elixir of 1911 [Bu- la-q]) enlightenment. York Beach, ME: Weiser. Jung, C. G. (2014). The archetypes and the collective Affifi, A.E. (1964). The mystical philosophy of unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans). In H. Read Muhyiddin Ibnul Arabi. , : Sh. et al. (Series Eds.), The collected works of C. Muhammad . G. Jung (Vol. 9 Part 1, 2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Austin, R. (1971). Sufis of Andalusia. Berkeley, CA: Routledge. (Original work published 1959) University of California Press. Louchakova, O., & Lucas, M. (2007). Transpersonal Ballanfat, P. (2005). The nightingale in the garden of self as a clinical category: Reflections on love. Oxford, UK: Anqa. culture, gender and phenomenology. Journal of Bursevi, Ismail Hakki (1981). The kernel of the kernel. Transpersonal Psychology, 39(2), 111–136. Roxburgh, Scotland: Beshara. Louchakova, O. (2007). Prayer of the heart, Chittick, W. C. (1983). The Sufi path of love. Albany, ego-transcendence and adult development. NY: State University of New York Press. Existential Psychoanalysis, 18(2), 261–287. Chittick, W. C. (1989). The Sufi path of knowledge. Lukoff, D., Lu, F., & Turner, R. (1998), From Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. spiritual emergency to spiritual problem: The Chittick, W. C. (1994). Imaginal worlds. Albany, NY: transpersonal roots of the new DSM-IV category. State University of New York Press. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(2), 21–50.

12 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Yiangou Malik, J. (2006). Introduction. In J. Malik & J. Hinnels at Adobe Systems, specializing in enterprise web (Eds.), Sufism in the West (pp. 1–27) New York, publication and globalization. He is currently NY: Routledge. President of the United States branch of the Ibn Nicholson, R. (1978). Tarjuman al-Ashwaq. London, ‘Arabi Society, which promotes the teachings and UK: Theosophical. translations of this great spiritual teacher through Safken, A. 1998). Sufi stories as vehicles for annual conferences, seminars and publications. self-development: Exploration, using in- He writes and speaks on the topic of human depth interviews, of the self-perceived effects of development and transformation, and is particularly the study of Sufi stories (Doctoral dissertation). interested in the hermeneutics of Ibn ‘Arabi’s Institute of Transpersonal Psychology. teachings for the postmodern era. Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. About the Journal Shah, I. (1970). Tales of the dervishes. New York, NY: Penguin The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Shah, I. (1978). A perfumed scorpion. London, UK: is a is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print Octagon Press since 1981. It is sponsored by the California Taji-Farouki, S. (2007). Beshara and Ibn ‘Arabi. Institute of Integral Studies, published by Oxford, UK: Anqa. Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official Todres, L. (2000). Embracing ambiguity: Trans- publication of the International Transpersonal personal development and the phenomenological Association. The journal is available online at www. tradition. Religion and Health, 39(3), 227–237 transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. Toussulis, Y. (2010). Sufism and the way of blame. lulu.com (search for IJTS). Wheaton, IL: Theosophical. Twinch, C. (2011). Know yourself. Cheltenham, UK: Beshara. Waley, M. I. (1991). Najm al-din Kubra and the central Asian school of Sufism. In S. H. Nasr (Ed.), Islamic spirituality: Manifestations (pp. 80– 104). New York, NY: Crossroads. Webb, G. (2006). Third-wave Sufism in America and the Fellowship. In J. Malik & J. Hinnels (Eds.), Sufism in the West (pp. 86– 102). New York, NY: Routledge. Welwood, J. (2002). Toward a psychology of awakening. Boston, MA: Shambhala. Wilber, K. (2007). Integral spirituality. Boston, MA: Integral Books Yiangou, N. (2011). Ibn ‘Arabi, human potential, and the postmodern self. Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society, 50, 97–116. Oxford, UK: Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arabi Society.

About the Author

Nikos Yiangou, MA, holds his Master’s degree in transpersonal psychology from the Institute of Transpersonal Psycholoogy, and is a senior manager

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