Archaeology Underwater: the NAS Guide Nautical Archaeology Trust Limited
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9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page i Underwater Archaeology The Nautical Archaeology Society also publishes The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology with Blackwell Publishing, a new series of monograph reports and a members’ newsletter, Nautical Archaeology. It runs several public participation projects. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice Second Edition Edited by Amanda Bowens © 2009 Nautical Archaeological Society ISBN: 978-1-405-17592-0 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page iii Second Edition Underwater Archaeology The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice Editor: Amanda Bowens, BA MA THE NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY FORT CUMBERLAND FORT CUMBERLAND ROAD PORTSMOUTH PO4 9LD, UK 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/8/08 9:46 AM Page iv This edition first published 2009 © 2009 by Nautical Archaeological Society Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. 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No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nautical Archaeology Society. Underwater archaeology : the NAS guide to principles and practice / author, the Nautical Archaeology Society; editor, Amanda Bowens. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-7592-0 (hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4051-7591-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Underwater archaeology. 2. Shipwrecks. 3. Underwater archaeology—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bowens, Amanda. II. Title. CC77.U5N39 2009 930.1′028′04—dc22 2007048319 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10.5/12.5 Minion by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd 1 2009 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page v Contents List of Figures viii 5 Project Planning 34 List of Plates xi The Project Design 34 Foreword xiii Further Information 37 Acknowledgements xiv 6 Safety on Archaeological Sites Under 1 The NAS Handbook – Why It Was Water and on the Foreshore 38 Written 1 Risk Assessments 38 Diving Project Plan 39 Codes of Practice 39 2 Underwater Archaeology 2 Control of Diving Operations 40 What Is Archaeology? 2 Working Under Water 40 What Is Archaeology Under Water? 5 Potential Diving Problems and Solutions 40 What Is Not Archaeology Under Water? 6 Safety During Excavation 42 Closely Related and Complementary Inter-Tidal Site Safety 43 Approaches (Ethnography and Further Information 44 Experimental Archaeology) 8 Further Information 10 7 International and National Laws Relating to Archaeology Under Water 45 3 Getting Involved in Underwater and Jurisdiction – Where Do the Laws Foreshore Archaeology 11 Apply? 45 Further Information 13 The Regime in International Waters 46 International Salvage Law 47 4 Basic Principles – Making the Most Underwater Cultural Heritage and of the Clues 15 Salvage Law 47 The Importance of Underwater Sites 15 Ownership of Underwater Site Types 17 Cultural Heritage 48 The Range of Evidence on an Abandonment of Ownership 48 Archaeological Site 19 National Legislation 48 Links Between Categories of Evidence 22 International Conventions 49 Using the Evidence 22 Case Studies 50 Dating 24 Further Information 52 Environment and Site-Formation Processes 28 8 Archaeological Recording 53 The Deterioration of Wood 30 The Need for Recording 53 Culture and Site-Formation Processes 31 Recording Systems 54 Further Information 33 Planning the Recording: What to Record 54 v 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page vi vi CONTENTS Recording Information On Site 54 13 Geophysical and Remote-Sensing Recording Timbers 57 Surveys 103 Recording Contexts 58 Search Patterns, Navigation and Recording Stratigraphy 58 Positioning 103 Recording Environmental Evidence 60 Acoustic Systems 104 Recording Samples 60 Bathymetric Survey 104 Recording Survey Results 60 Echo-Sounders 105 Recording Plans and Sections 60 Multibeam Swath Systems 105 Recording Photographic Results 60 Bottom-Classification Systems 106 Conservation Records 61 Sidescan Sonar 107 Identifying Archaeological Material 61 Sub-Bottom Profiling 108 Tags and Labelling 62 Magnetometry 111 Storing the Information 62 Integrated Surveys 112 Computing Options and Issues 63 Submersibles: ROVs and AUVs 112 Geographical Information Systems 63 Aerial Photography 113 Explaining, Documenting, and Further Information 113 Supervising the System 63 Further Information 64 14 Underwater Survey 114 Types of Survey 114 9 Historical Research 65 An Initial Sketch 116 Types of Evidence 66 Planning 117 Locating Primary Sources 66 Setting Up a Baseline/Control Points 118 The Internet 68 Installing Survey Points 119 Methods of Research 69 The Principles of Survey 120 Further Information 70 Survey Using Tape-Measures, Grids and Drafting Film 123 10 Photography 71 Vertical Control (Height/Depth) 124 Photographic Theory 72 Drawing/Planning Frames 125 Digital Photography 73 Grid-Frames 126 Surface Photography 74 Processing Measurements and Drawing Photographing Finds 74 up the Site-Plan 127 Underwater Photography 75 Three-Dimensional Computer-Based Underwater Photographic Techniques 76 Survey 127 Digital Darkroom 77 Acoustic Positioning Systems 132 Mosaics – Photo or Video 78 Positioning the Site in the Real World 133 Video Cameras 79 Further Information 134 Video Technique 80 Video Editing 81 15 Destructive Investigative Techniques 135 Further Information 82 Probing 135 Sampling 136 11 Position-Fixing 83 Excavation 141 Geographical Coordinates 84 Further Information 147 Accuracy 86 Methods of Position-Fixing 87 16 Archaeological Conservation and Equipment 94 First-Aid for Finds 148 Further Information 95 Underwater Burial Environments 149 Materials Degradation and Post- 12 Underwater Search Methods 96 Excavation Deterioration 150 Positioning 96 Principal Risks to Finds During and Coverage 96 After Recovery 152 Safety 96 Principles and Procedures for First-Aid Diver Search Methods 97 for Underwater Finds 152 9781405175913_1_pre.qxd 5/7/08 6:24 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii Lifting, Handling and Transportation 154 20 Presenting, Publicizing and Publishing Approaches to Packing and Storage 156 Archaeological Work 189 Sampling and Analysis 157 The Importance of Publicizing (Where Initial Cleaning 157 and When) 189 Holding and Pre-Conservation Identifying and Satisfying an Audience 190 Treatment Solutions 157 Methods of Presentation 191 Record-Keeping 158 Writing Reports and Publications 194 X-Radiography and Facilities 159 A Significant Achievement and Health and Safety 159 Contribution 196 Insurance 159 Further Information 197 Checklists 159 Further Information 162 Appendix 1: Anchor Recording 198 Stone Anchors 198 17 Site Monitoring and Protection 163 Stock Anchors 199 Monitoring 163 Further Information 200 Protection 167 Further Information 169 Appendix 2: Guns 201 The Importance of Sea-Bed Recording 201 18 Archaeological Illustration 170 Identification of Material 202 Basic Drawing Equipment 170 Classification by Methods of Loading 204 Drawing Archaeological Material 171 Classification by Shape 204 Recording ‘By Eye’ 175 Inscriptions and Decoration 206 Recording Decoration and Projectiles, Charges and Tampions 208 Surface Detail 176 Recording and Illustrating Guns 209 Recording Constructional and Further Information 212 Other Detail 177 Post-Fieldwork Photography and Appendix 3: NAS Training Programme 213 Laser Scanning 178 An Introduction to Foreshore and Presenting a Range of Complex Underwater Archaeology 213 Information 178 NAS Part I: Certificate in Foreshore and Further Information 180 Underwater Archaeology 214 NAS Part II: Intermediate Certificate in 19 Post-Fieldwork Analysis and